Mechanics of Material Lab Report

UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY LAHORE (NWL)
LAB REPORT MECHANICS OF MATERIAL-2
SUBMITTED BY ;
HAFIZ ABID HUSSAIN

SUBMITTED TO;
ENGINEER NAZIM WAHEED SHAB
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
2013 SESSION
1 UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY LAHORE (NWL)
LAB SESSION # 1
Objective;
To compare the deflection in spring using extension during loading and
unloading.
Apparatus;
 Spring
 Loads
 Hangers
 Extension apparatus
Theory
Spring
A spring is an elastic object used to store mechanical energy. Springs are usually made out of spring
steel. There are a large number of spring designs; in everyday usage the term often refers to coil
springs.
Small springs can be wound from pre-

hardened stock, while larger ones are
made from annealed steel and hardened
after fabrication. Some non-ferrous
metals are also used including phosphor
bronze and titanium for parts requiring
corrosion resistance and beryllium
copper for springs carrying electrical
current (because of its low electrical resistance).
Hooke's law
Hooke's law: the force is proportional to the extension
Manometers are based on Hooke's law. The force created by gas pressure inside the coiled metal
tube above unwinds it by an amount proportional to the pressure.
Hooke's law is a principle of physics that states that the force F needed to extend or compress
a spring by some distance X is proportional to that distance. That is: F = kX, where k is a constant
factor characteristic of the spring: its stiffness, and X is small compared to the total possible
F = kX
1
Deformation of the spring. The law is named after 17th-century British physicist Robert Hooke.
He first stated the law in 1660 as a Latin anagram. He published the solution of his anagram in
1678 as: ut tensio, sic vis ("as the extension, so the force" or "the extension is proportional to the
force").
Hooke's equation holds (to some extent) in many other situations where an elastic body is
deformed, such as wind blowing on a tall building, a musician plucking a string of a guitar, and the
filling of a party balloon. An elastic body or material for which this equation can be assumed is
said to be linear-elastic or Hookean.
Behavior of spring during extension and compression
2
PROCEDURE
1. Suspend the spring from a rigid support. Attach a pointer and a hook from free end.
2. Hang a 20 g hanger from the hook.
3. Set the vertical wooden scale such that the tip of the pointer comes over the scale.
4. Note the reading of the position of the tip of the pointer on the scale. Record the reading
in loading column against zero load. .
5. Gently add a 20 g slotted weight to the hanger. The pointer tip moves down.
6. Wait for few minutes till the pointer tip comes to rest. Repeat step 4.
7. Repeat steps 5 and 6 till five slotted weights have been added.
8. Now remove one slotted weight. The pointer tip moves up. Repeat step 6. Record the
reading in unloading column.
9. Repeat step 8 till only hanger is left.
10. Record your observations as given below.
3
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Least count of vertical scale = 0.1 cm.
Table for load and extension
Serial Load DEFLECTION (mm) Slope from Theoretical Difference
No. graph(N/mm) value=Gd^4/8N
(W) Loading Unloading Mean D^3
(N/mm)
1 10 1 1 1
2 20 2 2 2
6.3 8.819 2.519
3 30 12 12 12
4 40 17 17 17
5 50 24 24 24
RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

 Personal errors may occur while taking readings from Vernier calliper dial gauge &
meter rod.
 Spring may disturb during loading on hangers.
 Hanger may not at rest position during reading.
 Dial gauge may not set at zero.
 Personal inexperience about experiment may cause the result change.
 Material of spring may be not pure which is not showing correct values.
4
LAB SESSION # 2
Objective:
To verify Hook’s Law and determine Young Modulus for test material.
Apparatus:
 Loads
 Hangers
 Scale meter
 Testing materials
Theory
Hooke's law
Hooke's law: the force is proportional to the extension

If a weight, W = mg, is hung from one end of an ordinary spring, causing it to stretch a distance x,
then an equal and opposite force, F, is created in the spring which acts to oppose the pull of the
weight. If W is not so large as to permanently distort the spring, then this force, F, will restore the
spring to its original length after the load is removed. F is thus called an elastic force and it is well
known that the magnitude of an elastic restoring force is directly proportional to the stretch,
F = kx
A relationship called Hooke's Law after the 17th century scientist who studied it. The constant k
is called the spring constant, or stiffness coefficient. To emphasize that x refers to the change in
length of the spring we write
F = mg = kΔx (1)
In this form it is apparent that if a plot of F as a function of Δx has a linear portion, this provides
confirmation that the spring follows Hooke's Law and enables us to find k.
An additional approach is possible. One definition of simple harmonic motion (SHM) is that it is
motion under a linear, “Hooke's Law” restoring force. For such a motion we have, from Newton's
second law,
F = - kx = ma
T=2π m / k (2)
where k is again the spring constant and m is the mass which is under motion. This provides an
additional method for testing whether the spring obeys Hooke's Law.
5
PROCEDURE
We hung a common screen door spring
directly from a horizontal metal rod secured to the laboratory bench by a C clamp, another pole
and a right-angle clamp. We attached a mass hanger directly to the bottom of the hanging spring to
enable us to vary the load hanging from the spring. Vernier calipers
were used to measure the vertical distances, l0 and l1, from the
horizontal support rod to the top coil and the bottom coil,
respectively, of the hanging spring, for a variety of load masses
ranging up to 9kg.
Masses were added to the spring in a more or less random order so as
to better observe the overall correlation of load and elongation
as we graphed the data during collection.
For ease in reading, the data are reproduced in Table 1 in order of

increasing load.
For the SHM part of the experiment, a single mass of 4kg
was hung from the spring and the time required for the system of
mass plus spring to execute an integer N number of oscillations
was measured with a digital stopwatch.
The measured positions of the top (l0) and the bottom (l1) coils of the spring are given below in
Table 1. From these distances we calculated the length of the spring (L= l1-l0), and the
extension, ΔL, which is the difference between this extension, ΔL, and the unloaded extension
of 38.8cm.
g=9.81m/sec^2 Area=2.5cm^2
Load l0 l1 ΔL =(l1 Stress Strain ( 𝜺) Young

−l0) (𝞂) Modulus=𝝚
kg m m m N/m^2 m N/m^2
0 0.321 0.709 0.388 0 0.01208 0
1 0.320 0.711 0.391 392.4 0.01221 3.2E4
2 0.323 0.746 0.423 784.8 0.01309 3.9E4
3 0.321 0.791 0.470 1177.2 0.01464 3.4E4
4 0.323 0.836 0.513 1569.6 0.01588 3.7E4
5 0.344 0.883 0.559 1962.0 0.01625 4.0E4
6
Mass of spring 70 gm
All position measurements + .05mm All
masses + 3 gm
9
8
7
6
5
4
y = 22.166x + 1.2246
3
2
1
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
Δ l (m)

 Figure 2 indicates that for loads greater than about 1.1kg (notice intercept of fit),
there is a linear relation between load and elongation but that for small loads such a
relationship fails, since the fit curve does not intercept the y axis at zero.
 It is assumed that this is caused by an initial "set" in the spring which requires
some initial load to overcome. This is apparent if one stretches the spring manually
and then releases it.
 For this reason, 0 and 1 kg were ignored and the rest of the data were treated by a
least squares analysis to determine the coefficients of first degree polynomial best
fit. These were used to plot the line on the graph.
 There may be human or apparatus error due to which results may change or deviate
from original one.
 Meter rod is not straight due to which we cannot measure the exact length of beam.
 Dial gauge may not be set to zero before taking readings.
 Dial gauge may be jam due to which we cannot measure exact values.
7
LAB SESSION # 3
Objective;
“To determine the deflection & slope of simply supported beam subjected to point loading at
mid-span”
Apparatus;
 Dial gauges
 Vernier caliper
 Hangers
 Weights
 Meter rod
 Beam apparatus
THEORY
Dial gauges;
Dial gauges are used to measure the deflection in beam when weights are applied. 2 dial gauges
are used in this experiment. One dial gauge is placed at centre of beam and other is placed at a
distance of 4 inches from support.
Vernier calliper;
It is used to measure the thickness & depth of beam.
Hanger;
Two hangers are placed on beam. Hanger is used to apply weight (force) on beam. On each hanger
a dial gauge is placed which is used to measure the deflection under applied weight (force).
Weights;
Weights are applied on hangers. Weight is the force. Weights are available in pounds (lbs.).
By newton’s 1st law,
F = w = ma.
Meter rod;
It is used to measure the length of beam.
8
Beam;
“It is the structural component used to support lateral (perpendicular) loads” .It is a prismatic
member (it has uniform X-section throughout the length).Weight of beam is neglected in
calculations. It strength & area moment of inertia should be high so that it shape would not change
under loading.
A truss bridge in Denmark
A beam may be defined as an element in which one dimension is much greater than the other two
and the applied loads are usually normal to the main axis of the element. Beams and columns are
called line elements and are often represented by simple lines in structural modeling.
 cantilevered (supported at one end only with a fixed connection)

 simply supported (supported vertically at each end; horizontally on only one to withstand
friction, and able to rotate at the supports)
 fixed (supported at both ends by fixed connection; unable to rotate at the supports)
 continuous (supported by three or more supports)
 a combination of the above (ex. supported at one end and in the middle)
Beams are elements which carry pure bending only. Bending causes one part of the section of a
beam (divided along its length) to go into compression and the other part into tension. The
compression part must be designed to resist buckling and crushing, while the tension part must be
able to adequately resist the tension.
Types of beams
1. Simply supported - a beam supported on the ends which are free to rotate and have no
moment resistance.
2. Fixed - a beam supported on both ends and restrained from rotation.
3. Over hanging - a simple beam extending beyond its support on one end.
4. Double overhanging - a simple beam with both ends extending beyond its supports on both
ends.
5. Continuous - a beam extending over more than two supports.
6. Cantilever - a projecting beam fixed only at one end.
9
7. Trussed - a beam strengthened by adding a cable or rod to form a truss.

 Construction base
On the basic of x-section area there are many types of beams I beam, H beam, square, rectangular
etc.
 Types of loadings
There are many types of loading on beam. Point loading, uniform distribution loading (UDL),
continuous varying loading, varying distribution loading (VDL) & combination of all these.
 Types of supports
1. Simple supported beam
2. Over hanging beam
3. Continues beam
4. Cantilever beam
5. Fixed beam
6. Propped beam
 Material base
Beam can be made up of many materials e.g. concrete, wood, metal, alloys of different etc.
Properties;
Beam should have following properties
 Good strength
 Less cost
 Large moment of area
 Large section modulus
 Large modulus of elasticity
Procedure;
It is performed in 4 steps:-
1. First of all we determine all dimensions of beam with vernier calliper.

2. 2ndly, we adjust the beam apparatus.
3. Then, we adjust one dial gauge at x=L/2 and other at x=4in.
4. In the end, we take values of deflection from dial gauge.
Specimen Calculations;
Length of beam = L = 32 in;
10
Width of beam = b =1.008in;
Depth of beam = d = 0.198in;
Modulus of elasticity = E = 11.9× 106 𝑃𝑠𝑖

𝑏×𝑑3
2nd moment of area = I = = 6.52× 10−4 𝑖𝑛4
12
At W=0.5 lb.
Deflection at x =L/2
𝑊𝐿3 0.5×323
𝑦𝑡ℎ = =
48𝐸𝐼 48(11.9×106 )(6.52×10−4 )
= 0.04399 in.
Deflection at x= 4
𝑊𝑥
𝑦𝑡ℎ = (3𝐿2 − 4𝑥 2 )
48𝐸𝐼
0.5× 4
= (3 × 322 − 4 × 42 )
48(11.9×106 )(6.52×10−4 )
= 0.01615 in.
Slope at x=4
𝑊(𝐿2 −4𝑥 2 )
𝛿𝑡ℎ =
16𝐸𝐼
0.5(322 −4×42 )
=
16(11.9×106 )(6.52×10−4 )
=0.003865 in.
Slope at x=4
𝑦
𝛿𝑒𝑥𝑝. =𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑥
0.006 𝜋
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )= 0.1074 × 180
4
=0.0015 rad.
Relative Error in deflection 𝑦𝑡ℎ at [x= L/2]
11
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙−𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙
Error in 𝑦𝑡ℎ at [x=L/2] = × 100
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙
0.04399−0.018
= × 100
0.04399
=59.09%
Relative Error in deflection 𝑦𝑡ℎ at [x=4]

Error in 𝑦𝑡ℎ at [x=4] = × 100
0.01615−0.006
= × 100
0.01615
= 62.85%
Relative Error in slope 𝛿𝑒𝑥𝑝. at [x=4]

𝛿𝑡ℎ −𝛿𝑒𝑥𝑝.
Error in 𝛿𝑒𝑥𝑝. at [x=4] = × 100
𝛿𝑡ℎ
0.003865−0.0015
= × 100 = 62.20%
0.003865

No Weig Deflection(𝑦𝑒𝑥𝑝 ) Deflection(𝑦𝑒𝑥𝑝 ) yth 𝑦𝑡ℎ 𝛿𝑡ℎ 𝛿𝑒𝑥𝑝 Percentage (%)
Of ht Relative Error In
Ob At x=L/2 At x=4 At At At At
s W Y Y 𝛿
(in) (in) X=L/2 X=4 X=4 X=4
(lb.) At At At
× 10−3 × 10−3 (in) (in) (rad) (rad)
X=L/2 X=4 X=4
× 10−3 × 10−3
L U M L U M
1 0.5 17 19 18 5.5 6.5 6 0.044 0.0161 1.5 3.865 59.09 62.85 62.10
2 1.0 35 38 36.5 12 13 12.5 0.088 0.0323 3.13 7.73 58.24 61.35 59.50
3 1.5 55 57 56 19.4 20 19.1 0.132 0.0484 4.79 11.6 57.39 60.43 58.70
4 2.0 75 85 80 26 27.5 26.7 0.176 0.0646 6.9 15.46 54.54 58.59 55.40
5 2.5 93.5 93.5 93.5 33 33 33 0.220 0.0807 8.25 19.35 57.50 59.13 57.23
12

 Weight of hanger is neglected, which may cause errors to some extent.
 Jerks may produce while placing weights on hangers, due to which errors may
occur.
 Beam is not exactly simple supported, it is over hanging beam. But we used the
formulae of simple supported beam, which produce errors.
 Personal errors may occur while taking readings from Vernier calliper dial gauge
& meter rod.
13
LAB SESSION # 4
Objective;
“To determine the deflection & slope of fixed beam subjected to point loading at mid-span”
All apparatus and procedure is same as in case of simply supported beam but difference is that in
this experiment we use fixed beam instead of simply supported beam. That is beam is fixed at both
ends.
THEORY
Beam
A statically determinate beam, bending (sagging) under a uniformly distributed load

A beam is a structural element that is capable of withstanding load primarily by resisting
against bending. The bending force induced into the material of the beam as a result of the external
loads, own weight, span and external reactions to these loads is called a bending moment. Beams
are characterized by their profile (shape of cross-section), their length, and their material.
Beams are traditionally descriptions of building or civil engineering structural elements, but
smaller structures such as truck or automobile frames, machine frames, and other mechanical or
structural systems contain beam structures that are designed and analyzed in a similar fashion.
Classification of beams based on supports

In engineering, beams are of several types:
8. Simply supported - a beam supported on the ends which are free to rotate and have no
moment resistance.
9. Fixed - a beam supported on both ends and restrained from rotation.
10. Over hanging - a simple beam extending beyond its support on one end.
14
11. Double overhanging - a simple beam with both ends extending beyond its supports on both
ends.
12. Continuous - a beam extending over more than two supports.
13. Cantilever - a projecting beam fixed only at one end.
14. Trussed - a beam strengthened by adding a cable or rod to form a truss.
Fixed beam;
It is the type of beam fixed at both ends.
Fixed end moment

The fixed end moments are reaction moments developed
in a beam member under certain load conditions with
both ends fixed. A beam with both ends fixed is statically
indeterminate to the 3rd degree, and any structural
analysis method applicable on statically
indeterminate beams can be used to calculate the fixed
end moments.
Many structural analysis methods including the moment distribution method, slope deflection
method and the matrix method make use of the fixed end moments.
Specimen Calculations
Length of beam = L = 33.4 in;
Width of beam = b =1.008in;
Depth of beam = d = 0.198in;
Modulus of elasticity = E = 11.9× 106 𝑃𝑠𝑖

𝑏×𝑑 3
2nd moment of area = I = = 6.52× 10−4 𝑖𝑛4
12
At W=0.5 lb.
Deflection at x =L/2
𝑊𝐿3 0.5×33.43
𝑦𝑡ℎ = =
192𝐸𝐼 192(11.9×106 )(6.52×10−4 )
= 0.0125 in.
Deflection at x= 14
𝑊𝑥
𝑦𝑡ℎ = (3𝐿2 − 4𝑥 2 )
48𝐸𝐼
15
0.5× 14
= (3 × 33.42 − 4 × 142 )
48(11.9×106 )(6.52×10−4 )
= 0.01167 in.
Slope at x=14
𝑊(𝐿2 −4𝑥 2 )
𝛿𝑡ℎ =
16𝐸𝐼
0.5(33.42 −4×142 )
=
16(11.9×106 )(6.52×10−4 )
=0.00061 in.
Slope at x=14
𝑦
𝛿𝑒𝑥𝑝. =𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑥
0.006 𝜋
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )= 0.02455 × 180
14
=0.00042857 rad.
Relative Error in deflection 𝑦𝑡ℎ at [x= L/2]

Error in 𝑦𝑡ℎ at [x=L/2] = × 100
0.0125−0.00575
= × 100
0.0125
=54%
Relative Error in deflection 𝑦𝑡ℎ at [x=14]

Error in 𝑦𝑡ℎ at [x=14] = × 100
0.01167−0.006
= × 100
0.01167
= 48.60%
Relative Error in slope 𝛿𝑒𝑥𝑝. at [x=14]

𝛿𝑡ℎ −𝛿𝑒𝑥𝑝.
Error in 𝛿𝑒𝑥𝑝. at [x=14] = × 100
𝛿𝑡ℎ
0.00061−0.000428
= × 100
0.00061
16
= 29.74%

No Weigh Deflection(𝑦𝑒𝑥𝑝 ) Deflection(𝑦𝑒𝑥𝑝 ) yth 𝑦𝑡ℎ 𝛿𝑡ℎ 𝛿𝑒𝑥𝑝 Percentage (%)
Of t Relative Error In
Obs At x=L/2 At x=14 At At At At
W Y Y 𝛿
(in) (in) X=L/2 X=14 X=14 X=14
(lb.) (rad) At At At
× 10−3 × 10−3 (in) (in) (rad)
× 10−3 X=L/2 X=14 X=14
× 10−3
L U M L U M
1- 0.5 5.5 7 5.7 4.5 7.5 6 0.012 0.0116 0.61 0.428 54 48.6 29.74
2- 1.0 12 14 13 12 14 13 0.025 0.0233 1.22 0.928 48 44.2 23.93
3- 1.5 19 21 20 19 21 20 0.037 0.0349 1.83 1.428 46.67 42.8 21.97
4- 2.0 27 27.5 27.25 25 27 26 0.050 0.0466 2.44 1.857 45.50 44.2 23.89
5- 2.5 34 34 34 33 33 33 0.062 0.0583 3.05 2.357 45.63 43.4 22.72

 Weight of hanger is neglected, which may cause errors to some extent.
 Jerks may produce while placing weights on hangers, due to which errors may occur.
 Beam is exactly fixed at ends but some of its portion is extended beyond supported produce
errors.
 Personal errors may occur while taking readings from Vernier calliper dial gauge & meter
rod.
 Deflection in fixed beam is 4 times less than simple supported beam.
17
LAB SESSION # 5
Objective:
To draw the load extension curve of metallic wire and hence determine the modulus of
elasticity of material of the wire.
Apparatus:
Young’s Modulus of Elasticity apparatus, Hangers and Weights, Meter Rod, Micrometer
The Young’s Modulus of Elasticity apparatus consist of wire attached to fixed support.
The lower end of wire is attached to the hanger with the help of metallic plate. The extension
of wire on loading can be measured from the scale present on metallic plate.
THEORY
Definitions of Hooke’s law and Young’s modulus:
Strain is directly proportional to stress for any given metal within its elastic limit. There are three
types of strain:
a. Longitudinal strain that causes change in length;
b. Shear strain, which can deform a cube to a parallelogram and is a deformation tangential to
one of an object’s faces;
c. Bulk strain, which changes the volume without changing the shape.
For these three types of strain, the elastic modulus is defined as the ratio of stress to strain.
When the elastic limit is not exceeded, the elastic force F of a given metal is directly
proportional to the change in length. For small distortions or deformations, shear strain can be
ignored and only longitudinal strain is considered. An elastic modulus regarding length or
longitude is Young’s modulus,
Where F is the external force applied to a metal wire that changes its length, A is the cross-
sectional area of the wire, l is the length of the wire, and l is the change in length.
The table below shows reference values for Young’s modulus according to various materials
Metal Young’s modulus (dynes/cm2)

Lead 1.6×1011
Aluminum 7.0×1011
Brass 9.1×1011
Copper 11.0×1011
Iron 19.0×1011
Steel 20.0×1011
18
Procedure:
1. Put the initial load of 2 lb to remove wrinkles in wire.
2. Measure length of wire using meter rod.
3. Measure diameter of wire using micrometre.
4. Adjust main scale so that zeros of two scale coincides with each other.
5. Put a load of 5 lb in hanger to measure extension.
6. Take set of least five readings of loading and un-loading.
7. Check the zeros at no load.
8. Calculate the “Young’s Modulus of Elasticity” of material of shaft.

Least count of scale of apparatus = 1cm
Least count of micrometer = 0.001cm
Least count of meter rod = 1cm
Length of wire (L) = 152.2mm
Dia of wire (d) = OD – d = 28.3mm
Initial load = 5Kg
X-area of wire = 25cm^2
No. of Effective P/δl Modulus of Elasticity

Obs.
Load-P Extension-δl (in) (lb/inch) E=(P/δL)(L/A)
(Kg) From graph (psi)
Loading Unloading Average
1. 0 0 4 2
2. 2 8 10 9
3. 4 16 18 17 0.2962 8.277E3
4. 6 22 23 22.5
5. 8 25 26 25.5
19
 Personal errors may occur while taking readings from Vernier calliper dial gauge & meter
rod.
 Spring may disturb during loading on hangers.
 Hanger may not at rest position during reading.
 Dial gauge may not set at zero.
 Personal inexperience about experiment may cause the result change.
 Material of spring may be not pure which is not showing correct values.
20
LAB SESSION # 6
Objective:
To find out the horizontal and vertical deflection of a quarter circular beam loaded by vertical
load, using the Curved Bar Apparatus.
Apparatus:
Curved Bar Apparatus, Weight, Quarter circular beam apparatus, Dial gauge, Vernier
Caliper.
THEORY
Beams:
A beam is a structural element that is capable of withstanding load primarily by resisting bending.
The bending force induced into the material of the beam as a result of the external loads, own weight,
span and external reactions to these loads is called a bending moment. Beam are usually the
horizontal member.
21
Deflection in Beams:
The deformation of a beam is usually expressed in terms of its deflection from its original unloaded
position. The deflection is measured from the original neutral surface of the beam to the neutral
surface of the deformed beam. The configuration assumed by the deformed neutral surface is known
as the elastic curve of the beam. The deflection of a spring beam depends on its length, its cross-
sectional shape, the material, where the deflecting force is applied, and how the beam is supported.
Types of Beams:
Simply supported beam:
A simply supported beam is a type of beam that has pinned support at one end and roller support at
the other end.
Cantilever Beam:
A cantilever beam is fixed at one end and free at other end.
Overhanging beam:
A overhanging beam is a beam that has one or both end portions extending beyond its supports. It
may have any number of supports. If viewed in a different perspective, it appears as if it is has the
features of simply supported beam and cantilever beam.
Continuous beam:
22
A continuous beam has more than two supports distributed throughout its length. It can be
understood well from the image below.
Fixed beam:
As the name suggests, fixed beam is a type of beam whose both ends are fixed.
Figure 1: Different Types of Beams
Types of Loading:
It is a type of weight put on the beam which causes the beam to deflect or bend in shape. A beam
may be subjected to either or in combination of the following types of loads
Concentrated Or Point Load:

It is a type of load which acts at the centre of the beam as shown below:-
Uniformly Distributed Load:

It is a type of load which is distributed uniformly over the entire length of the beam.
Uniformly Varying Load:
These are the loads varying uniformly from zero to a particular value and spread over a certain length
of the beam. Such load is also called triangular load.
23
Figure 2: Different types of beams
Curved Beam:
A beam in which the neutral axis in the unloaded condition is curved instead of straight. Or
if the beam is originally curved before applying the bending moment, are termed as “Curved Beams.
Castiglione’s Theorem:
When forces act on elastic systems subject to small displacements, the displacement corresponding
to any force collinear with the force is equal of the partial derivative to the total strain energy with
respect to that force.
The sign of the displacement is positive, if the displacement is in the same direction as the force
Energy of structure is its capacity of doing work and strain energy is the internal energy in the
structure because of its deformation. By the principle of conservation of energy,
Where denotes the strain energy and represents the work done by internal forces. The
expression of strain energy depends therefore on the internal forces that can develop in the member
due to applied external forces.
Castiglione’s Theorem for Beams:

For linearly elastic structures, the partial derivative of the strain energy with respect to an applied
force (or couple) is equal to the displacement (or rotation) of the force (or couple) along its line of
action.
or -
24
Where is the deflection at the point of application of force in the direction of , is the rotation
at the point of application of the couple in the direction of , and is the strain energy.
The strain energy of a beam was known to be. Finding the partial derivative of this expression will
give us the equations of Castiglione’s deflection and rotation of beams. The equations are written
below for convenience.
and
Applications:
Curved beam are used in many machine members such as c – clampers, crane hooks, frames of
presses, chains, links, and rings.
Procedure:
Adjust the quarter circular bar .Attach two dial gauges for finding vertical as well as horizontal
deflection, load the bar for no. of times by an equal amount of 1N each time and note the
corresponding readings from dial gauges attached to the apparatus, for vertical and horizontal
deflection. Multiply those observations with the least count of the dial gauges and note out the final
deflections i.e. &v and &h.

Radius of curved bar = R = 100mm
Width of the bar = b = 12.7
Thickness of the bar = d =3.175
Modulus of Elasticity = E= 207MPa
Moment of Inertia= I=3.387x10-11m3
25
Obs. No. Load Dial Gauge Experimental Theoretical Deflection %

Reading(mm Deflection(mm
W(N) Error
H V δH δV δH=WR3/2 δV= δH Δv
EI
πWR3/4
EI
1 1 1 2 0.01 0.12 0.007 0.01 30 40
2 2 9 19 0.09 0.36 0.014 0.02 32 34
3 3 13 26 0.13 0.64 0.021 0.03 28 36
4 4 19 35 0.19 0.89 0.028 0.04 27 29
5 5 20 49 1.50 1.20 0.035 0.05 34 38
Graph
Graph b/w load and deflection

0.6
0.49
0.5
0.4 0.35
δV , δH
0.3 0.26 W vs δH
0.19 0.19 0.2 W vs δV

0.2
0.13
0.09
0.1
0.02
0.01
0
0 1 2 3
W 4 5 6
 From graph we can observe that with increase in load the deflection is going
increase.
 There is fluctuation in the graph due to lake of intention during reading the meter or
gauge.
 Due to jerk or vibration in apparatus may cause the result change.
 Material of specimen also has effect on result expectation.
 By paying full attention during performance result may close to accurate values.
26
LAB SESSION # 7
Objective
To investigate the relationship between the torque and angle of twist for shaft of various metal
subjected to a torque. In addition the shear modulus or modulus of elasticity will be found.
Apparatus
It consists of a bed with headstock and tailstock. A test specimen is held in chuks , one of which is
fixed to tail stock. The other is secured to the shaft which carries a loading arm at its other end.
The loading arm and weights are used to apply a torque to shaft .
A dial gauge on a base is mounted on the bed. It has a pointer which registers against scale fitted to
bed. Place a finger-piece over specimen and set it so that dial indicator spindle is slightly
compressed.
THEORY
Torsion
Torsion of a square section bar

In the field of solid mechanics, torsion is the twisting of an object due to an applied torque.
Torsion is expressed in newton per square meter (Pa) or pound per square inch (psi) while torque is
expressed in newton meters (N·m) or foot-pound force (ft·lbf). In sections perpendicular to the
torque axis, the resultant shear stress in this section is perpendicular to the radius.
For shafts of uniform cross-section the torsion is:
Where:
 T is the applied torque or moment of torsion in Nm.

 is the maximum shear stress at the outer surface
 JT is the torsion constant for the section. It is almost equal to the second moment of
area Jz = Iz for twisting about axis z. For more accuracy, finite element analysis (FEA) is
the best method. Other calculation methods include membrane analogy and shear flow
approximation.
27
 r is the distance between the rotational axis and the farthest point in the section (at the outer
surface).
 ℓ is the length of the object the torque is being applied to or over.
 θ is the angle of twist in radians.
 G is the shear modulus, also called the modulus of rigidity, and is usually given
in gaga (GPa), lbf/in2 (psi), or lbf/ft2.
 The product JT G is called the torsional rigidity wT.
a distance, it is doing mechanical work. Similarly, if torque is allowed to act through a rotational
distance, it is doing work. Mathematically, for rotation about a fixed axis through the center of
mass,
Relationship between torque, power, and energy
If a force is allowed to act through

Where W is work, τ is torque, and θ1 and θ2 represent (respectively) the initial and final angular
positions of the body.[11] It follows from thework-energy theorem that W also represents the change
in the rotational kinetic energy Er of the body, given by
Where I is the moment of inertia of the body and ω is its angular speed.[11]
Power is the work per unit time, given by
Where P is power, τ is torque, ω is the angular velocity, and ⋅ represents the scalar product.
Algebraically, the equation may be rearranged to compute torque for a given angular speed and
power output. Note that the power injected by the torque depends only on the instantaneous
angular speed – not on whether the angular speed increases, decreases, or remains constant while
the torque is being applied (this is equivalent to the linear case where the power injected by a force
depends only on the instantaneous speed – not on the resulting acceleration, if any).
In practice, this relationship can be observed in bicycles: Bicycles are typically composed of two
road wheels, front and rear gears (referred to as sprockets) meshing with a circular chain, and
a derailleur mechanism if the bicycle's transmission system allows multiple gear ratios to be used
(i.e. multi-speed bicycle), all of which attached to the frame. A cyclist, the person who rides the
bicycle, provides the input power by turning pedals, thereby cranking the front sprocket
(commonly referred to as chain ring). The input power provided by the cyclist is equal to the
product of cadence (i.e. the number of pedal revolutions per minute) and the torque on spindle of
the bicycle's crank set. The bicycle’s drivetrain transmits the input power to the road wheel, which
in turn conveys the received power to the road as the output power of the bicycle. Depending on
the gear ratio of the bicycle, a (torque, rpm) pair is converted to a (torque, rpm) output pair. By using
a larger rear gear, or by switching to a lower gear in multi-speed bicycles, angular speed of the
28
road wheels is decreased while the torque is increased, product of which (i.e. power) does not
change.
Procedure
1) The torque should be secured with the locking pin whilst setting the specimen in place.
2) Open the chuck and fix the specimen and specimen inserted from end of apparatus.
3) Ensure the approximately equal amounts of specimen are in each chuck and then tighten
firmly.
4) Add load hanger to torque arm.
5) Note the initial dial indicator reading.
6) Apply a load of 10 newton to the hanger and note dial indicator reading repeat up to load of
60 N.

Effective length of shaft (L) = _____10.2_______ in
Diameter of shaft (d) = _____0.157_______ in
Polar moment of inertia of shaft = _____5.96E-5_____ in
No Applied Torque Angle of twist Angle of twist Angle of Modulus of

of load WR ϴ1 (rad) ϴ2 (rad) twist Rigidity
obs W (lbs) (lb-in) ϴ= ϴ1- G =k 32 L/π
Loading unloading average loading Unloadin average ϴ2 d^4
g (psi)
1 0.5 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 ∞
2 1 0.066 2 4 3 1 1 1 2 572
3 1.5 0.133 5 7 6 2 2 2 4 572
4 2 0.200 8 10 9 3 3 3 6 572
5 2.5 0.267 11 13 12 3 4 3.5 8.5 572
RESULTS AND COCLUSIONS

 There may be error due to dial gauge setting to zero point.
 Personal error may also change the result.
 Calculations may be not taken when apparatus stable.
 During loading and unloading may produces jerk which cause effect upon the readings?
 Unexperienced performer may not be able to get correct results.
29
LAB SESSION # 8
Objective:
The objective of experiment is to investigate load – deflection characteristics for tension and
compression spring and to show that deflection is proportional to 1∕d^4.
Apparatus
The apparatus is illustrated upon page three of this manual. It comprises a frame with guide slots in
which a cross head is free to move vertical. Crosshead moment is measured by a scale and Vernier.
A spring is placed in apparatus and weights added to loading hook and hanger.
THEORY
COMPRESSION AND EXTENSION IN SPRING.
Extension and compression springs are literally on opposite sides of the spring spectrum.
Extension springs are used primarily to hold two components together, while compression springs
are best for keeping components from meeting in the first place. Both employ a coil design for
30
elasticity and strength, but they work under two different principles of elastic potential energy.
An extension spring is usually made from smaller gauge wire and wound very tightly. Both ends
may have loops or hooks for attachment purposes. The springs on a child's trampoline are prime
examples of extension springs in action. Each spring is attached to a section of canvas and the
metal support frame. Without a load, the extension springs remain compact and unstretched. As the
child jumps on the canvas, the individual springs receive portions of the load and the coils stretch
out.
Procedure
Place a spring eyes in to the fork heads on a screw adjuster and crosshead. Insert the pins into the
fork heads. Place the hanger on the hook. Zero Vernier by raising or lowering the entire spring
assembly by means of the adjuster. Additional Vernier adjustment is available by slackening the
two screws which hold the main scale onto the back plate. Slide the main scale up or down, as
required, then tightened the screws, should the spring length be outside the adjustment range of
Vernier, simply note the initial Vernier reading. This will then have to subtract from all
experimental readings for that spring.
Place the weight on the hanger and note the deflection.
Add another weight and note the deflection. You should make about ten reading to obtain
reasonably accurate results. You may find that for some extension springs the initial load that not
cause any extension. This is due to the process of spring manufacture which leave the spring with
some initial tension. Until the applied loads exceeds this value the spring will not deflect or extend.
31
Stiffness
For pain and/or loss of range of motion of a joint, see joint stiffness. For the term regarding the
stability of a differential equation, see stiff equation.
"Flexibility" redirects here. For other uses, see Flexibility (disambiguation).
Stiffness is the rigidity of an object — the extent to which it resists deformation in response to an
applied force.
The complementary concept is flexibility or pliability: the more flexible an object is, the less stiff
it is.
Applications
The stiffness of a structure is of principal importance in many engineering applications, so
the modulus of elasticity is often one of the primary properties considered when selecting a
material. A high modulus of elasticity is sought when deflection is undesirable, while a low
modulus of elasticity is required when flexibility is needed.
In biology, the stiffness of the extracellular matrix is important for guiding the migration of cells in
a phenomenon called Durotaxis.
32
33

No of Load Deflection δ(mm) Slope Theoretical Difference
Obs. from value=
W Loading Unloading Mean graph Gd^4/8ND^3
(lb) (N/mm)
(N/mm)
1 5 2 2 2
2 10 4 4 4
3 15 6 6 6 2.50 2.65 0.15
4 20 8 8 8
5 25 9.8 9.8 9.8
 Difference in results obtaining from graph and theoretical values is due to observing
lakeness and unexperienced apparatus operator.
 There will a change in result due to loading and unloading the loads on hangers.
 Operator may take reading when the apparatus meter or gauge not in a stable condition.
 There may be effect of temperature on specimen or apparatus.
 Environmental effect plays its role during measurements.
 Setting of apparatus should be accurate otherwise results or reading will be different then
the actual one.
34
LAB SESSION # 9
Objective:
To investigate the relationship between shear stress and shear strain for rubber and to
determine the modulus of rigidity of the material.
Apparatus:
Modulus of Rigidity of rubber apparatus, Hangers and Weights, Steel rule, Dial indicator
A rubber block 12×4×1 inch bonded to two aluminum alloy plates. One plate screwed to wall
whilst the other has shear load applied by loaded weight hanger.
A dial gauge measures the deflection of the block.
THEORY
Modulus of Rigidity
Or (Shear Modulus) which relates the components of the shearing
Stress and shearing strain, is the coefficient of elasticity for a shearing force. It is defined as "the
ratio of shear stress to the displacement per unit sample length (shear strain)".Rubber, there is two
type of it. The nature rubber which formed naturally as a bark of a tree , and industrial
rubber _which will be used in this report_ which used in wide range as a vibrations resistant in
cars, engines ,and other machines and it do this by absorbing shock energy by deforming , This
deformation leads to a decrease in cross-section as the block lengthens. An effect described by
Poisson's Ratio. Poisson’s ratio mean that when a material is stretched in one direction it tends
to become thinner in other two directions.
Range of Experiments
 To determine the variation of deflection with applied load
 To investigate the relationship between shear stress and shear strain
 To find the modulus of rigidity of the rubber block
Description
This equipment is part of a range designed to both demonstrate and

experimentally confirm basic engineering principles. Great care has
been given to each item so as to provide wide experimental scope without unduly complicating or
compromising the design. Each piece of apparatus is self-contained and compact. Setting up time is
minimal; all measurements are made with the simplest possible instrumentation, so that the student
involvement is purely with the engineering principles being taught.
35
Rubber blocks in shear force are often used on engine and in equipment mounting to isolate
vibrations. They do this by absorbing shock energy by deforming. This deformation leads to a
decrease in cross-section as the block lengthens, an effect described by Poisson's Ratio. After this
experiment, students will understand the behavior of a very flexible material such as rubber. Rubber
is interesting in that the lay person regards it as an 'elastic' material. In engineering terms it is not as
'elastic' as steel and often exhibits a high degree of hysteresis.
A rubber block 150 x 75 x 25mm is bonded to two aluminum alloy plates. One plate is screwed to a
wall, whilst the other has a shear load applied by a loaded weight hanger. A dial gauge measures the
deflection of the block.
Specification
Rubber Block: 150 x 75 x 25mm, Dial Gauge: 12mm x .01mm, Maximum load: 16kg
HFC22 Rubber in Shear Apparatus

Rubber blocks in shear force are often used on engine and in equipment mounting to isolate
vibrations. They do this by absorbing shock energy by deforming. This deformation leads to a
decrease in cross-section as the block lengthens, an effect described by Poisson's Ratio.
After this experiment, students will understand the behaviour of a very flexible material such as
rubber. Rubber is interesting in that the lay person regards it as an 'elastic' material. In engineering
terms it is not as 'elastic' as steel and often exhibits a high degree of hysteresis.
A rubber block 150 x 75 x 25mm is
bonded to two vertical plates. The back
plate secures the rubber block to a
vertical surface such as a wall. The front
plate allows a load hanger to be
suspended and also the anvil of a dial
gauge to rest.
The load hanger is loaded using the
calibrated weights supplied and the
corresponding vertical deflection of the
rubber block is monitored using the dial
gauge supplied.
A comprehensive instruction manual is supplied. No wall fixings are supplied.
Procedure:
1- Set the dial indicator so that anvil rests on top of loading plate.
2- Set dial indicator at zero.
3- With hanger in position apply load to hanger and read vertical displacement of loading
plane relative to fixing plate from dial indicator.
4- Repeat experiment for increasing load and record vertical displacement of loading plate.
36
5- Unload and note corresponding readings with the load decreasing.

6- Calculate the “Modulus of Rigidity” of rubber material.
Length of rubber block (l) =__12_ in
Width of rubber block (w) =__04__in
Thickness of rubber block (t) =__01_ in
Least count of dial indicator =__0.001_in

No of Load Shear deformation-δs (in) Shear Shear Modulus of
Obs. stress strain Rigidity
Ps Loading unloading Average
(lbs) τ=Ps/l.t ɤ=δs/w
G=τ/ɤ G (psi)
(psi) From
OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS graph
1. 1 2 3.0 2.5 0.0833 0.625 0.1332
2. 3 5.5 6.0 5.75 0.025 1.4325 0.1731
4 7.0 7.4 7.2 0.333 1.80 0.185 0.2289

3.
4. 5 8.8 8.8 8.8 0.4166 2.2 0.1893
5. 2 3.8 4.5 4.15 0.166 1.0375 0.16

 Zero error:
If the dial gauge’s reading isn’t zero at zero load.2.
 Human error:
If the experimenter red the dial gauge and calculate incorrectly
 Environmental error:
Environment affects in rubber block properties, which mean that the reading of
dial gauge which represent the deflection in rubber block depends on the temperature of the
lab.
 It is recommended to make sure that there is no zero error, and do this experiment another
materials, and take in your account the environmental conditions.
 The apparatus must be accurate and precise measuring device.so that actual values may be
achieved.
 Reading must be taken at room temperature or at normal conditions.
37
LAB SESSION # 10
Case Study1
Pressure Vessels
• Cylindrical pressure vessels with a circular cross-section are found in industrial settings
(compressed air tanks, rocket motors), in homes (fire extinguishers, spray cans) and in the
countryside (propane tanks, grain silos)
• Pressurized pipes are also classified as cylindrical pressure vessels
Circumferential and longitudinal stress

• The stress σ1 is called the circumferential stress or the hoop stress
• The stress σ2 is called the longitudinal stress or the axial stress
Stresses at the outer surface
38
Stresses in circular cylinderical pressure vessels at (a) Outer surface (b) Inner surface.
The principal stresses σ1 and σ2 at the outer surface of the cylindrical vessel are shown on the
stress element in fig (a) where σ3 = 0 (i.e. biaxial stress
state)
The maximum out of plane

shear stresses is =
 Thick walled cylinders

If the wall thickness of the cylinder is greater than 1/20th of the internal diameter ‘di’,the variation
of the tangential stresses through the wall thickness is large & the radial stresses have to be
calculated. The solution cannot be treated as simple. Thus a thick pressure vessel is one whose
thickness to inner radius ratio is greater than 1/10.
39
Stresses on Walls of thick Cylinders
The hoop and radial stresses at any point in the wall cross section of a thick cylinder at radius r are
given by lame equations:
B
Hoop stress = A + r2
B
Radial Stress = A − r2
With internal and external pressures Pi and Po and internal and external radii ri and ro respectively,
the stresses in thick cylinders with close ends are:
 Stresses in thick cylinders
(a) (b)
(c)
(a) A thick cylinder with both external and internal pressure.
(b) Radial and circumferential stress distribution within the cylinder wall when only
internal pressure acts.
(c) Distribution of radial and circumferential stresses within the cylinder wall when only
external pressure acts.
 Stress in Axial Direction

The stress in axial direction at a point in the tube or cylinder wall can be expressed as:
σa = (pi ri2 - po ro2 )/(ro2 - ri2) (1)
Where
σa = stress in axial direction (MPa, psi)
pi = internal pressure in the tube or cylinder (MPa, psi)
po = external pressure in the tube or cylinder (MPa, psi)
40
ri = internal radius of tube or cylinder (mm, in)
ro = external radius of tube or cylinder (mm, in)
 Stress in Circumferential Direction - Hoop Stress

The stress in circumferential direction - hoop stress - at a point in the tube or cylinder wall can be
expressed as:
σc = [(pi ri2 - po ro2) / (ro2 - ri2)] - [ri2 ro2 (po - pi) / (r2 (ro2 - ri2))] (2)
Where
σc = stress in circumferential direction (MPa, psi)
r = radius to point in tube or cylinder wall (mm, in) (ri < r < ro)
Maximum stress when r = ri (inside pipe or cylinder)
• Stress in Radial Direction

The stress in radial direction at a point in the tube or cylinder wall can be expressed as:
σr = [(pi ri2 - po ro2) / (ro2 - ri2)] + [ri2 ro2 (po - pi) / (r2 (ro2 - ri2))] (3)
Maximum stress when r = ro (outside pipe or cylinder)
41
LAB SESSION # 11
Case Study 2
Thin cylinders
A pressure vessel is used for storing liquid or
under pressure. A pipe line through which pressurized fluid flows is treated as pressure vessel.
Normally pressure vessels are of cylindrical or spherical shape.
There are several examples of pressure vessels which are used for engineering purpose. They include
boilers, gas storage tanks, metal tires & pipelines
Thin cylinders
If the wall thickness of the cylinder is less than 1/20th of the internal diameter “di”, the variation
of the tangential stresses through the wall thickness is small & the radial stresses may be neglected.
The solution can be then treated as statically determinate & the vessel is said to be thin pressure
vessel. Thus a thin pressure vessel is one whose thickness to inner radius ratio is not greater than
1/10.
Hoop stress
The hoop stress is the force exerted circumferentially (perpendicular both to the axis and to the
radius of the object) in both directions on every particle in the cylinder wall. It can be described as:
Where:
• F is the force exerted circumferentially on an area of the cylinder wall that has the following
two lengths as sides:
 t is the radial thickness of the cylinder

 l is the axial length of the cylinder
42
An alternative to hoop stress in describing circumferential stress is wall stress or wall

tension (T), which usually is defined as the total circumferential force exerted along the entire
radial thickness
Along with axial stress and radial stress, circumferential stress is a component of the stress
tensor in cylindrical coordinates.
Hoop stress in thin cylindrical shell
 The internal pressure, p tends to increase the diameter of the cylinder and this produces a
hoop or circumferential stress (tensile).
 If the stress becomes excessive, failure in the form of a longitudinal burst would occur.
Consider the half cylinder shown. Force due to internal pressure, p is balanced by the
force due to hoop stress,  h .
i.e. hoop stress x area = pressure x projected area
h x 2 L t = P x d L
 h = (P d) / 2 t
Where: d is the internal diameter of cylinder; t is the thickness of wall of cylinder.
In mechanics, a cylinder stress is a stress distribution with rotational symmetry; that is, which
remains unchanged if the stressed object is rotated about some fixed axis.
Cylinder stress patterns include:
 Circumferential stress or hoop stress, a normal stress in the tangential (azimuth) direction;
 Axial stress, a normal stress parallel to the axis of cylindrical symmetry;
43
 Radial stress, a stress in directions coplanar with but perpendicular to the symmetry axis.
The classical example (and namesake) of hoop stress is the tension applied to the iron bands, or
hoops, of a wooden barrel. In a straight, closed pipe, any force applied to the cylindrical pipe wall
by a pressure differential will ultimately give rise to hoop stresses. Similarly, if this pipe has flat
end caps, any force applied to them by static pressure will induce a perpendicular axial stress on
the same pipe wall. Thin sections often have negligibly small radial stress, but accurate models of
thicker-walled cylindrical shells require such stresses to be taken into account.
Thin-walled assumption
For the thin-walled assumption to be valid the vessel must have a wall thickness of no more than
about one-tenth (often cited as one twentieth) of its radius. This allows for treating the wall as a
surface, and subsequently using the Young–Laplace equation for estimating the hoop stress
created by an internal pressure on a thin-walled cylindrical pressure vessel:
(For a cylinder)
(For a sphere)
Where
 P is the internal pressure

 t is the wall thickness
 r is the mean radius of the cylinder.
 is the hoop stress.
The hoop stress equation for thin shells is also approximately valid for spherical vessels,
including plant cells and bacteria in which the internal turgor pressure may reach several
atmospheres.
Inch-pound-second system (IPS) units for P are pounds-force per square inch (psi). Units
for t, and d are inches (in). SI units for P are Pascal (Pa), while t and d=2r are in meters
(m).
When the vessel has closed ends the internal pressure acts on them to develop a force
along the axis of the cylinder. This is known as the axial stress and is usually less than the
hoop stress.
Though this may be approximated to
44
Also in this situation a radial stress is developed and may be estimated in thin
walled cylinders as:
Longitudinal stress in thin cylindrical shell.
Longitudinal stress in thin cylindrical shell

The internal pressure, P also produces a tensile stress in
longitudinal direction as shown above.
 d2
Force by P acting on an area is balanced by
4
longitudinal stress,  L acting over an approximate area,
dt (mean diameter should strictly be used). That is:
 d2
L x d t  P x
4
Pd
L 
4t
45
Note:
 1. Since hoop stress is twice longitudinal stress, the cylinder would fail by tearing along a
line parallel to the axis, rather than on a section perpendicular to the axis.
 The equation for hoop stress is therefore used to determine the cylinder thickness.
 Allowance is made for this by dividing the thickness obtained in hoop stress equation by
efficiency (i.e. tearing and shearing efficiency) of the joint.
Conclusion:
Rivets on longitudinal joint Rivets on circumferential joint
46

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UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY LAHORE (NWL)

LAB REPORT MECHANICS OF MATERIAL-2

HAFIZ ABID HUSSAIN

ENGINEER NAZIM WAHEED SHAB

Small springs can be wound from pre-

Behavior of spring during extension and compression

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

Hooke's law: the force is proportional to the extension

For ease in reading, the data are reproduced in Table 1 in order of

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Load l0 l1 ΔL =(l1 Stress Strain ( 𝜺) Young

1 0.320 0.711 0.391 392.4 0.01221 3.2E4

2 0.323 0.746 0.423 784.8 0.01309 3.9E4

3 0.321 0.791 0.470 1177.2 0.01464 3.4E4

4 0.323 0.836 0.513 1569.6 0.01588 3.7E4

5 0.344 0.883 0.559 1962.0 0.01625 4.0E4

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

A truss bridge in Denmark

 cantilevered (supported at one end only with a fixed connection)

7. Trussed - a beam strengthened by adding a cable or rod to form a truss.

1. First of all we determine all dimensions of beam with vernier calliper.

Width of beam = b =1.008in;

Depth of beam = d = 0.198in;

Modulus of elasticity = E = 11.9× 106 𝑃𝑠𝑖

Relative Error in deflection 𝑦𝑡ℎ at [x= L/2]

Relative Error in deflection 𝑦𝑡ℎ at [x=4]

Relative Error in slope 𝛿𝑒𝑥𝑝. at [x=4]

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

A statically determinate beam, bending (sagging) under a uniformly distributed load

Classification of beams based on supports

Fixed end moment

Width of beam = b =1.008in;

Depth of beam = d = 0.198in;

Modulus of elasticity = E = 11.9× 106 𝑃𝑠𝑖

Relative Error in deflection 𝑦𝑡ℎ at [x= L/2]

Relative Error in deflection 𝑦𝑡ℎ at [x=14]

Relative Error in slope 𝛿𝑒𝑥𝑝. at [x=14]

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

2- 1.0 12 14 13 12 14 13 0.025 0.0233 1.22 0.928 48 44.2 23.93

3- 1.5 19 21 20 19 21 20 0.037 0.0349 1.83 1.428 46.67 42.8 21.97

5- 2.5 34 34 34 33 33 33 0.062 0.0583 3.05 2.357 45.63 43.4 22.72

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

a. Longitudinal strain that causes change in length;

Metal Young’s modulus (dynes/cm2)

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Least count of micrometer = 0.001cm

Least count of meter rod = 1cm

Length of wire (L) = 152.2mm

Dia of wire (d) = OD – d = 28.3mm

Initial load = 5Kg

X-area of wire = 25cm^2

No. of Effective P/δl Modulus of Elasticity

(Kg) From graph (psi)

Loading Unloading Average

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

Figure 1: Different Types of Beams

Diameter of shaft (d) = _0.157___ in

Polar moment of inertia of shaft = _5.96E-5_ in

Width of rubber block (w) =04in