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Acute Coronary Syndromes: Presentation-Clinical Spectrum and Management
Acute Coronary Syndromes: Presentation-Clinical Spectrum and Management
Acute Coronary Syndromes: Presentation-Clinical Spectrum and Management
A
cute coronary syndromes define a spec- branch block or posterior infarction. Such
trum of clinical manifestations of acute patients usually evolve Q waves and the release
coronary artery disease. These extend of cardiac enzymes with elevations to more
from acute myocardial infarction through mini- than twice the upper limit of normal. In
mal myocardial injury to unstable angina. This contrast, those with minimal myocardial injury
spectrum shares common underlying patho- do not have sustained ST segment elevation or
physiological mechanisms. The central features the evolution of Q waves, and cardiac enzyme
consist of fissuring or erosion of atheromatous release is no more than twice the upper limit of
plaque with superimposed platelet aggregation normal. The terms non-Q wave myocardial
and thrombosis. This is complicated by micro- infarction and subendocardial myocardial
fragmentation and distal embolisation with infarction refer to retrospective or pathologi-
alterations in vascular tone in aVected myocar- cal features and they are of little value as a
dium. As a consequence, clinical manifesta- guide to management in the acute clinical set-
tions are dependent upon the severity of ting. It is impossible to characterise infarctions
obstruction in the aVected coronary artery (fig accurately into Q wave and non-Q wave at the
1), the presence or absence of collateral time of presentation. In contrast, those with
perfusion, and the volume and myocardial oxy- minimal myocardial injury/unstable angina can
gen demand within the aVected territory. be defined at presentation and include indi-
Thus, the spectrum extends from abrupt viduals with a spectrum of electrocardio-
occlusion with acute ischaemia leading to graphic changes (table 1), but no features to
indicate the need for immediate reperfusion.
The management of such patients consists of
anti-ischaemic treatment ( blockers, nitrates,
calcium antagonists) in combination with
antiplatelet treatment (aspirin, adenosine di-
phosphate antagonists, glycoprotein IIb/IIIa
inhibitors) and antithrombin treatment
(heparin and low molecular weight heparin)
(fig 2).
The most frequently cited classification of
patients with unstable angina is that proposed
by Braunwald (table 2) and it describes the
time course and mode of presentation. Rela-
Correspondence to:
Professor Keith AA Figure 1: Macroscopic view of ruptured coronary tions have been demonstrated between classifi-
plaque with intraplaque thrombosis and intraluminal cation categories and outcome, but this system
Fox, Department of
extension. Superficial platelet rich thrombus (pale
Cardiology, The Royal colour). This lesion would not produce flow limitation, excludes ECG information and it pre-dates
Infirmary, Edinburgh at rest, and may not be detectable on coronary modern enzymatic measures including tropon-
EH3 9YW, UK angiography.(High resolution colour slide; reproduced ins and the important prognostic information
email: k.a.a.fox@ed.ac.uk with permission from Professor Michael Davies). that both measures convey. Furthermore, the
Table 1 Acute coronary syndromes classification pre-dates current treatment
strategies and hence we lack an evidence base
Clinical syndrome ECG features Enzyme features upon which to diVerentiate management ac-
+ Acute myocardial ST elevation > 2 upper limit of CK-MB, CK cording to the Braunwald classification.
infarction (MI) New bundle branch block Troponins T > 0.2 ng/dl An alternative is to separate patients into
ECG changes of posterior MI Troponin I* > 1.01.5 ng/dl high, intermediate, and low risk categories.
Evolution of Q waves
These categories are important for the choice
+ Minimal myocardial Aborted ST elevation MI < 2 elevation CK-MB, CK of pharmacological and interventional treat-
injury Transient ST elevation Troponins T 0.010.2 ng/dl ment as the relations between risks and
ST depression Troponin I* 0.1 or 0.4 ng/dl to
T inversion 1.01.5 ng/dl outcome have been defined in trials. Risk status
Minor non-specific ECG changes requires regular review, and documentation, as
patients may change risk status as ECG,
+ Unstable angina Transient ST elevation CK-MB, CK below upper limit of
ST depression normal haemodynamic, and enzyme findings evolve.
T inversion Troponins T < 0.01 ng/dl Specific prediction of cumulative risk can be
Minor non-specific ECG changes Troponin I* < 0.1 or 0.4 ng/dl derived from registry and trial data (that is, the
Normal ECG
six month risk of death/myocardial infarction
*Troponin I cut oV values depend upon assay system or death/myocardial infarction/refractory an-
Education in Heart
94
Figure 2: Spectrum of acute coronary syndromes. Schematic of the relation between the extent of myocardial
necrosis, electrocardiographic markers, and cardiac enzymes (CK-MB and troponins). Troponins provide a
more sensitive indicator of myocardial injury with a lower threshold indicating adverse prognostic outcome
(troponin T 0.01 ng/dl, troponin I 0.10.4 ng/dl depending on assay system), than for myocardial infarction
(table 1).
gina), but for clinical purposes tertiles of risk ECG: ST segment depression, T wave
are more straightforward (see below) as they do inversion or transient ST elevation
not require complex algorithms for their Enzyme elevation: troponin I or T, creatine
derivation. kinase (CK) or CK-MB
Evidence of coronary artery disease on
angiography or perfusion scanning.
Outcome: unstable angina and Patients with typical clinical features of
minimal myocardial injury unstable angina but a normal ECG and no
prior documented coronary disease have a sus-
Previously, the hazards associated with unsta- pected acute coronary syndrome until enzymes
ble angina and minimal myocardial injury have and further ECGs confirm or refute the
been underestimated. Imprecise definitions of diagnosis.
the syndrome and inconsistency in the need for Those with persistent ST elevation have sus-
corroborative evidence of acute coronary pected acute myocardial infarction and their
disease (enzyme markers and ECG change) management is considered elsewhere.
have led to the inclusion of patients with chest
pain and low prospective risk. For example, Overall outcome in unstable angina/non-ST
applying the Braunwald criteria, various forms elevation myocardial infarction
of subacute rest pain, including that more than Based upon prospective international registry
48 hours previously, could classify the patient data among 8000 patients in six countries, the
as class 2 unstable angina. This could include risk of death or myocardial infarction is
patients with entirely normal ECGs, normal approximately 10% at six months and almost a
cardiac enzymes, and low risk subsequent quarter of patients sustain these events or
stress tests. Not surprisingly the outcome of acute refractory angina within six months of
such a heterogeneous population is more initial presentation (OASIS registry).2 Overall,
benign than for those with diagnostic features half of these events occur within the first seven
of the syndrome. days of presentation. Based on those included
in clinical trials, and excluding those with nor-
Definition of the syndrome mal ECGs, about 10% suVer death or
Based upon trial data and prospective registries myocardial infarction at 30 days (GUSTO II
the following features define patients with an Table 2 Braunwald classification of unstable angina
acute coronary syndrome:
x Ischaemic chest pain (discomfort) at rest or A. Secondary B. Primary C. Postinfarction
on minimal exertion or emotion (2 5 minute Classification
unstable
angina
unstable
angina
(< 2 weeks)
unstable angina
episodes or 1 episode > 10 minutes).
and I New onset, severe or accelerated angina IA IB IC
II Subacute rest angina (> 48 hours ago) IIA IIB IIC
x Evidence of underlying coronary artery III Acute rest angina (within 48 hours) IIIA IIIB IIIC
disease (at least one of the following):
Education in Heart