Students Socioeconomic Status, Depth of Vocabulary Knowledge

and Reading Comprehension

Velma S. Labad

University of Southeastern Philippines

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
Obrero, Davao City
velma.labad@usep.edu.ph

Abstract

Poverty is one of the important factors related to the level of

literacy. PISA (Programme for International Student Assessment)
research shows that the socioeconomic status of families has a
statistically significant impact on the academic achievement of pupils
living in poverty (Babuder, & Kavkler, 2014). It is on this premise that
this study was conducted. The Philippine government system has poured
billions of pesos to improve its quality of education. The 4Ps (Pantawid
Pampamilyang Pilipino Program) has been institutionalized. But after
almost 8 years of 4Ps implementation, how did it go along with
students academic performances. This study aimed to find out whether
socioeconomic characteristics of students would affect their
performances in reading comprehension and depth of vocabulary
knowledge tests. Specifically, the study determined to uncover whether
significant differences existed on students reading comprehension and
depth of vocabulary knowledge when these students are grouped
according to their socioeconomic characteristics. It made use of
descriptive correlation research design involving 3035 secondary
students. Three research instruments were utilized. The data gathered
were treated using Pearson product moment correlation and analysis of
variance. Results revealed that those students whose monthly income is
quite low, whose parents are professionals, or who have earned units in
college, and have less number of siblings in the family performed better
in the two tests. Future researcher should replicate this study improving
the statistical treatment or using other research design to uncover the
findings departure from existing body of knowledge that the more
affluent the family is the better is their childrens academic performance.

Keywords/phrases: reading comprehension, depth of vocabulary knowledge,

socioeconomic status
Introduction

Reading comprehension is one of the most essential skills that should be

developed and nurtured in a child. It is fundamental to success in academic life and
beyond. The ability to read for various purposes is a precursor of a successful learning
in schools, colleges, and universities. It is a survival skill in the 21st century for students
or professionals (Al Noursi, 2014). Similarly, Dagget and Hasselbring (2007, p. 1),
consider reading as the key enabler of learning for academic proficiency. This means
that a failure to develop effective reading can have adverse effects on learning across the
curriculum, attitudes toward life, and performances in the workplace (Meniado, 2016).

There are different variables or components influencing the reading

comprehension performance of students. One of these is vocabulary knowledge (Koda,
2005 in Meniado, 2016). This vocabulary knowledge could be breadth and depth of
engagement in reading (Trehearne & Doctorow, 2005). Nergis (2013) study found out
that depth of vocabulary knowledge influenced academic reading comprehension. One
other consistently observed phenomena in the field is the impact of students
socioeconomic status on achievement. Students whose parents have a higher level of
education, a more prestigious occupation, or greater income tend to have higher
achievement than students whose parents have a lower standing on such socioeconomic
status (SES) indicators (Sirin, 2005).

Eni-Olorunda, and Adediran (2013) posited that English language

comprehension pose a serious challenge to all students and this no doubt likewise pose a
serious concern to stakeholders in education. Studies have been conducted on several
intervention strategies by many scholars, yet, comprehension deficit still persists. One
argument advanced is on the socioeconomic status of students. The study of Geske and
Ozola (2008) found that socioeconomic factors in the family, among others, emerged as
significant factors affecting comprehension.

Along this line, the Pantawid Pamilyang Pilipino Program (4Ps), the
Philippines version of the conditional cash transfer, was implemented in the country
since 2008. The 4Ps has two components: health and education. Under the health
component, the program provides PhP6,000 annually (PhP500 per month) to each
family beneficiary for their health and nutrition expenses. Under the education
component, it provides PhP3,000 per child for one school year (i.e., 10 months) for
meeting educational expenses. Each family beneficiary shall receive for up to a
maximum of 3 children under the educational grant (Reyes, Tabuga, Mina, & Asis,
2013). But after almost 8 years of 4Ps implementation, how did it go along with
students academic performances specifically on their depth of vocabulary knowledge
and their reading comprehension? This is the primary question addressed in this study.

Theoretical Framework

This study is anchored primarily on Becker and Tomes (1986) model of human
investment which proposes that the amount, timing, and nature of resources allocated to

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child effects attainment. Likewise, this is also anchored on the socialization and role
model perspectives which assert that parents or older siblings transmit patterns of
behavior. Other theories are similarly considered such as, Bronfenbrenners (1994)
ecological systems theory and Colemans (1988) model of family background which
focuses on both the resources available to individuals or family units and how these
resources are transmitted (Havenman, & Wolfe, 1995). Finally, this study also
considered the resource dilution model.

Human capital is generally measured using parental education and refers to the
provision of tacit knowledge, social competence, and a cognitive environment
that promotes a childs learning. Social capital refers to approximated resources, such as
time and individuals, available for support and intellectual tasks; as well as social norms
and values (Coleman, 1988). Theories have been proposed to account for this
phenomenon, but there is little consensus about which explanation is the most powerful.
One reason is that, in spite of the stability of the phenomenon, there is also considerable
variation in strength of effects across educational systems and learning domains
(Barone, 2006). This is one endeavor, the present study wished to find out.

The resource dilution model is based on the assumption that parental resources
are finite and have to be shared between children within a family. Every additional
sibling means a reduction in the share allocated to each child, thus reducing one of the
foundations of their intellectual development. Financial resources, invested by parents in
a childs education for example, appear to be more vulnerable to the number of siblings
(Downey, 1995, 2001; Steelman, Powell, Werum, & Carter, 2002). According to the
resource dilution model, parental resources available do not decline linearly with every
additional child. Rather, the decline in parental resources as the number of children
within a family increases comes closest to the theoretical equation y=1/x (Downey,
1995), where x represents the total number of children in the family and y represents the
parental resources available such as financial resources for education.

Conceptual Framework

Figure 1 shows the conceptual paradigm of the study. The independent variable
is the secondary students socio economic status which includes: (a) parents
educational attainment (father and mother), (b) family income, (c) number of siblings,
and (d) birth order in the family. The dependent variable is the students depth of
vocabulary knowledge, and reading comprehension performances.

According to American Psychological Association (APA in Ghaemi, &

Yazdanpanah, 2014), socioeconomic status is commonly conceptualized as the social
standing or class of an individual or group, and it is often measured as a combination of
education, income and occupation. In the present study, students socioeconomic status
is about the respondents parents (father and mother) educational attainment, income,
number of siblings, and birth order.

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 Independent Variable Dependent Variable

Socio economic status

parents educational
attainment (father and Students performance in
mother) vocabulary knowledge
family income reading comprehension
number of siblings
birth order

Figure 1. Schematic diagram showing the variables of the study.

Research Questions

This study aimed to find out whether secondary students socioeconomic status
could have an effect on the depth of their vocabulary knowledge and reading
comprehension performances. Specifically, the study aimed to find answers to the
following questions:

1) What is the profile of the socioeconomic status of secondary students in terms of: (a)
parental education (father and mother), (b) income, (c) number of siblings, and (d)
birth order?

2) What is the level of the students performance in reading comprehension and depth
of vocabulary knowledge?

3) Are their significant differences in students performance in reading comprehension

and depth of vocabulary knowoledge when grouped according to their
socioeconomic status in terms of: (a) parental education (father and mother), (b)
income, (c) number of siblings, and (d) birth order?

Null Hypothesis

The following null hypothesis were formulated and tested at <.05 level of
significance.

Ho1 No significant differences were established in students performance in reading

comprehension and depth of vocabulary knowoledge when they were grouped
according to their socioeconomic status in terms of: (a) parental education (father
and mother), (b) income, (c) number of siblings, and (d) birth order.

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Method

Research Design

The study made use of descriptive-correlation research design. Descriptive

research attempts to describe, explain and interpret conditions of the present. Its purpose
is to examine a phenomenon that is occurring at a specific place(s) and time. It is
concerned with conditions, practices, structures, differences or relationships that exist,
opinions held processes that are going on or trends that are evident. While correlational
research describes what exists at the moment (conditions, practices, processes,
structures, etc.). It aimed to determine the nature, degree and direction of relationships
between variables or using these relationships to make predictions (Creswell, 2002 in
Jambangan, & Labad, 2015).

The study describes the socioecomic attributes of the students. These attributes
are the following: (a) parents (both mother and father) education attainment, (b)
income, number of siblings, (c) birth order. Likewise, it dwelt into the decription of the
students depth of vocabulary knowledge and their reading comprehesion. It further
investigated whether relationships existed among the students socioeconomic status,
depth of vocabulary knowledge and the reading comprehension. Finally, it investigated
the differences of the students depth of vocabulary knowledge and reading
comprehension when grouped according to their socioeconomic status.

Respondents

The respondents of the study were the secondary students of one of the public
high schools of Davao City. Universal and convenience sampling was employed. The
use of convenience sampling technique is discouraged due to its inability to generalise
research findings, the relevance of bias and high sampling error. Nevertheless
convenience sampling is the only option available in the study at hand. The seconday
school is convenient because access to the respondents is easily negotiated through
existing contacts (Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill, 2012).

There were over 7000 student populace, however only 3035 students have
completed all the 3 questionnaires and have returned signed informed consents from
their parents as well as their own informed assents. Moreover, the other variable
considered is whether the student is a beneficiary of 4Ps.

Research Instruments

Three sets of instruments were used in the study. The first instrument is the
questionnaire on the socioeconomic status of the respondents. It asked the following
information: (a) father and mothers educational attainment, (b) income, (c) number of
siblings, and (d) birth order of the family.

The second questionnaire is the depth of vocabulary knowledge. The test

developed by Read (1998) was used. Access to the test is open and available at
http://www.lextutor.ca/tests/associates/. This test has been utilized by many researchers,
thus, the tests reliability is properly established. A sample test is shown:

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 The third questionnaire was the reading comprehension test. The test was
comprised of 4 reading passages. It is followed by a question with four choices to
choose from. The students were instucted to circle the letter of the best answer. It was a
20 item test. A sample question is shown:

The reading comprehension test was presented to 3 experts in the field of

teaching reading among secondary students. The experts returned the questionnaire with
their comments and suggestions. These were incorporated in the revised reading
comprehension test. To get the reliability of the test, this was piloted to 30 secondary
students in one of the public secondary schools of Davao City. Using KR20, it yielded a
KR20=.70 which is enough measure to ascertain the reliability of the tool.

Data Gathering Procedure

Asking letter permissions. Letter permissions were written; first letter was
addressed to the Dean of the College of Education with subsequent request for a letter
endorsement for the Schools Division Superintendent (SDS) of DepEd, Davao City.
Second letter was addressed to the SDS with ensuing request for an endorsement letter
to the school principal. Third letter was addressed to the school principal with succeding
request for an endorsement letter addressed to the teacher advisers. Fourth letter was
addressed to the teacher advisers with further request for an endorsement letter
addressed to the respondents parents. Fifth letter was addressed to the parents to allow
their children to participate in the study.

Drafting of the schedule. Schedules were draft to accommodate the various

activities of the school and to observe the restriction of the SDS that no interruptions of
classes should be allowed in the conduct of the study. The schedules were finalized
alloting 2 successive noon breaks (between 12:00-12:35).

Administration of the questionnaires. The socioeconomic questionnaire was sent

to the respondents parents ahead. Only those who returned the questionnaire were
initially considered as respondents of the study. They were informed of the time and
room schedule of the test.

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 On the first day, light snacks were distributed first and then the word associate
tests were administered. It took the students 30 minutes to finish the test. And on the
second and final day, the same procedure was followed, light snacks preceded before
the administration of the reading comprehension test. The test was done in 35 minutes.

Checking, tallying, collating and recording of the data. The word associate and
reading comprehension tests were checked and scored. Data were encoded in excel for
easy encoding in the SPSS. The recording observed rigid matching of the respondents
scores in the word associate and reading comprehension tests. Likewise, it strictly
observed that the socioeconomic status of the students perfectly matched with that of the
students scores in the two other questionnaires.

Ethical Considerations

Considering that the respondents are secondary students, proper permissions

were sought. Request and explanation letters about the study were written addressed to
all parents. They were informed that their childrens participation of the study is
voluntary. The tests shall be conducted inside the school premises particularly in the
classrooms of their children on three successive noon breaks (between 12:00-12:30).
They were assured that prior to the conduct of the examination, their children will be
provided light snacks. Should by any reason, they decide to withdraw the participation
of their children, they are free to do so. They were further informed that the tests has no
bearing on the scholastic performance of their children. The only benefits that will
redound to the students is on their knowledge of the metacognitive and cognitive
reading strategies, word associate and reading comprehension tests. Moreover, they
were assured that the result of the tests as well as the information obtained in the
socioeconomic questionnaire shall be kept strictly confidential and the data will only be
used to answer the questions posed in the study. They were requested further to return
the informed consent duly signed should they decide to allow their children to
participate in the study.

Equally, the students were informed that even if their parents have given their
informed consent for them to participate in the study; they are free to leave the room
should they desire not to participate in the study. They were duly informed that they will
take three tests- metacognitive and cognitive reading strategies, word associate and
reading comprehension tests. This will be done on three consecutive noon breaks
(between 12:00-12:30). They will be given light snacks prior to the administration of the
tests. However, even if they have taken the first test and decide later not to continue the
test, they are free to do so and nothing could be considered against their standing in
school.

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Statistical Design

The following statistical design were used to treat the data:

Frequency, mean and standard deviation were used to get the profile of the
secondary students in terms of: (a) socioeconomic status, (b) metacognitive and
cognitive reading strategies, (c) word associates and reading comprehension tests.

Pearson product moment correlation was used to determine the relationships

among students reading comprehension, depth of vocabulary knowledge and
socioeconomic status.

Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine the action to be done on

the null hypothesis formulated.

Results and Discussion

Secondary students demographic attributes profile

Figure 1 shows the educational

attainment of the respondents fathers. As 40
can be noted majority are high school Elem grad
30
graduates (37 percent). The professionals HS grad
are only 19.5 percent; whilst, 13.2 percent 20 Some college
are elementary graduates. Some (29.8%) Professional
have earned units in college but failed to 10
finish a degree. This result suggests that 0
indeed only very few could finish
schooling and become professionals. Figure 1. Profile of the educational attainment
of the respondents fathers (n=3035).
Majority would leave school after high
school graduation.

As shown in figure 2, majority 50

Elem grad
(42.8%) of the respondents mothers are 40
high school graduates. The professionals are 30 HS grad
only 15.7; whilst, those who have earned 20 Some college
elementary diploma are only 11.7 percent. 10 Professional
0
Those who have earned units in college are
29.8 percent. Figure 2. Profile of the educational attainment of
the respondents mothers (n=3035).

The respondents monthly income

is shown in figure 3. As can be noted, 52.9 60 9000 below
percent earned 9000 below; and only 4.0 10000-19000
percent have a monthly income of 40000 40 20000-29000
above. This result is not surprising 30000-39000
20
40000 above
considering that majority of the
0
respondents parents are only high school
Figure 3. Profile of the respondents family
graduates. monthly income (n=3035).

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 Figure 4 presents the number of
siblings in the family. As shown, a 70
typical family has 2 to 4 (66.5%) siblings. 60
This is followed by 5 to 7 siblings 50 only child
(20.5%). There are families who have 8 40 2-4 siblings
and above siblings (4.6%) and there are 30 5-7 siblings
also families who only have a child 20 8 above siblings
(8.4%). 10
0
Figure 4. Profile of the respondents number of
siblings (n=3035).

The respondents birth order is 35

presented in figure 5. As presented
majority are middle child (35%). The 34
eldest represent 32.2 percent; whilst, 33 Youngest
the youngest are 32.3 percent of the 32 Middle
respondents. 31 Eldest
30
Figure 5. Profile of the respondents birth order
in the family (n=3035).

Profile of the secondary students depth of vocabulary knowledge

and reading comprehension performance

Figure 6 shows the secondary 60

students profile of their reading 50
comprehension performance. It can be noted 40 Low
that majority (59.1%) of the respondents 30
have low reading comprehension. Average
20
Although, there are 39.9 percent who have High
10
average reading comprehension. Only 1% 0
has attained the high level reading
comprehension. The result suggests that Figure 6. Profile of the respondents reading
comprehension performance (n=3035).
secondary students have difficulty
understanding the reading passages.

The students performance on the depth 80

of vocabulary knowledge is presented in figure
7. They have average (70.8%) performance in 60
Low
this test. The rest of the population bordered 40
Average
between high (15.4%) and low (13.8%)
performances. 20 High
0
Figure 7. Profile of the respondents depth of
vocabulary knowledge (n=3035).

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Significant relationships of students reading comprehension
depth of vocabulary knowledge and their socio economic status

As can be gleaned in table 1, the mothers (r=.121, <.01; r=.169, <.01) and
fathers (r=.104, <.01; r=.135, <.01) educational attainment is significantly correlated
with reading comprehension and depth of vocabulary knowledge. This goes to say that
the higher the educational attainment of the parents, the better is the students
performance in reading comprehension and depth of vocabulary knowledge tests.

Table 1. Significant relationships among students reading comprehension, depth of

vocabulary knowledge and their mothers education attainment (n=3035).
Reading Depth of vocabulary
comprehension knowledge
Mothers educational Pearson correlation .121** .169**
attainment Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000
Fathers educational Pearson correlation .104** .135**
attainment Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000
**
Family income Pearson correlation .050 .066**
Sig. (2-tailed) .006 .000
No. of siblings Pearson correlation -.029 -.055**
in the family Sig. (2-tailed) .105 .002
Birth order Pearson correlation .007 .021
in the family Sig. (2-tailed) .692 .257
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

The result of the present study confirms Hamids (2011) study. His study
examined the relationships between secondary school students family socioeconomic
characteristics and their academic achievement in English in a rural sub-district in
Bangladesh. The result revealed patterned relationships between the students family
income and parental education and their academic achievement in English. Students
who had higher levels of parental education and family income were more likely to
obtain higher scores on the proficiency test as well as higher grades in English in the
Secondary School Certificate examination.

Similar result is likewise found in Shamims (2011 in Gustafsson, Hansen, &

Gustafsson, 2011) investigation. He compared learners socioeconomic status with their
English language scores in a state sponsored examination. He found that learners in the
higher income bracket consistently outperformed learners in the lower income bracket.
In an earlier study conducted by Aikens and Barbarin (2008), they recognized that
children from low SES environments acquire language skills more slowly, exhibit
delayed letter recognition and phonological awareness, and are at risk for reading
difficulties.

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 Roscigno (2000) likewise, found that parent education correlated with student
reading comprehension in grades 1-8. Guthrie, Schafer, and Huang (2001) and Snow et
al. (1991) report similar results when examining the reading comprehension skills of
students in grade 4. Gill (1997) also notes a significant correlation between parent
education and reading comprehension in grade 6, but Snow et al. (1991) did not find
this relationship in grades 2 or 6. The small sample (N=32; 11 second graders, 12 fourth
graders, and 9 sixth graders) employed by Snow et al. (1991) may explain the variation
in their outcomes. Though, Poe, Burchinal, and Roberts (2004) investigation of the
relation between mothers education and grade 2 reading achievement (including
comprehension) in a sample of African American students also reported a correlation
which was not significant.

On the other hand, Rauh, Parker, Garfinkel, Perry, and Andrews (2003) report
that having a mother with less than a high school education resulted in a significant drop
in students reading percentile. While there is research suggesting a significant
relationship between parental education and reading comprehension, the nature of that
relationship has been shown to vary based on the sample and measures employed
(Lindo, 2007; Sirin, 2005). The present study manifested weak relationships among
secondary students reading comprehension and depth of vocabulary knowledge and
their parents (mother and father) educational attainment. It can be noted that majority
of the respondents parents (37% for the fathers and 42.8% for the mothers) are high
school graduates; whilst, 19.5 percent of the fathers and 15.7 percent of the mothers are
professionals.

Family income (r=.050, <.01; r=.066, <.01) is likewise correlated with

reading comprehension and depth of vocabulary knowledge. Patterson, Kupersmidt, and
Vaden (1990) report that income levels significantly predict student academic
achievement. Snow, Barnes, Chandler, and Hemphill (1991) also found family income
to be correlated with reading comprehension across grades levels, as did Roscigno
(2000). In the present study, although the relationships among reading comprehension,
depth of vocabulary knowledge and income is weak, it still manifests relationships. This
goes to say that the higher the income of the family the better is their performances in
reading comprehension and depth of vocabulary knowledge. According to Sirin (2005),
parent income is an indicator of SES that reflects a familys potential for providing
economic and social resources to a child.

However, as regards the number of siblings in the family (r=-.055, <.01), only
depth of vocabulary knowledge registers inverse relationship. The inverse relationship
means that as the number of siblings in the family increases the students depth of
vocabulary knowledge performance decreases. The same effect was registered in the
studies of Steelman, Powell, Werum, and Carter (2002) and Sundet, Eriksen, Borren,
and Tamsb (2010). Their study investigated language measures in general, whilst, the
present study registered effect on the depth of vocabulary knowledge. Downey (1995)
argued that financial resources have a particularly strong tendency to dilute and the
knowledge that children pose a risk of poverty (European Commission, 2008); it is

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assumed that families with many children have fewer financial resources to provide
educational opportunities for their children. This echoed the argument of Zajonc (1975
in Guo, & VanWey, 1999), the chief architect of the highly influential confluence
model, where he wrote,

If the intellectual growth of your children is important to you, the model

predicts that you should have no more than two (children) because the larger the
family, the lower the overall level of intellectual function (p.43).

Nevertheless, the number of siblings in the family does not manifest relationship
with reading comprehension (r=-.029, .05). This means that whether the family has 8
or more siblings, their reading comprehension is not affected. However, Steelmans
(1985) review on this point presented a large body of research that shows that
the number of children in a family is negatively related to intellectual ability. The result
of the present study is a departure to the existing body of knowledge. Although
knowledge to date suggests that an inverse relationship exists between the number of
siblings and second language skills among bilingual children according to the resource
dilution model, no evidence exists confirming this assumption (Keller, Troesch, &
Grob, 2015). Ortizs (2009) study found no association between the number of children
and knowledge of English language skills, in the present study, no relationship exists
between the number of children and their reading comprehension.

It is also revealed in table 1 that birth order in the family (r=.007, .05; r=.021,
.05) is not correlated with reading comprehension and depth of vocabulary
performance. To date no conclusive finding is revealed on this account. Ortiz (2009)
assumed better second language skills for later-born children, but failed to demonstrate
evidence in a group of Latino preschool children in the USA. No effect of birth order on
knowledge of the second language emerged either in David and Weis (2008)
longitudinal study with 13 French- and English speaking children nor in Caspar and
Leyendeckers (2011) study with 88 Turkish-German-speaking children. Bridges and
Hoff (2014) also examined older siblings influence on language skills in a total of 87
EnglishSpanish bilingual toddlers in the USA assessing English and Spanish language
skills using caregiver report measures. In contrast to the previous findings, in their
study, children with an older sibling showed more advanced English language skills.

Indeed, there are studies that showed that first-born children are read to more
often than later born children (Raikes, Pan, Luze, Tamis-Lemonda, Brooks-Gunn,
Constantine et al., 2006; Westerlund, & Lagerberg, 2008), that these children receive
more linguistic input from their mothers, and that the children are more often explicitly
encouraged to express themselves (Jones, & Adamson, 1987; Hoff-Ginsberg, 1998).
Some studies revealed a negative effect of birth order, there are also studies that found
no differences in standardized language tests or even suggested that later-born children
are at an advantage (Jenkins, & Astington, 1996; Oshima-Takane, Goodz, &
Derevensky, 1996; Hoff-Ginsberg, 1998; Bornstein, Leach, & Haynes, 2004;
Westerlund, & Lagerberg, 2008). For example, Oshima-Takane et al. (1996) showed
that later-born children used personal pronouns earlier, which the authors attributed to

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more frequent triadic interactions with the mother and the elder sibling. Hoff-Ginsberg
(1998) reported disadvantages in vocabulary and grammar in later born children, but
also noted a developmental advantage in conversational skills.

Furthermore, it has been repeatedly reported that older siblings constitute a

facilitator to the local language (e.g., Shin, 2002) and that second-born children
accordingly have been expected to experience more favorable conditions of acquisition
and have better second language skills. This advantage might be particularly true for
children with an older sibling in school age. To become an effective language partner,
older siblings need to possess a certain level of second language skills. In school age,
children improve their second language skills and thus pose a significant source of
language exposure to the younger sibling (Bridges, & Hoff, 2014).

In addition, at school, older siblings learn the importance of local language skills
and bring that knowledge into the home. Younger siblings might profit from the insights
and second language skills of their older siblings and thus, improve their local language
skills (Wong Fillmore, 1991; Shin, 2002). These two approaches, the resource dilution
model as well as elder siblings as facilitators for the second language acquisition of their
younger siblings, explain the issue on different levels and are not mutually exclusive.
Thus it is conceivable that while the processes of interaction between siblings benefit
learning, the arrival of an additional sibling changes the relationship constellation and
the financial situation of a family to such an extent that the second-born child is placed
at a developmental disadvantage. To date, evidence for both lines of arguments is sparse
and mixed. This suggests a fertile ground for more research endeavors along this line.

Significant difference of students reading comprehension and depth

of vocabulary knowledge when grouped according to their socioeconomic status

Students reading comprehension and depth of vocabulary knowledge when

grouped according to their mothers education attainment. As can be gleaned in table 2,
a significant difference is established on students reading comprehension (F=15.718,
<.01) and depth of vocabulary knowledge (F=29.832, <.01) when they are grouped
according to their mothers educational attainment. Post hoc tests revealed that those
students whose mothers are professionals performed better in depth of vocabulary
knowledge and reading comprehension tests. This result is best explained in the study
of Ladd, Martin-Chang, and Levesque (2011). They argued that parents with superior
knowledge of English word structure are better positioned to maximize the teaching
opportunities that occur in the home (such as joint writing and reading activities), or to
ensure that these opportunities occur more frequently. These activities are more incline
to be done by parents (mothers and fathers) who are educated or at least have finished
high school. However, these findings must be interpreted with caution. It is possible that
overlapping aptitudes resulting from shared genetics could be explaining parents
apparent contributions to childrens reading achievement (Ladd, Martin-Chang, &
Levesque, 2011).

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Table 2. Test of difference of students reading comprehension and depth of vocabulary
knowledge when grouped according to their mothers educational attainment
(n=3035).
Mothers educ Std.
N Mean F Sig.
attain deviation
Reading Elem graduate 355 1.33 .479 15.718 .000
comprehension HS graduate 1299 1.37 .491
Some college 904 1.46 .527
Professional 477 1.51 .544
Depth Elem graduate 355 1.87 .540 29.832 .000
of vocabulary HS graduate 1299 1.95 .517
knowledge Some college 904 2.07 .505
Professional 477 2.16 .611

Students reading comprehension and depth of vocabulary knowledge when

grouped according to their fathers education attainment. Similarly, table 3 presents the
test of difference of students reading comprehension and depth of vocabulary
knowledge tests when grouped according to their fathers educational attainment. It
registered a significant difference for both tests reading comprehension (F=11.509,
<.01) and word associate (F=.20.005, <.01). Post hoc tests revealed that those students
whose fathers are professionals performed better in reading comprehension and depth of
vocabulary knowledge tests. Reading is one of the most important factors which affect
the development of a childs brain. Each of the skills involved in the process of reading
(phonological awareness, fluency, vocabulary, phonetics and comprehension) must be
systematically taught. Teaching requires the attention, focus and the motivation of
parents, which is difficult for parents who are struggling to survive, cannot take time
and do not have the necessary knowledge (Jensen, 2009).

Etim (2000) avers that parents will facilitate teaching and learning by
complementing the teachers work of supervising the childs schoolwork after school
hours. This is not feasible if the socioeconomic level of the parents cannot afford them
the provision of books and other learning materials for their children, or if the parents
are illiterate and belong to the low socioeconomic status class where they see no
relevance in academic interaction between parents and children. Itsuokor (1991) puts it
succinctly that children from educated homes tend to score higher than those from less
educated homes on tests of intelligence and reading comprehension. In like manner,
children of professionals, teachers and civil servants tend to score higher than children
of traders and unskilled workers on such tests. In the present study it points out that
fathers who are professionals are able to help their children in terms of reading
comprehension and depth of vocabulary knowledge.

According to Bernstein (1971) parents with higher education tend to interact

more verbally with their child; they use more abstract words, more complex syntax, and
invite their child more often into decontextualized discourse, book-sharing, and

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dialogical reading (Jordan, Snow, & Porsche, 2000). These language practices mirror
the language of books and school and foster good literacy skills (Tabors, Snow, &
Dickinson, 2001).

Table 3. Test of difference of students reading comprehension and depth of vocabulary

knowledge when grouped according to their fathers educational attainment
(n=3035).
Fathers educ Std.
N Mean F Sig.
attain deviation
Reading Elem graduate 400 1.35 .489 11.509 .000
comprehension HS graduate 1139 1.37 .497
Some college 903 1.43 .514
Professional 593 1.51 .542
Depth Elem graduate 400 1.89 .524 20.005 .000
of vocabulary HS graduate 1139 1.98 .504
knowledge Some college 903 2.02 .537
Professional 593 2.14 .593

The findings are consistent with Muolas (2010 in Koskei, & Ngeno, 2015)
report that parental educational attainment correlated significantly with academic
achievement. Educated parents become more involved in the education of their children
and they can assist in school work. Educated parents also purchase books and other
learning materials/resources for their children who create school conditions to
successful performance but these learning conditions are absent in the poor uneducated
and rural family. Children whose parents educational attainment is low are unprepared
for school. They often lack readiness to learn, physical strength, and mental mindset
(Pellino, 2006 in Koskei, & Ngeno, 2015). This finding is similar with the result of the
present study. Secondary students whose parents are professionals and those who have
college credits score better in the depth of vocabulary knowledge and reading
comprehension tests.

Students reading comprehension and depth of vocabulary knowledge when

grouped according to their family income. Table 4 shows the significant difference of
students depth of vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension when grouped
according to the family income. Significant differences are manifested both on
students reading comprehension (F=3.056, <.05) and depth of vocabulary knowledge
(F=7.297, <.01). Post hoc tests showed that the lower the income of the family the
better is the students reading comprehension and depth of vocabulary knowledge.
These findings depart from the existing literature where those students belonging to
affluent families have better reading comprehension and depth of vocabulary
knowledge. The study of Thomas (2007 in Ferguson, Bovaird, & Mueller, 2007)
concluded that children from lower income households score significantly lower on
measures of vocabulary and communication skills, knowledge of numbers, copying and
symbol use, ability to concentrate and cooperative play with other children than children

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from higher income households. Willms (2007 in Ferguson et al., 2007) established that
children from lower socioeconomic status (SES) households scored lower on a receptive
vocabulary test than higher SES children. As Ozola (2008) revealed the socioeconomic
position of a family considerably influences students reading literacy achievements.

But this reversal of the existing finding is not surprising, in the study conducted
by Zimmer, Chayovan, Lin, and Natividad (2014) where they tested the relationship
between socioeconomic status and physical functioning among older adults in Taiwan,
Thailand, and the Philippines. The socioeconomic indicators used were limited to
education and income. Results revealed among others that income has strong
associations in Taiwan and Thailand and only a moderate association in the Philippines.
Although what was tested was the physical functioning, it could be argued that the same
could be applied in the cognitive aspect. This means further that there are other
variables that could account for the findings, like family genetic heritage. Parental
cognitive ability tends to be correlated with offsprings cognitive ability (Guo, &
VanWey, 1999). The study of Obasi (1999) also found no significant influence of
socioeconomic status on students academic performances. Although the result was
attributed to a faulty instrument used for data collection. He still maintains that parents
socioeconomic status has a significant influence on students academic performances in
social studies.

Table 4. Test of difference of students reading comprehension and depth of vocabulary

knowledge when grouped according to the family income (n=3035).
Monthly Std.
N Mean F Sig.
income deviation
Reading 9000 below 1607 1.39 .498 3.056 .016
comprehension 10000-19000 743 1.43 .517
20000-29000 414 1.47 .537
30000-39000 149 1.48 .540
40000 above 122 1.41 .543
Depth 9000 below 1607 1.96 .529 7.297 .000
of vocabulary 10000-19000 743 2.06 .526
knowledge 20000-29000 414 2.07 .561
30000-39000 149 2.10 .542
40000 above 122 1.99 .623

Students reading comprehension and depth of vocabulary knowledge when

grouped according to the number of siblings in the family. As presented in table 5,
whether the students have more number of siblings or the only child, their reading
comprehension (F=1.433, .05) is comparable. This finding is inconsistent with the
pronouncement of Ozola (2008) where he argued that usually children from families
with one or two children have better achievements in reading literacy.

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Table 5. Test of difference of students reading comprehension and depth of vocabulary
knowledge when grouped according to the number siblings (n=3035).
Number Std.
N Mean F Sig.
of siblings deviation
Reading only child 254 1.44 .521 1.433 .231
comprehension 2-4 siblings 2019 1.42 .512
5-7 siblings 621 1.38 .512
8 above siblings 141 1.41 .509
Depth only child 254 2.07 .557 3.823 .010
of vocabulary 2-4 siblings 2019 2.02 .547
knowledge 5-7 siblings 621 2.00 .512
8 above siblings 141 1.88 .494

Parcel, Nickoll, and Dufur (1996) propose that having siblings is expected to
have a negative effect on development in that siblings serve to dilute the
financial support available to the child. Snow and Dickinson (1991) also report that the
size of students household at age 3 is negatively correlated with reading comprehension
in grade 4. Moreover, students academic achievement (including reading
comprehension) is significantly predicted by household composition (Patterson et al.,
1990). A familys composition is only one piece of the puzzle. Also of importance are
the parent practices and involvement in the childs life. Parcel et al. (1996) note parents
interactions with their children, and the time and attention parents provide, serve to
build childrens social capital. However, in terms of the depth of their vocabulary
knowledge (F=3.823, <.01), a significant difference existed. Post hoc test revealed that
those students who have more number of siblings have better depth of vocabulary
knowledge.

Students reading comprehension and depth of vocabulary knowledge when

grouped according to their birth order in the family. No significant difference (Table 6)
is established on students reading comprehension (F=2.041, .05), and depth of
vocabulary knowledge (F=1.827, .05) when they are grouped according to their birth
order in the family. This means that whether the students are the eldest, middle or the
youngest in the family, their reading comprehension and depth of vocabulary knowledge
is comparable. This result runs counter with Keller et al. (2015) which revealed that
first-born siblings showed better second language skills than later born siblings.
Likewise it also revealed that the resource dilution model, i.e., the decrease in resources
for every additional sibling, holds for second language acquisition.

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Table 6. Test of difference of students reading comprehension, and depth of
vocabulary knowledge when grouped according to their birth order in the
family (n=3035).
Birth Std.
N Mean F Sig.
order deviation
Reading Youngest 993 1.42 .511 2.041 .130
comprehension Middle 1061 1.39 .505
Eldest 981 1.43 .522
Depth Youngest 993 2.01 .547 1.827 .161
of vocabulary Middle 1061 1.99 .518
knowledge Eldest 981 2.04 .555

Conclusions and Recommendations

The study concluded that those students whose monthly income is quite low,
whose parents are professionals, or who have earned units in college, and have less
number of siblings in the family performed better in the two tests. The implications of
the study point to the fact that the 4Ps beneficiaries are moderately helped in terms of
academic performance, specifically in terms of reading comprehension and depth of
vocabulary knowledge. It could be argued that the result is not impressive; however, the
program is just 8 years old. In the long run when these student beneficiaries finish their
schooling the impact would start to manifest. Among others, two conditions of the
program are for the students to stay in school and stay healthy (this includes the
mothers, especially those who are pregnant and are breastfeeding) by regularly visiting
the centers. This is an encouragement for the beneficiaries to strive to meet these
conditions otherwise; they will be out of the program. Future research should replicate
this study choosing the qualitative research design so that the respondents could freely
expressed their opinions regarding how they perform in school and how the program
helped them.

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