Session 2

Contents
Methodology(Philosophy)
Programming Techniques
Object-Oriented Languages
Object and Large Systems
Thinking Methodology
Induction (Abstract)
From specialization to generalization
From different dogs to create the word dog

Dog
Thinking Methodology
Deduction(infer)
From generalization to specialization
From the word dog you have learnt to know
an animal is or not a dog.

DOG
Design Methodologies
Functional decomposition (Top-Down)
The whole system is characterized by a single
function, and then the function is decomposed into
a set of functions in a process of stepwise refinement.
Functional decomposition
The System Studying

Function1 Function2 Function3 ... ...

Desk Table top Filing cabinet Bookshelves

... ...

Function11 Function12 ... ...

Left drawer Middle drawer Right drawer

Design Methodologies
Functional composition (bottom-up)
You can have different components of functions such as that
from a function library
You can compose them into a module with a more significant
function.
Functional composition
The System Studying

Function1 Function2 Function3 ... ...

Desk Table top Filing cabinet Bookshelves

... ...

Function11 Function12 ... ...

Left drawer Middle drawer Right drawer

Object-Orientation
It is a kind of thinking methodology
Everything in the world is an object;
Any system is composed of objects (certainly a system is also an
object);
The evolution and development of a system is caused by the
interactions among the objects inside or outside the system
Everything in the world is an object
A flower, a tree, an animal
Student, a professor
A desk, a chair, a classroom, a building
University, a city, a country
The world, the universe
A subject such as CS, IS, Math, History,
Any system is composed of objects
A law system
A cultural system
An educational system
An economic system
An Information system
A computer system
The development of a system is caused by the
interactions
IBA is developed by the interactions among:
students
professors Inside
staffs IBA
Higher Education Commission
Ministry of Education Outside
... IBA
Design Methodologies
Object-Orientation is one of the computational
thinking methodologies.
Object-Orientation is a kind of design
methodology(OOA/OOD)
Objects are the building blocks of the program(interface
object(editor, menu, file, etc), data managing object(db),
etc.).
Objects represent real-world abstractions within the
application.
Design Methodologies
Object-orientation supports both
induction: objects -> a class
This needs the tools for OOA/OOD.

and deduction: a class ->objects

This needs the programmers to learn about the
class library.
Design Methodologies
Object-orientation supports both
Top-down:
from a superclass to subclasses;
complex objects to simple objects.
Bottom-up:
from subclasses to a superclass
Simple objects to complex objects
Programming Techniques
The evolution of programming techniques is
to make programming languages more expressive
to develop complex systems more easily
Programming Techniques
Unstructured Programming
Procedural Programming
Modular & Structural Programming
Abstract Data Type
Object-Oriented Programming
Unstructured Programming
Usually, people start learning
programming by writing small and
simple programs consisting only of
one main program. Here main Main Program
program stands for a sequence of
commands or statements which
modify data which is global Data
throughout the whole program.
Drawbacks
This programming technique can only be used in a very
small program.
For example, if the same statement sequence is needed
at different locations within the program, the sequence
must be copied. If an error needed to be modified,
every copy needs to be modified.
This has lead to the idea to extract these
sequences(procedure), name them and offering a
technique to call and return from these procedures.
Procedural Programming
With procedural programming, you Main
are able to combine sequences of Procedure
Program
calling statements into one single
place.
A procedure call is used to invoke the
procedure. After the sequence is
processed, flow of control proceeds
right after the position where the call
was made .
Procedures
With parameters and sub-procedures (procedures of
procedures) , programs can now be written more
structured and error free.
For example, if a procedure is correct, every time it is
used it produces correct results.
Consequently, in cases of errors you can narrow your
search to those places which are not proven to be
correct.
Procedure Program view
Now a program can be viewed as a sequence of
procedure calls.
The main program is responsible to pass data to the
individual calls, the data is processed by the procedures
and the resulting data is presented.
Thus, the flow of data can be illustrated as a hierarchical
graph, a tree.
Procedure Program view

Main Program
Data

Procedure1 Procedure2 Procedure3

Modular Programming
Modular programming is subdividing your program
into separate subprograms such as functions and
subroutines.
With modular programming, procedures of a common
functionality are grouped together into separate
modules.
A program therefore no longer consists of only one
single part. It is now divided into several smaller parts
which interact through procedure calls and which form
the whole program.
 Main Program(Also a module)
Data

Module1 Module2
+ +
Data Data
Data11 Data Data2

Procedure1 Procedure2 Procedure3

The main program coordinates calls to procedures in separate

modules and hands over appropriate data as parameters.
Modular Programming
Each module can have its own data. This allows each
module to manage an internal state which is modified
by calls to procedures of this module.
Each module has its own special functionalities that
supports the implementation of the whole program.
Structural Programming
Also structured programming
A subset of procedural programming that enforces a
logical structure on the program being written to make
it more efficient and easier to understand and modify.
Certain languages such as Pascal, and dBASE are
designed with features that encourage or enforce a
logical program
Structural Programming
How many basic structures for programming?
Three Types of Structures in a structured program

Statement sequence(s1,s2,,sn)
Branch(if-then-else)

Loop(for, do, and while loops)

Keep no goto!!! Keep modules!!!

Abstract Data Types (ADTs)
A set of data values and associated operations that are
precisely specified independent of any particular
implementation.
Come with Modular Programming
Abstraction
Model
Properties of Abstract Data Types
Abstract Data Types and Object-Orientation
Abstraction: Handling Problems
A process of generalization by reducing the information
content of a concept or an observable
phenomenon, typically in order to retain only
information which is relevant for a particular purpose.
Try to understand the problem to separate necessary
from unnecessary details:
You try to obtain your own abstract view, or model, of the
problem.
This process of modeling is called abstraction.
 Abstraction

Problem Model
Two of the most important types of abstraction are
the following:
Division into parts: Has-A abstraction
Division into specialization: Is-A abstraction
Has-A Abstraction
Division into parts takes a complex system, and divides into
component parts, which can then be considered in
isolation. Characterized by sentences that have the words
has-a
A car has-a engine, and has-a transmission
A bicycle has-a wheel
A window has-a menu bar
Allows us to drop down a level of complexity when we
consider the component in isolation.
Is-a Abstraction
Is-a abstraction takes a complex system, and views it as an
instance of a more general abstraction. Characterized by
sentences that have the words ``is-a''
A car is a wheeled vehicle, which is-a means of
transportation
A bicycle is-a wheeled vehicle
A pack horse is-a means of transportation
Allows us to categorize artifacts and information and make
it applicable to many different situations.
Model
A model is an abstraction or conceptual object used in
the creation of a predictive formula or a solution.
A model defines an abstract view to the problem and
focuses only on problem related stuff and that you try
to define properties:
the data which are affected;
the operations which are identified;
ADT is a kind of Model.
Abstract data types(ADT)
Abstract data types are a partial solution to models
ADT defines the interface to a data abstraction without
specifying implementation detail.
Properties of ADT
With abstraction, you create (1) a well-defined entity
which can be properly handled.
These entities define (2) the data structure of a set of
items.
For example, each administered employee has a name, date of birth
and social number....
Properties of ADT(Contd)
The data structure can only be (3) accessed with
defined operations.
This set of operations is called interface and is
exported by the entity.
An entity with the properties just described is
called an abstract data type (ADT).
 ADT Abstract
Data Type

Abstract Data Structure

Interface
Operations
Definition (ADT)
ADT is characterized by the following properties:
1. It exports a type.
2. It exports a set of operations. This set is called
interface.
3. Operations of the interface are the only access
mechanism to the type's data structure.
4. Axioms and preconditions define the application
domain of the type.
Encapsulation(1)
Combine the data and the operations
Enclosing of both variables and functions
Keep details of the data and operations from the users of
the ADT
Once you have created an ADT for complex numbers,
say Complex, you can use it in the same way like well-
known data types such as integers.
Encapsulation(2)
Allows Modularity
Controlled access to data
Separates implementation from interface
It extends the built-in types
Object-Oriented Programming
Object is derived from abstract data type
Object-oriented programming has a web of
interacting objects, each house-keeping its own state.
Objects of a program interact by sending messages to
each other.
 Object1
Data1+Procedures1

Object2

Data
Data2 + Procedures
Data12
Object3

Data3 + Procedures3

Object4

Data4 + Procedures4
Object-Oriented Programming
In object-oriented programming , instead of
calling a procedure which we must provide with
the correct handle, we would directly send a
message to the object in questions.
Roughly speaking, each object implements its own
module.
Object-Oriented Programming
Each object is responsible to initialize and destroy itself
correctly.
Consequently, there is no longer the need to explicitly
call a creation or termination procedure.
Kays Description of OOP
Everything is an object
Objects perform computation by making requests of each
other through the passing of messages
Every object has it's own memory, which consists of other
objects.
Every object is an instance of a class. A class groups similar
objects.
The class is the repository for behavior associated with an
object
Classes are organized into singly-rooted tree structure,
called an inheritance hierarchy.
ADT and Object-Orientation
ADTs allows the creation of instances with well-
defined properties and behavior.
In object-orientation, ADTs are referred to as classes.
Therefore, a class defines properties of objects which
are the instances in an object-oriented environment.
ADT and Object-Orientation(2)
ADTs define functionality by putting main emphasis on
the involved data, their structure, operations as well as
axioms and preconditions.
Object-oriented programming is ``programming with
ADTs'': combining functionality of different ADTs to solve
a problem.
Therefore instances (objects) of ADTs (classes) are
dynamically created, destroyed and used.
A Formula
Object-Orientation = Object (Abstraction) + Class (ADT &
Classification) + Inheritance (Reusing) + Dynamic Binding
(Polymorphism, Flexibility)
Inheritance(Hierarchy)
Expresses commonality among objects
Allows code reusability
Highlights Generalization/Specialization
relationships
We will learn more in the following lectures.
Polymorphism
The ability of objects to respond differently to the
same message or function call.
We will discuss more in the following lectures.
Object-Orientation Evolution
Modules
Information hiding
Data encapsulation
Abstract data types
Classes and Objects
Points to Remember
Encapsulation(Data & Operations)--- A technique
for Information Hiding-----the users of the objects
could not see the details of the data and operations
of the objects.
Data Abstraction ---- the procedure to find a class
from objects.
Abstract Data Type---- Class.
Object-Oriented Languages
An object-based programming language is one which easily supports
object-orientation.
Smalltalk: 1972-1980, Alan Kay
C++: 1986, Bjarne Stroustrup
Java: 1992 (Smalltalk + C++), James Gosling
C#:
Developed at Microsoft by Anders Hejlsberg et al, 2000
Event driven, object oriented, visual programming language (C++ and
Java)
Others:
Effile, Objective-C, Ada, ...
 Programming in the Small vs Programming
in the Large
Programming in the Small:
One programmer, understands everything from top to bottom.
Major problem is the development of algorithms.
Programming in the Large:
System is developed by large team of programmers
Major problems are management of details and communication
between programmers and between their respective software
subsystems.
Objects and Large Software Systems
Object view
Makes systems more intuitively understandable
Unifies design and programming method
Initial program thoughts are informal objects-and-interactions
descriptions, even when using a non-OO language.
Divides code into logical chunks individuals of a team can be
experts in, and outsiders can understand via interfaces
Allows "off the shelf" code libraries to be reused
Supports code evolution: internals can always be re-written as
long as interface stays the same
Objects and Large Software Systems
So, in large software system, we need more CONCEPTS and
STRUCTURES of object-orientation than PROGRAMMING
SKILLS
Those are OOA(Object-Oriented Analysis) and OOD(Object-
Oriented Design), that will be discussed more deeply in Software
engineering or Software designing methodology.
Summary
Methodology (Philosophy)
Programming Techniques
Object-Oriented Languages
Object and Large Systems