Engineering Vibration

4th Edition
Prentice Hall
D. J. Inman
daninman@umich.edu
We make our living in dynamics and
vibration

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D. J. Inman
 Vibrations are Everywhere

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 Modeling and Degrees of Freedom
The examples on the previous slide many degrees of freedom
and many parts, we will start with one degree of freedom and
work towards many.

Recall from your study of statics and

physics that a degree of freedom is the
independent parameter needed to describe
the configuration of a physical system

So single degree of freedom system, which

is where we start, is a system whose
position in time and space can be defined
by one
Lack coordinate,
of consideration of here a displacement
dynamic loads and vibrationor
position.
caused this to relatively new bridge to vibrate wildly

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D. J. Inman
 Degrees of Freedom: The Minimum
Number of coordinates to specify a
configuration
For a single particle confined to a line, one
coordinate suffices so it has one degree of
freedom
For a single particle in a plane two
coordinates define its location so it has two
degrees of freedom
A single particle in space requires three
coordinates so it has three degrees of
freedom
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D. J. Inman
 Example 1.1.1 The Pendulum
Sketch the structure or
part of interest
Write down all the
forces and make a
free body diagram
Use Newtons Law
and/or Eulers Law to
find the equations of
motion
M 0 = J 0 , J 0 = m 2

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D. J. Inman
 The problem is one dimensional,
hence a scalar equation results
J 0 (t) = mgl sin (t) m (t) + mg
2
sin (t) = 0

restoring
force
Here the over dots denote differentiation with respect to time t

This is a second order, nonlinear ordinary differential equation

We can linearize the equation by using the approximation sin

g
m (t) + mg (t) = 0 (t) + (t) = 0
2

Requires knowledge of (0) and (0)

the initial position and velocity.

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Next consider a spring mass system
and perform a static experiment:

From strength of
materials recall:
FBD:

nonlinear

linear
A plot of force versus displacement:

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D. J. Inman
experiment fk = kx 7/43
 Free-body diagram and equation
of motion

Newtons Law:
x(t) = kx(t) m
m x(t) + kx(t) = 0
x(0) = x0 , x(0)
= v0 (1.2)
Again a 2nd order ordinary differential equation
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 Stiffness and Mass
Vibration is cause by the interaction of two different forces
one related to position (stiffness) and one related to
acceleration (mass).
Proportional to displacement
Stiffness (k)

Displacement
fk = kx(t) x
statics k
Mass (m) m

fm = ma(t) = m
x(t)
Mass Spring
dynamics

Proportional to acceleration
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 Examples of Single-Degree-of-
Freedom Systems
Pendulum Shaft and Disk

Torsional
l =length Stiffness
k

Moment
Gravity g of inertia
m J

g
(t) + (t) = 0
l J(t) + k (t) = 0
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 Solution of 2nd order DEs
Lets assume a solution: x(t)
x(t) = Asin( nt + ) (1.3)
t
Differentiating twice gives:

= n A cos( nt + )
x(t) (1.4)
x(t) = n2 Asin( nt + ) = - n2 x(t)
(1.5)
Substituting back into the equations of motion gives:

m n2 Asin( nt + ) + kAsin( nt + ) = 0
k
m + k = 0
2
n or n = Natural
m frequency
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D. J. Inman
 Summary of simple harmonic
motion
x(t) Period
Amplitude
2
T= A
n
x0 Slope
here is v0
t

Maximum
Velocity
n n A

n rad/s n cycles n
fn = = = Hz
2 rad/cycle 2 s 2
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 Initial Conditions
If a system is vibrating then we must assume that something
must have (in the past) transferred energy into to the system
and caused it to move. For example the mass could have
been:
moved a distance x0 and then released at t = 0 (i.e. given
Potential energy) or
given an initial velocity v0 (i.e. given some kinetic energy) or
Some combination of the two above cases
From our earlier solution we know that:

x0 = x(0) = Asin( n 0 + ) = Asin( )

= n A cos( n 0 + ) = n A cos( )
v0 = x(0)
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 Initial Conditions Determine the
Constants of Integration
Solving these two simultaneous equations for A and gives:

1 1 n x0
A= n x0 + v0 , = tan
2 2 2

n v0

Amplitude Phase

Slope
x(t) here is v0 1
n2 x02 + v02
x0 n
x0
t


n v0
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D. J. Inman
 Thus the total solution for the
spring mass system becomes:

n2 x02 + v02 1 n x0
x(t) = sin nt + tan (1.10)
n v0

Called the solution to a simple harmonic oscillator

and describes oscillatory motion, or simple harmonic motion.

Note (Example 1.1.2)

n2 x02 + v02 n x0
x(0) = = x0
n x +v
2 2
n 0
2
0

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A note on arctangents
Note that calculating arctangent from a
calculator requires some attention. First, all
machines work in radians.

The argument atan(-/+) is in a different quadrant

then atan(+/-), and usual machine calculations
will return an arctangent in between -/2 and
+/2, reading only the atan(-) for these two
different cases.
+ +

-
_ +
+

- -
In MATLAB, use the atan2(x,y) function to get
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 Example 1.1.3 wheel, tire suspension
m = 30 kg, fn = 10 hz, what is k?

cylce 2 rad
k = m = ( 30 kg ) 10
2
n i = 1.184 10 N/m
5

sec cylce

There are of course more complex models of suspension systems

and these appear latter in the course as our tools develope

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 Section 1.2 Harmonic Motion
The period is the time elapsed to complete one complete cylce
2 rad 2
T= = s (1.11)
n rad/s n
The natural frequency in the commonly used units of hertz:

n n rad/s n cycles n
fn = = = = Hz (1.12)
2 2 rad/cycle 2 s 2
For the pendulum:
g
n = rad/s, T = 2 s
g
For the disk and shaft:

k J
n = rad/s, T = 2 s
J k
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 Relationship between Displacement,
Velocity and Acceleration
A=1, n=12
1
Displacement
x(t) = Asin( nt + ) 0

x -1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Velocity 20

= n A cos( nt + )
x(t) 0
v

-20
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Acceleration 200

x(t) = n2 Asin( nt + )
0
a

-200
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Time (sec)
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 Example 1.2.1Hardware store spring, bolt: m= 49.2x10 -3

kg, k=857.8 N/m and x0 =10 mm. Compute n and the max amplitude
of vibration.
Note: common
k 857.8 N/m Units are Hertz
n = = = 132 rad/s
m 49.2 10 kg
-3

n To avoid Costly errors use f

fn = = 21 Hz
n
when working in Hertz and n

2 when in rad/s

2 1 1
T= = = 0.0476 s
n fn 21 cyles
sec
1 0
x(t ) max = A = n x0 + v0 = x0 = 10 mm
2 2 2

n
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 Compute the solution and max velocity and
acceleration:

v(t )max = n A = 1320 mm/s= 1.32 m/s 2.92 mph

a(t ) max = n A = 174.24 10 mm/s

2 3 2

= 174.24 m/s 17.8g!

2

g = 9.8 m/s2
1 n x0
= tan = rad 90
0 2
x(t ) = 10 sin(132t + / 2) = 10 cos(132t ) mm
~0.4 in max

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D. J. Inman
Does gravity matter in spring
problems?

Let be the deflection caused by

hanging a mass on a spring
( = x1-x0 in the figure)

Then from static equilibrium: mg = k

Next sum the forces in the vertical for some point x > x1 measured
from

x = k ( x + ) + mg = kx + mg k
m

=0

m
x(t) + kx(t) = 0
So no, gravity does not have an effect on the vibration
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D. J. Inman (note that this is not the case if the spring is nonlinear)
 Example 1.2.2 Pendulums and
measuring g
A 2 m pendulum 2
T= = 2
swings with a period n g
of 2.893 s
What is the 4 2
4 2
g= 2 = 2m
acceleration due to T 2.893 s2 2

gravity at that
g = 9.796 m/s 2
location?

This is g in Denver, CO USA, at 1638m

and a latitude of 40
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 Review of Complex Numbers and Complex
Exponential (See Appendix A)
A complex number can be written with a real and imaginary
part or as a complex exponential

c = a + jb = Ae j
Where

a = A cos ,b = Asin a

Multiplying two complex numbers:

j (1 + 2 ) A
c1c2 = A1 A2 e b

Dividing two complex numbers:

c1 A1 j (1 2 )
= e
c2 A2
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 Equivalent Solutions to 2nd order
Differential Equations (see Window 1.4)

All of the following solutions are equivalent:

x(t) = Asin( nt + ) Called the magnitude and phase form

x(t) = A1 sin nt + A2 cos nt Sometimes called the Cartesian form

x(t) = a1e j n t + a2 e j n t Called the polar form

The relationships between A and , A1 and A2, and a1 and a2

can be found in Window 1.4 of the text, page 19..

Each is useful in different situations

Each represents the same information
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 Derivation of the solution
Substitute x(t) = aet into m
x + kx = 0
m 2 aet + kaet = 0
m 2 + k = 0
k k
= = j = n j
m m
x(t) = a1e n jt and x(t) = a2 e n jt
x(t) = a1e n jt + a2 e n jt (1.18)

This approach will be used again for more complicated problems

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 Is frequency always positive?
From the preceding analysis, = + n then
n jt n jt
x(t) = a1e + a2 e
Using the Euler relations* for trigonometric functions, the
above solution can be written as (recall Window 1.4)

x(t) = Asin ( nt + ) (1.19)

It is in this form that we identify as the natural frequency
n and this is positive, because the + sign being used up
in the transformation from exponentials to the sine
function.
* http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler's_formula

e = cos x + i sin x
ix
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 Calculating root mean square
(RMS) values
May need to be limited due
to physical constraints
Not very useful since for
A = peak value a sine function the
T average value is zero
1
x = lim x(t)dt = average value
T T
0
T
1 2
x = lim x (t)dt = mean-square value
2 (1.21)
T T
0
Proportional
xrms = x 2 = root mean square value to energy

Also useful when the vibration is random

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 The Decibel or dB scale
It is often useful to use a logarithmic scale to plot vibration
levels (or noise levels). One such scale is called the decibel or
dB scale. The dB scale is always relative to some reference
value x0. It is define as:
2
x x
dB = 10 log10 = 20 log10 (1.22)
x0 x0

For example: if an acceleration value was 19.6m/s2 then relative

to 1g (or 9.8m/s2) the level would be 6dB,
2
19.6
10 log10 = 20 log10 ( 2 ) = 6dB
9.8
Or for Example 1.2.1: The Acceleration Magnitude
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 1.3 Viscous Damping
All real systems dissipate energy when they vibrate. To
account for this we must consider damping. The most simple
form of damping (from a mathematical point of view) is called
viscous damping. A viscous damper (or dashpot) produces a
force that is proportional to velocity.
Mostly a mathematically motivated form, allowing
a solution to the resulting equations of motion that predicts
reasonable (observed) amounts of energy dissipation.
Damper (c)

fc = cv(t) = cx(t)
x

fc

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 Differential Equation Including
Damping
For this damped single degree of freedom system the force acting
on the mass is due to the spring and the dashpot i.e. fm= - fk - fc.
Displacement
x
k
x(t) = kx(t) cx(t)
m
M
or
c
x(t) + cx(t)
m + kx(t) = 0 (1.25)

To solve this for of the equation it is useful to assume a

solution of the form (again):
t
x(t) = ae
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 Solution to DE with damping
included (dates to 1743 by Euler)
The velocity and acceleration can then be calculated as:
x(t) = ae t
x(t) = 2 ae t
If this is substituted into the equation of motion we get:

aet (m 2 + c + k) = 0 (1.26)
Divide equation by m, substitute for natural frequency and
assume a non-trivial solution

t c
ae 0 ( + + n2 ) = 0
2

m
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 Solution to our differential
equation with damping included:
For convenience we will define a term known as the
damping ratio as:
c
= (1.30) Lower case Greek zeta
2 km NOT as some like to use

The equation of motion then becomes:

( + 2 n + ) = 0
2 2
n
Solving for then gives,

1,2 = n n 2 1 (1.31)
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Possibility 1. Critically damped motion

Critical damping occurs when =1. The damping coefficient

c in this case is given by:

=1 c = ccr = 2 km = 2m n

definition of critical
damping coefficient
Solving for then gives,

1,2 = 1n n 1 1 = n2

A repeated, real root

The solution then takes the form

x(t) = a1e n t + a2te n t

Needs two independent solutions, hence the t
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in the second term 34/43
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 Critically damped motion
a1 and a2 can be calculated from initial conditions (t=0),

x = (a1 + a2t)e n t
k=225N/m m=100kg and = 1
a1 = x0 0.6
x0=0.4mm v0=1mm/s
v = ( n a1 n a2t + a2 )e n t 0.5 x0=0.4mm v0=0mm/s
x0=0.4mm v0=-1mm/s

Displacement (mm)
0.4
v0 = n a1 + a2
0.3
a2 = v0 + n x0 0.2

No oscillation occurs 0.1

Useful in door 0
mechanisms, analog
-0.1
gauges 0 1 2 3 4
Time (sec)

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D. J. Inman
 Possibility 2: Overdamped motion
An overdamped case occurs when >1. Both of the roots of the
equation are again real.
k=225N/m m=100kg and =2
0.6
1,2 = n n 1 2
x0=0.4mm v0=1mm/s
0.5 x0=0.4mm v0=0mm/s
2 2
x(t) = en t (a1en t 1
+ a2 e n t 1
) x0=0.4mm v0=-1mm/s

Displacement (mm)
0.4

a1 and a2 can again be calculated 0.3

from initial conditions (t=0), 0.2

v0 + ( + 2 1)n x0 0.1

a1 = 0
2 n 2 1
-0.1
0 1 2 3 4
v0 + ( + 1)n x0 2
Time (sec)
a2 =
2 n 2 1 Slower to respond than
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 Possibility 3: Underdamped motion
An underdamped case occurs when <1. The roots of the
equation are complex conjugate pairs. This is the most
common case and the only one that yields oscillation.

1,2 = n n j 1 2
n t jn t 1 2 j n t 1 2
x(t) = e (a1e + a2 e )
= Ae n t sin( d t + )

The frequency of oscillation d is called the damped natural

frequency is given by.

d = n 1 2 (1.37)

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 Constants of integration for the
underdamped motion case
As before A and can be calculated from initial conditions (t=0),
1
A= (v 0 + n x0 )2 + (x 0 d ) 2
d
1
x0 d
= tan
v0 + n x0 1

Gives an oscillating
0.5
response with exponential Displacement
decay
0
Most natural systems vibrate
with and underdamped
-0.5
response
See Window 1.5 for details
-1
and other representations 0 1 2 3 4 5
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Example 1.3.1: consider the spring of 1.2.1, if c = 0.11
kg/s, determine the damping ratio of the spring-bolt system.

m = 49.2 10 3
kg, k = 857.8 N/m
3
ccr = 2 km = 2 49.2 10 857.8
= 12.993 kg/s
c 0.11 kg/s
= = = 0.0085
ccr 12.993 kg/s
the motion is underdamped
and the bolt will oscillate
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 Example 1.3.2
The human leg has a measured natural
frequency of around 20 Hz when in its rigid (knee
locked) position, in the longitudinal direction (i.e.,
along the length of the bone) with a damping
ratio of = 0.224. Calculate the response of the
tip if the leg bone to an initial velocity of v0 = 0.6
m/s and zero initial displacement (this would
correspond to the vibration induced while landing
on your feet, with your knees locked form a
height of 18 mm) and plot the response. What is
the maximum acceleration experienced by the
leg assuming no damping?
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 Solution:
20 cycles 2 rad
n = = 125.66 rad/s
1 s cycles

d = 125.66 1 (.224) = 122.467 rad/s

2

(0.6 + (0.224 )(125.66)( 0)) 2

+ (0)(122.467)2
A= = 0.005 m
122.467

(0)( d )
= tan -1
=0
v0 + n (0 )
x( t ) = 0.005e 2 8.148t sin(122.467t )

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 Use the undamped formula to get maximum
acceleration:
2
v
A = x 02 + 0 , n = 125.66, v 0 = 0.6, x 0 = 0
n
v0 0.6
A= m= m
n n
0.6
max( x) = A = = (0.6)(125.66 m/s2 ) = 75.396 m/s2
2
n
2
n
n

2
maximum acceleration = 75.396 m/s
2
g = 7.68 g's
9.81 m/s

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 Here is a plot of the displacement
response versus time

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 Example 1.3.3 Compute the form of the response of an
underdamped system using the Cartesian form of the solution given in
Window 1.5.

sin(x + y) = sin x sin y + cos x cos y

x(t) = Ae n t sin( d t + ) = e n t (A1 sin d t + A2 cos d t)
x(0) = x0 = e0 (A1 sin(0) + A2 cos(0)) A2 = x0
x = n e n t (A1 sin d t + A2 cos d t)
+ d e n t (A1 cos d t A2 sin d t)
v0 = n (A1 sin 0 + x0 cos 0) + d (A1 cos 0 x0 sin 0)
v0 + n x0
A1 =
d
v + n x0
x(t) = e n t 0 sin d t + x0 cos d t
d
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