Battery charging

Lead acid batteries should be charged in three stages

which are

[1] constant-current charge,

[2] topping charge and

[3] float charge

During the constant-current charge, the battery charges to about 70 percent in 58 hours

the remaining 30 percent is filled with the slower topping charge that lasts another 710 hours.

The topping charge is essential for the well-being of the battery and can be compared to a little rest
after a good meal
Advantages
The switch from Stage 1 to 2 occurs seamlessly and happens when the battery reaches the set
voltage limit. The current begins to drop as the battery starts to saturate; full charge is reached when
the current decreases to 35 percent of the Ah rating. A battery with high leakage may never attain
this low saturation current, and a plateau timer takes over to end the charge.

The correct setting of the charge voltage limit is critical and ranges from 2.30V to 2.45V per cell.

2.30V to 2.35V/cell 2.40V to 2.45V/cell

Advantages Maximum service life; battery stays Higher and more consistent
cool; charge temperature can capacity readings; less sulfation.
exceed 30C (86F).

Limitations Slow charge time; capacity Subject to corrosion and

readings may be inconsistent and
declining with each cycle. Sulfation
may occur without equalizing
charge.
gassing. Needs water refill.
Not suitable for charging at
high room temperatures,
causing severe overcharge.

MPPT ALGORITHM
Maximum Power Point Tracking Algorithms

MPPT algorithms are necessary in PV applications because the MPP of a solar

panel varies with the irradiation and temperature, so the use of MPPT algorithms
is required in order to obtain the maximum power from a solar array.

Hill-climbing techniques
Both P&O and InCond algorithms are based on the hill-climbing principle, which
consists of moving the operation point of the PV array in the direction in which
power increases [14] and [15].
ADVANTAGES
Hill-climbing techniques are the most popular MPPT methods due to their ease of
implementation and good performance when the irradiation is constant [15]. The
advantages of both methods are the simplicity and low computational power
they need.
DISADVANTAGES
The shortcomings are also well-known: oscillations around the MPP and they can
get lost and track the MPP in the wrong direction during rapidly changing
atmospheric conditions

Perturb and observe

The incremental conductance algorithm

The incremental conductance algorithm is based on the fact that the slope of the
curve power vs. voltage (current) of the PV module is zero at the MPP, positive
(negative) on the left of it and negative (positive) on the right, as can be seen in
Figure 11:
By comparing the increment of the power vs. the increment of the voltage
(current) between two consecutives samples, the change in the MPP voltage can
be determined.