1450-1750

Key Concept 4.1 Globalizing Networks of Communication and Exchange

I. In the context of the new global circulation of goods, there was an intensification of all existing
regional trade networks that brought prosperity and economic disruption to the merchants and
governments in the trading regions of the Indian Ocean, Mediterranean, Sahara, and overland
Eurasia.

II. European technological developments in cartography and navigation built on previous

knowledge developed in the classical, Islamic and Asian worlds, and included the production of
new tools, innovations in ship designs (such as caravels) and an improved understanding of
global wind and currents patterns, all of which made transoceanic travel and trade possible.
-Astrolabe: created by either Greeks or Arabs; determines location at sea by measuring the position of
the sun
-Knowledge of winds: critical for Indian Ocean Exploration & the crossing of the Atlantic
-Changes in ship designs: caravel were relatively small & agile, could enter coastal waters much more
easier, equipped with small cannons (dhows, junks were in previous time period [much larger cargo
ships])

III. Remarkable new transoceanic maritime reconnaissance occurred in this period.

A. Official Chinese maritime activity expanded into the Indian Ocean region with the naval voyages
led by Ming Admiral Zheng He which enhanced Chinese prestige.
-In early 15th century, Ming had re-established control following the Mongol Dynasty; this was
designed to restate Chinese prestige in Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean; sent out large
numbers of fleets to collect tribute and announce to the world that the Chinese were back;
eventually canceled due to Confucian concerns questioning the value of some of the items that
they were bringing back (debates about how useful it was to bring back giraffes for the imperial
zoo; even though the Mongols had been evicted, they hadnt disappeared, they still pose threat,
concern that resources should be spent on preparation for re-invasion by Central Asian Nomads)
B. Portuguese development of a school for navigation led to increased travel to and trade with West
Africa and resulted in the construction of a global trading-post empire.
-States were very active in this time period (sponsoring and facilitating the knowledge that went
into exploration because states figured out quickly that there were advantages to being involved
in the processes)
-Notion of a trade post empire (seen throughout the Indian Ocean, especially with European
groups such as the Portuguese, Dutch, & British-- arent large scales settlements of land, limited
to coast, primary function is to trade, involved in shipping)

C. Spanish sponsorship of the first Columbian and subsequent voyages across the Atlantic and
Pacific dramatically increased European interest in transoceanic travel and trade.

D. Northern Atlantic crossings for fishing and settlements continued and spurred European searches
for multiple routes to Asia.
-Oceania and Polynesia established exchange & communication networks were not dramatically
affected because of infrequent European reconnaissance in Pacific Ocean (most of the movement
in the Pacific Ocean involved the Spanish-- they would sail form ports on the west coast of
Mexico [mainly Acapulco], cross Pacific, head to Philippines, and bring American Silver into
China to trade); wasnt a lot of European interest/knowledge/movement into Polynesia regions
IV. The new global circulation of goods was facilitated by royal chartered European monopoly
companies who took silver from Spanish colonies in the Americas to purchase Asian goods for
the Atlantic markets, but regional markets continued to flourish in Afro-Eurasia using
established commercial practices and new transoceanic shipping services developed by
European merchants. (Spanish silver coming out of the Americas will in essence become a world
currency; moves into Asian & European markets; used to purchase luxury goods that were sought of)
A. European merchants role in Asian trade was characterized mostly by transporting goods from
one Asian country to another market in Asia or the Indian Ocean region.
-Portuguese & Dutch realized that they could profit most from Indian Ocean trade by transporting
goods; originally, the Portuguese tried to come in & control the entire network of Indian Ocean
trade by forceful measures early in 16th century-- realized that it was too inefficient, network was
too large

B. Commercialization and the creation of a global economy were intimately connected to new global
circulation of silver from the Americas.

C. Influenced by mercantilism, joint-stock companies were new methods used by European rulers to
control their domestic and colonial economies and by European merchants to compete against
each other in global trade.
-Mercantilism is an economic doctrine that emerges in this time period, mainly in southern
Europe; focuses on the overall health of the state economy; the key for the state is to export
manufactured products which means the state will take a number of different steps to support
local industries, raise tariffs on manufactured good from other states, lower internal tariffs
(movement of goods inside of the state is easy), import precious metals, cash crops, raw materals
that cannot be found inside of the state (supports colonial expansion)
-Joint stock companies are more localized to northern Europe (seen in Netherlands, Great
Britain); early form of capitalism, simple ventures where private investors would pool investment
and resources to finances voyages of exploration; the motive was private profit for the individual
investor; benefits to the European ruler and European state as well

D. The Atlantic system involved the movement of goods, wealth, and free and unfree laborers, and
the mixing of African, American and European cultures and peoples.

V. The new connections between the Eastern and Western hemispheres resulted in the Columbian
Exchange.
A. European colonization of the Americas led to the spread of diseases including smallpox, measles
and influenza that were endemic in the Eastern Hemisphere among Amerindian populations and
the unintentional transfer of vermin, including mosquitoes or rats.
-Has devastating effects on Amerindian populations during 15 th and 16th centuries (leads to large
percentages of the population dying); doesnt happen in Indian Ocean-- Indian ventures into parts
of Africa & Indian Ocean dont result in these types of exchanges because these American
societies had been isolated from Eurasian trade networks before the voyages of Columbus &
those that subsequently followed (led to the introduction of diseases that were well known in
Eastern hemisphere
B. American foods (such as potatoes, maize or manioc) became staple crops in various parts of
Europe, Asia, and Africa. Cash crops were grown primarily on plantations with coerced labor and
were exported mostly to Europe and the Middle East in this period.
-Potatoes became a stable crop for the rural poor (especially in Northern & Central Europe &
Ireland, also introduced into Ming & Qing Dynasty); theses were incredibly valuable as they
 added a source of calories to the diet, they would be planted in fairly difficult terrain, somewhat
drought resistant (add variety & depth to the diet)
-Cash crop: sugar (sugar plantations swept through the Caribbean; very large plantations (some
up to 200 acres; some of the islands became so heavily involved in sugar production that they had
to import food)

C. Afro-Eurasian fruit trees, grains, sugar, and domesticated animals were brought by Europeans to
the Americas while other foods were brought by African slaves.
-Domesticated animals that go to Americas= horses (significant impact on American societies,
made warriors and hunters much more efficient), pigs, cattle-- creates issue: the size of these
herds are going to expand dramatically, since there are no natural predators to thin the herds;
increases the amount of herding; changes the way the land was used (land was set aside for
grazing)
-Foods brought by African slaves (okra, rice diffused into American diets)
-Food and cash crops moving across the Pacific creating new dietary trends

D. Populations in Afro-Eurasia benefitted nutritionally from the increased diversity of American

food crops.
-Potatoes, maize have positive impact on diet

E. European colonization and introduction of European agriculture and settlements practices in the
Americas often affected the physical environment through deforestation and soil depletion.
-Plantations led to deforestation & soil depletion because lands had to be cleared for new
plantations most plantations were single crop plantations which meant that they would depleted
the soil of its nutrients very quickly (if you were a plantation owner in the Americas, it was much
easier to pack up and clear land for a new plantation after the previous ones soil was depleted)

VI. The increase in interactions between newly connected hemispheres and intensification of
connections within hemispheres expanded the spread and reform of existing religions and
created syncretic belief systems and practices.
A. Muslims developed Sunni, Shia, and Sufi traditions. As Islam spread to new settings in Asia and
Africa, believers adapted it to local cultural practices.
-The split between Sunni and Shia intensified especially with the rivalry that happens with the
Ottoman Empire and the Safavid Empire; the eventual war that will be fought between these 2 is
in large part conflict between Sunni State (Ottoman Empire) and Shia State (Safavid Empire)
-Sufi practices became more widespread especially in South & Southeast Asia (became more
impactful)

B. The practice of Christianity continued to spread throughout the world (owed to Spanish
exploration & settlement in America) and was increasingly diversified by the process of diffusion
(as it spreads to new areas, there are small changes) and the Reformation.
-Reformation takes place in the 16th century (division of western Christianity): Catholics vs.
Protestant (Protestants rejected the authority of the pope, argued that Bible was the ultimate
spiritual authority within Christian world, printing press allows for individuals to read Bible
directly, leads to conflict-- 30 years war)

C. Buddhism spread within Asia.

D. Syncretic forms of religion developed.

 -Vodun [within Carribean]= Africanized version of Christianity, includes: dream interpretations,
beliefs in spirit posession, occurs because slaves in west Africa brought to the Americas were
forced to convert to Catholicism; Europes saw the development of vodun as witchcraft/sorcery

VII. As merchants profits increased and governments collected more taxes, funding for the
visual and performing arts, even for popular audiences, increased.
A. Innovations in visual and performing arts were seen all over the world.
-Growth of Resonance Art in Europe: develops primarily in the Italian city states, guided by the
philosophy of humanism (places human beings as the central focus of resonance art),
individualism was another big theme (notion that god gave every individual certain talents,
characteristics-- leads to changes in education & visual arts

Key Concept 4.2 New Forms of Social Organization and Modes of Production

I. Traditional peasant agriculture increased and changed, plantations expanded, and demand for
labor increased. These changes both fed and responded to growing global demand for raw
materials and finished products.
A. Peasant labor intensified in many regions.
-Frontier settlements of Russian Siberia (in Ruis

B. Slavery in Africa continued both the traditional incorporation of slaves into households and the
export of slaves to the Mediterranean and Indian Ocean.

C. The growth of the plantation economy increased the demand for slaves in the Americas.

D. Colonial economies in the Americas depended on a range of coerced labor.

II. As new social and political elites changed, they also restructured new ethnic, racial and gender
hierarchies.
A. Both imperial conquests and widening global economic opportunities contributed to the
formation of new political and economic elites.

B. The power of existing political and economic elites fluctuated as they confronted new challenges
to their ability to affect the policies of the increasingly powerful monarchs and leaders.

C. Some notable gender and family restructuring occurred including the demographic changes in
Africa that resulted from the slave trades.

D. The massive demographic changes in the Americas resulted in new ethnic and racial
classifications (such as mestizo, mulatto or creole).

Key Concept 4.3 State Consolidation and Imperial Expansion

I. Rulers used a variety of methods to legitimize and consolidate their power.
A. Visual displays of political power

B. Rulers continued to use religious ideas to legitimize their rule.

C. States treated different ethnic and religious groups in ways that both utilized their economic
contributions while limiting their ability to challenge the authority of the state.

D. Recruitment and use of bureaucratic elites, as well as the development of military professionals
(such as the Ottoman devshirme) became more common among rulers who wanted to maintain
centralized control over their populations and resources.

E. Rulers used tribute collection and tax farming to generate revenue for territorial expansion.
II. Imperial expansion relied on the increased use of gunpowder, cannons and armed trade to
establish large empires in both hemispheres.
A. Europeans established new trading post empires in Africa and Asia which proved profitable for
the rulers and merchants involved in new global trade networks, but also affected the power of
states in interior West and Central Africa.

B. Land empires expanded dramatically in size.

Manchus
Mughal
Russia
Ottoman

C. European states, including Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands, France and Britain, established new
maritime empires in the Americas.

III. Competition over trade routes (such as Omani-European rivalry in the Indian Ocean), state
rivalries (such as the Thirty Years War or the Ottoman-Safavid conflict), and local resistance all
provided significant challenges to state consolidation and expansion.