BEM anes Bevery of poston i ako called Aint energy pent ney © het energy D enthalpy Bi temperatues |A- a measure of the potemial energy sored Ina substance, 1B the same a heat © a measur of the random motions of the paltices in a system, D sate anton, U0 exergy, ent, na. and work how tonya ate fancionst Al Ba c3 ba Bi wich one foto process s eter] A Cn wx meting 1 Apudleevaponing Dy ice (soll carbon oxide) subiming to form gaseous carbon dioxide Wier ing to forme BBs gneaty hve resivey et tater pond miter” wocmalig oF ening A tow uel Bow, donly © high, sowty D high qicty Bi cateate the nat change wen 450 g 08 water cools from 45 "Ct 22°C. The speciic eat capeity of water I 4.184 JC. A 104) B any c 4338) D -L00K 53414-8 Chapter 10 Hi civen tne towing dat: C{s) + Oalg) > CO2(s) AH 2CO49 + O19 + 200469 aH = cals forthe eton 2) + Ox) -+ 26009 A 29M 8 mow c 4034 D -208 29374 66.64) Bi why is there an energy crisis in the world? A Beeause the lw of consevation of energy states that energy cannot be eid nor destroyed Because the quantity of energy inthe word Isalays decreasing Cece the quality of energy in the word is alivays decreasing. Because energy is a tate function, HD iven thatthe reteasing of heat is a driving force for reactions, why do endothermic reactions take place a all? ‘A Because inan endothermic reaction, heat i released. 1B In oder for an endothermic reaction to cea, matter spread must occur as Wel (© Endothermic reactions ae always spontaneous DD Endothermie wactions never occur naturally. or questions 10 and 11, se the following graph ‘on energy usage HB Which source of energy has had the largest Increase in wage since 19007 Which source of energy is no longer used toa great exten Chapter 10 + Standardized Test Practice « 387Modern Atomic Theory LOOKING AHEAD 111 Atoms and Energy Atom d Light 3 Energy by Atoms 12 The Hydrogen Atom [A The Energy Levels of Hydrogen ', The Bohr Model of the Atom . The Wave Mechanical Vode! ofthe Atom 11.3 Atomic Orbtals A The Hydrogen Orbital + Hydrogen Energy Lee + Hydrogen orbitals fave Mechanica Model urther Development 1114 Electron Configurations and ‘Atomic Properties A Electron Arangements in the Fest 18 Atoms on the Perio Table 8. Eleceon ie 4 Cniigraton and (MAREE Prod Bete + Summary ofthe re Mechanical el and Valence Heron Configurations . Atomic Properties andthe Period Table ‘Metals and Nonmetals + Atomic She in Energies, CRUin action, Chemical reactions ae used to provide the energy to prope the fireworks into the ar, another reactions are ‘sed for the explosions inthe ai, OF couse, what most people remember are the beautiful and various colors that go along with the smoke and the sounds, But where do these colors come trom? Tetums out that many are due to the positively charges ions (ations) of ionic solids Galt), Fr example, sodium sats give us Jellow coors, strontium sls give us red colors, and aria salts five s geen coors. But why do these ions display colors at all? ind why do they spay diferent colors? The answers have todo vith the unique arangement ofthe electrons in a given atom, ‘Until now we have dealt with rather simple models of the stom, Tor example, Dalton’s model did not include electrons at all. In ‘order to answer out questions about the colors of fteworks, we ned to develop a more complicated model ofthe atom, and ‘specially ofthe electrons in the atom, We have not yet looked deeply atthe stuetute ofan atom, but chat i what this chapter is I about JA Sr ely gs amt ample of hey [Tee eee es I What particles make up an atom? Rocall Rutherford’s experiment from Chapter 3. What was the experiment and what did it show? What does the term guantun fp mean? Modern Atomic Theory * Chapter 11 ¢ 359EXOT Tey Key Terms Objectives + Bectiomagnetic | + Ta cacbe Ruther mode of the atom radiation + To eplrethe noture of electromagnetic rodation + Wavelength + Tose hw tos eit ght Frequency * Photons The concept of atoms ia very useful one. It explains many important jobservtion, such as why compounds always have the same composition (a specific compound always contains the same types and umes of atoms) and how chemical reactions occur (they involve a rearangement of atoms) ‘Once chemists came to "believe" n atoms, logical questions followed What are atoms like? What is the srctute of an atom? In Chapter 3 we Jeared to picture the atom witha pesitvely charged mucieus composed of rotors and neutrons at its center and electrons moving atound the nucleus in a space very large compared to the sizeof the nucle In his chapter, we wl look at atomic structure in mote detail. In particu, ‘we will develop a pltureof the eleton atangements in atoms—a picture tha allows to account for the chemist ofthe varios elements, Recall fromm our siscusson of the peo table in Chapter 3 that, although atoms exhibit a gest ‘ait of characteris, cetain elements canbe grouped tether because they lchave smi. For eample uorne, chlorine, bine, an idine (the ) i Daloges) show great chemi sine. kes thium, sedum, potassium, 4 rubium, and cesium (the alkal metal) exhibit many sinila properties, and etiam, neon, argon, keyptos, xenon, ad rade the noble gs) ae all very nonreativ. Although the members ofeach ofthese groups of elements show seat slaty withthe group, theeiflerences in heave Been groups are striking In thls chapter we wl se that tis the way the electrons are aang In varias om that accounts fr these fas Howeve, before we examine stomic structure, we must consider the nature of electomagnetic radiation, ‘which pay a central role in the stay of the atoms beavion roy Noble meals Halogen vs ‘A. Rutherford’s Atom Remember that in Chapter 3 we dscused the Idea that an atom has a small postive core (called the nucleus) with negatively charged electrons moving around the nucleus in some way (te Figure 11.1) This ‘concept of a melear ator resulted from Ernest Rtherfor!'s ‘experiments in which he bombarded metal fol with «particles, Neon signmoler an rth es aed ‘hows oof he em he ar ‘mode in bs Weather, ea hop 360 + Chapter 11 « Modern Atomic Theorycoo ‘Nuclear Model of the Atom The atom has a small dense nucleus which = Ispostvely charged = contains protons (1 charge) = contains neutrons (no charge) +The remainder ofthe atom Temosty empty space Contains electrons (1 charge) A major questi Figure 11.1 “he Raber tom, The n eft unanswered by Rutherford’ work was, “What are jucsarchaye (ok the eletrons doing?” That i, how are the electrons arranged and how do need by the presence they move? Rutherford suggsted that elections might revolve around the sf ecrens mang in hucleus ike the planets revolve around the sun in our solar system. He Couldnt expla, however, why the negative electrons aren't attracted into the positive nucleus, causing the atom to collapse, Some way aud the ‘At this point became clear that more observations f the properties ‘of atoms were needed to unmestand the structure ofthe atom more full To help us understand these observations, we need to discuss the nature of ight and how it transmits energy. B. Energy and Light Ifyou fold your hand a few inches fom a brightly glowing light ‘bulb, what do you fee? Your hand gets waem. Th “light” from the bulb somehow transmits energy to your hand, The same thing happens if you ‘move close to the glowing embers of wood in a fireplace —you receive ‘energy that makes You feel warm, The energy you fel fom the sun is similar example. Inall thre ofthese instances, energy Is being transmitted from one place to another by lght-nore properly called electromagnetic Hlectromagnetic radiation Madan ney that ese wave bebavie fd tel trong pce ihespen fightin radiation, Many kinds of clectromagnetic radiation exist Fxamples include ‘+X rays used to make images of bones white” light from a light bulb “+ microwaves used to cock hot dogs and other food. + tadlo waves that transit voles and musi iow do these various ypesof electromagnetic radiation ifr fom one another? ‘Te answer this question we ‘ed to talk about waves, Ta explore the characterises of waves, le think about acean senor Figure 11.2 4 seagull is shown floting a the ocean and Being raise and lowered by the motion of the water surface a waves pas by. Notice tht the gull ust moves up and ‘dvi asthe waves pass—it isnot moved forward A particular wave is characterized by thre properties eer rqueey, and pe Figure 1.2 ‘sepa ating on the Cezar moves up ard down snes pas 11.1 «Atoms and Energy * 361KH ‘Th: wavelength (symbolized by the Greek letter lamba, isthe distance between two cunsecutve wave peaks (ce Figure 11.3). The frequency ofthe wave (symbolized by the Greek letter my, ») indicates how sl ‘many wave peaks pas a cestain point peta given time peri’. This idea can Thevactrgthofawae best be understood by thinking about how many times the seagull in Figure thedstnce betwen pois, 11.2 goes up and down pet minute. The spe of a wave indicates how fst. 4 glven peak travels through the water Describe the relationship between wovelength and frequency, ‘Wavelength The dsc ben mo onsectv paso twougsins wave Frequency ‘Them of waves (jee per second tat sagen pot in sce Photon Aputide of ‘decromagnetieadation Although tts move dificult to picture than water waves, ight ecto ‘magnetic radiation) also travel as waves. The vious types of electromagnetic radiation (X rays, microwaves, and so on} differ in their wavelengths. The ‘lasses of electromagnetic radiation are shown in Figure 11.4, Notice that X-rays have very short wavelengths, whereas raiowaves have very long wavelengths, Radiation provides an important means of energy transfer. For example the energy from the sun reaches the earth mainly inthe forms of visible and wtraviolt radiation. The glowing coals of a fireplace transmit heat ‘energy by infrared radiation, In a microwave oven, the water molecules in food absorb microwave radiation, which increases thelr motions; this energy 's ther. transfered to other types of molecules by colisions, thus increasing the foods temperature Wregth ets Figure 114 Seer rrr = Thee want of lcarrageti dation er) Wich has the longer wavelength: blue light or red ight? Dual Nature of Light Thos we visualize electromagnetic ration (light?) asa wave that cartes energy through space. Sometimes, howere, light does't behave as though it were a wave, Tati, electromagnetic radiation can sometimes have properties that are characteristic of particles. (ou wil ean more about this idea in a physics cours.) Another way 10 {hink ofa beam of Hight traveling through space, then, isa a stream of tiny packets of energy called photons 362 + Chapter 11 « Modern Atomic Theory‘What is the exact nature of in 3? Does It consist of waves or sit a steam of particles of energy? It semis to be both (se Figure 11.) ‘his situation is often refemed to asthe wave-partcle nature of light. Figure 115 Heroes adn (bea fh) fan be piture in we ways as ve ad Lug asa seam photons (redetsof neg) shear of nid pads of ney CHEMISTRY IN YOUR WORLD Plants Seeing Red Vegetable growers have long use plastic sheting {rule in the rows between pants to retain mois: tre, retard weeds, and provde wart for the rots of young plants, ts now becoming apparent that the color ofthe plastic used as a signicant eect ‘on the plants. How can this be? Why does the color (of ther mich mater o plants? Micha. Kasperbaue ofthe Department of ‘Aarcuture's Coastal lain Sa, Wate, and Pant Research Laboratory in rece, South Carona, has spent mast of his 40-ye career studying the responses of plans to varous colors of ight Plants tse proteins cle phytochrome to sense ght in ‘the rel (640-670 rm) and he far red (700-750 rm) ‘anges. Although frre ght snot photoset ‘aly active—it doesnot provide enegy fr plant ‘roet—this ght gives plans important irformaton about thei environment. Fer example, gren eves reflec tof ght in the fared ein. Therefore, when «gen plant’ phytochrome sense a high ratio of fr red ore ght wavelengths, the plant knows that it has many nechbors—many other plants around it ae refectng red ht. Because these rights ae comptiors o the egvng ght ‘tom the sinter leaves wl shade neighboring pants—a plant sensing thi suaton tend to rect is growth above ground, producing a tal thinner structure that can compete more succesful for sunlight, Infact, Kasperbaer ad his coleagues have eke found that by using ard paste much they can fol tomatoes into “thinking” they are crowded leading toaster seding growth and eventual producing carer larger fut ‘Since the opposite fet should benef oot cop, the Department of Aarcaltr cents have grow {npn so covered by an orange mulch. These turnips proved much bigger than those mulched vith black ore plastic, presumably because of increased rection of eight by the orange past The increased ed ight signaled no sgnfcant competition for ight from ether plans, encouraging ‘growth of roots rather than above-ground folge Besides alfectng the pant’ structure, the type of reflected ght influences the nature ofthe Wary eating onthe leaves and the ase a the plant product. Surprisingly the calor ofthe relcted Tight also seems to aft the plant’ response to insect damage ‘This research shows that plants are very sense to the type of rel ight that bates them, Our plants may benefit from rose-colored gasses as ruen as we do. rng ed a 11.1 + Atoms and Energy * 363Eee mean ‘Making Waves Materials | Onder the wavelengths rom lowest to highest + Graph paper Irequeny Procedure 4. Order the wavelengths from lowest to highest nea. SNe 1. Ona shect of graph pape, daw three waves with a small wavelength (3-4 -m), ave 2. Draw two more waves, the fst with wavelength 1 Expin your awe for steps 2 and 3. 2 tes the oiginal wave and the second with wavelength 4 tines the orginal wave Dilferent wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation cany diferent amounts of energy For example the photons that correspond to red light carry ss energy than the photons that correspond to bi igh, In genera, the longer the Wavelength of ight, the lower the energy of is photons (see Figure 11.6), Pe CSTE NCO NN Sau eae he ° Q Co) Q ° Sotwonegth ose PDIP LPLLS SI o 0@ 8@ 0@ @ C. Emission of Energy by Atoms Consider the results ofthe experiment shown in Figure 11.7, This ‘experiment i un by dissolving compounds containing the Li* ian, the Cu ion, and the Nat jon in separate dishes containing methyl alcohol (with «ite water added to help disolve the compounds), The solutions are then set on fle The eiliant color that result ae shown below. As we wil se in more deal inthe next section, the colors ofthese flames eslt fom atoms in these solutions releasing energy by emitting visible ight of specific wavelengths (that i specie colo), The fat from the flame causes the atoms to absoeb energy We ay that the atoms become excite 364 + Chapter 11» Modern Atomic Theory‘Some of this excess energy then released In the form of light. The atom, moves toa lower energy state ast emits a photon of ight Lithium emits red light because Is energy change coresponds to photons, of ed light (Figure 1.7) Capper emits green light because it undergoes Afferent energy change than Iithium; the energy change for copper eome- Sponds tothe energy of a photon of green light. Likzwis, the energy change for sodium corresponds to a photon with a yellow-orange colon 2 Phot of i 0 mii cane Figure 11.7 stom in Ino est ening tn of Tomer energy sate fe ight to ro to lower enegy ate ES ‘Why do we se colors when sat solutions in methanol are burned? ‘To summarize, we have the following situation, When atoms reosive energy from some source—when they become excited—they can release this ‘energy by emitting light. The emited energy is carted away by a photon, ‘Thus the energy of the photon corresponds exactly to the energy change experienced by the emitting atom. High-energy photons correspond to shot- ‘wavelength light and low-energy photons cortespond to long-wavelength Tight. The photons of red ight therefore cary less energy than the photons ‘of blue light because red ight hasa longer wavelength than blu ight does. SECTION 11.1 Cea (© Copy and label the atem showing the lotions © What is electromagnetic radation? Provide three ofthe electrons, profs neon, nd muck examples, How is the frequency ofa wave diferent fom its speed? What is a photo? What is the relationship between wavelength of light and the energy ofits photons? © What is wrong with Butherfords model ofthe qm atom? Why did it need to be moitied? easontcon 11.1 # Atoms and Energy * 365SECTION 11.2 Leeann Key Terms Objectives *+ To understand how the ens ypectrum of ycogen demonstrates the quantized nature of energy *+ To eam about Babrs med ofthe hychogen atom ‘+ To understand how the econ’ postions represented in the wave { mechanical model + Quiz + Wave mechanical made! A. The Energy Levels of Hydrogen 4s we learned in the lst section, an atom with excess energy is said to be in an excite state, An excited atom can release some oral of ts excess energy by emitting a photon (a “partie” of electomagneticraaton) and thus move toa lower energy state. The lowest possible energy sate of an atom is calle its ground stat ‘We-can lear 3 great deal about the energy states of hydrogen atoms by ‘observing the photons they emit. Difent wavelengths of ight cy diferent amount of ensgy © Qa icon mam cin ee) seca hata beam of sight has oweenergy photons han a eam of by entinga photon Ae ht a DDVHA Wea nyaosen stom sbses energy tom some ouside source, wes ths energy to enter an excited state, Fach photon of blue ight | cares larger quanity Egy | carmen ae ; cieaihe . a Ae-eleiele oer e | = ae | af photon fit ° hse aero \ ATP Soe. " © Photon | 366 + Chapter 11 + Modem Atomic TheoryWe can picture thls proces in terms ofthe energy-eve dlagiam. ete ey Qo ‘parc eaor + moon emit (ovelength) of ght ‘anes a parti amount of energy pe photon Grounds nergy — ‘The energy contained in the photon corresponds tothe change in energy that the atom experiences in going from the excited state to the loner state. Il ‘Consider the following experiment. 41am 484mm 486 66m I Suppose we take a sample of H atoms and. i ? puta lot of energy into the system. When ‘we study the photons of visible light emitted, we see only certain colors (ee Figure 11.8), That i, ony certain types of pation ae produced, Wedon't se all Figure 11.8 Col wich wo ad upto give “white_ Wh ced dog sto et ow ny ht fight we sec only selected color This sae potas f certain egies and ths tin cbr, Shown hee 3 ae weer bas eset Sue cae were Gros) th pte he Sia ‘ie vegan that ae emit by exc ydogen sos Quantized Energy Levels Because only certain photons are emitted, we ‘know that ony certain every changes are occuring (see Figure 11.9), This means thatthe hyckogen atom must have certain dcete energy levels (sce Figure 11.10), Excited hydrogen atoms always emit photons with the samme dlsrete colors (wavelengths) a5 those shown in Figure 11.8. They i never emit photons with enerles (colors) in between those shown, ected if . sates 1 f Escad tte e eva aa round ate Figure 11.9 Figure 11.10 fiprogen tons have srl ecedstnte energy th pon ented by an exc hyéogen tom Tees The cobra te pton eed depends” corpus to a parc energy change nthe (eit enegy change tht posices A get fyagen tom. nhs agra the Pree nes ery cg maycreord to «Be pon, represent ase energy lve preset the hots slr fangetuy produces red Tpagen tom. A hen ala can extn ay of photon, thee ene sate td cn nego enery ches toe round tt wel 5 toe enced ates. 11.2+ The Hydrogen Atom + 367® © Figure 11.11 (@) Cantos energy ees 1 Ray energy a's sowed | @)Dseree (usted) fy lve. On eatin 1 Seg eae awed, ‘So we can conclude that all hydrogen atoms have the same sc of discrete ery levels. We say the energy levels of hydrogen ae quantized, Thats ‘only cain values ave allowed, Scents have found that the energy levels of al aoms are quantied GEE ‘What does the term quantized mean? ‘The quantized nature ofthe energy levels in atoms was a surpise when Scientists discovered it It had been assumed previously that an stom could ‘stat any energy level. That i, everyone had assumed that atoms could have a continuous set of energy levels rather than only certain discrete values ge Figure 11.11). A useful analogy hete isthe canta between the levatins allowed by a ramp, which vary continuously, and those allowed Dy ast of steps, hich are cscrete (se Figure 11.12} The discovery of the quintized nature of enesgy has adcally changed our view of the atom, a5 we wll se inthe next few sections. Figure 11.12 The eee been entnuou nd quand Inset comping Aigo ats tha rang ohare (Wy Alight of aan ‘ny eta deans he tleaons we quanti @ » B. The Bohr Model of the Atom ‘mn 1911 atthe age of twenty-five, Nils Hoh recived his Ph.D. in Physls. He was convinced thatthe atom could be pictured a 4 small Peaitive nucleus with electrons orbiting around it asthe planets exit the sun, Over the next two yeas, Br constructed a model of the hydrogen atom with quantized energy levels that agreed with the hydrogen eetsion results we have just discussed, He pictured the electon moving In circular ‘onbitscenesponding to the various allowed energy levels, oh suggested that th electron could jump toa diffrent orbit by absorbing or emiting & ‘Photon of ight with exactly the conect energy content. Thus, nthe Boks atom, the energy levels in the hydeogen atom represented cetan allowed ‘Although Bob's mods! Is content withthe energy lel oe hyerogen, is fundamertalyincoect cdrcular obits ’ an Posie 368 + Chapter 11 « Modern Atomic Theorysee Niels Hendrik David Bohr * 1885-1962 N= Henk David Soh as a boy ved In the shadow of his younger brother Hara, who played onthe 1908 Danish Olymple Soccer Team and later became a dstingushed mathematician, ln school, Boi received his poorest marks composition and struggled with writing is entire | etn fact, he wrote so poorly that he was forced to dictate it PhD. thesis to his mothe. Fe sone ofthe very few people who felt the need to write rough | dats of postcards. Nevertheles, Bohr was a bilan physics. After receiving his Ph.D. in Denmark, he constructed quantum model forthe hycogen atom | by the time he was 27. Eventhough his model later praved to be incortect, | Bohr remained a central figure in the cre to understand the atom. He was | awarded ene Nobel mize in Phys in 1922 At fist Ron's model appeared very promising It fit the hydrogen atom ‘very well, However, when ths model was applied to atoms other than hydrogen, it didnot work. fact, further experiments showed thatthe Bohr model is fundamentally incoret, Although the Bohr model paved ‘the way fr later theories, itis important to realize thatthe curren theory ‘of atomic structure isnot the same asthe Boar model, Eectons do not ‘move around the nucleus in circular orbits ike planes orbiting the sun. Surprisingly, a8 we shal ee ater inthis chapter, we do not know exactly hhow the electrons move in en atom, C, The Wave Mechanical Model of the Atom By the mid-1920s it ha become apparent that the Bohr model was Incoret, Scientists needed to pursue a totally new approach. Two young physicists, Lous Victor de Bogie from France and Erwin Schrdinger from ‘Austria, suggested that becase light seems to have both wave and particle characteristics it behaves simultaneously as a wave and asa stream of part les), the electron might aso exhibit bth ofthese characters. Although everyone had assumed thatthe electron was a tiny particle, these scientists “There isnow much experimental evidence suggesting that all ‘mater exhibits both wave and particle Proper “= ‘aid might be wel fin out whether it cold be decibel sa wave, Se ‘When Schrodinger cared out a mathematical analysis based on this ‘dea, he found that i ed toa new model forthe hydsogen atom that Seemed to apply equally wel to other atoms—something Behe's model failed to do, We will now explore a genetal picture of this model, which is called the wave mechalea! model of the atom. Orbitals inthe Bohr mode, the electron vas asumed to move in cular omits tn the wave mechanics] mode on the other hand the election sit FH IN RING ae described by obitals. Onan noting ike aris. To approximate the idea ofan otbital picture a single nale fet in a room in the center of which is suspended an open vial of a chemical which attracts felis, The tom is extremely dark and in one comer there sa camera with an open shutter Every time the tieiy "lashes." the -amera records a pinpoint of ight and thus the fretys poston in the toom at that particular moment. The ety senses the attractant and a you can imagine, it spend lot of time atthe vial or close twit Howeves, now and then te insect ies randomly around the tom, We nom have evidence that electron energy ees inatoms are quantized What eneray level in atoms vere not quantized? ‘Wat are Some difeences we would note? ee 11.24 The Hydrogen Atom * 369 Iout Wet de Be from one election? SECTION 11.2 PET © ‘in Figure 1.8 there are four diferent colored @ What is wrong with the Boh model of lines. You already know that hydrogen has the atom? ‘only one electron. How can we get four lines this firey. Schrédinger found that he could not precisely o © ow does the wave mechanical model of the atom dif rom Bohs model? © What evidence loads us to believe that energy levels in the hydrogen ato ac quantize?” @ What docs the wave mechanical mode of ak ‘ the atom tll us about how the election © Fuplain the terms ground sate and exc ‘moves around the nucleus? state, When a photon of energy i absorbed by an atom, does the eletzon go ftom the ‘round state to an excited state of from an excited state tothe ground state? 370 + Chapter 11 + Modern Atomis TheorySECTION 11.3 Frye Ls objectives 1 fo eam abu the shapes d thes, pond oritas 4 Torevew the energy level and eb ofthe wave mechanico model ofthe ofom + Tolean about electron spin | } ‘A. The Hydrogen Orbitals | ‘The probability map forthe hydrogen electron on the previous page is i cated at ort Although te probably of finding the ton decrees at | I | Key Terms, + orbital «+ Principal energy levels + Subleels + Paul exclusion principe ‘eater distances from the maces, the probability of finding iat even great ‘stances from the miceus never becomes exactly zero A useful analogy might he the lick ofa sharp boundaty between the earths atmosphere and “outer space” The atmosphere fads avay gradually, but there ae alvays 2 ew molecules present, Because the edge ofan orbital is fuzzy.” fan orbital doesnot have an exactly defined siz. Chemists inbitany define its sie asthe sphere that contains 90% of the total electron probability. Ths definition means thatthe electron spends 909 ofthe tne ini this surface and 10% somewhere ‘outside this surface, (Note that we are not saying the electron [Orbital See era eat ae ‘We sar eater that the hydrogen atom can absorb energy to transfer the electron toa higher energy state (an excited state) In tens of the obsolete Bohr mode, this meant the election was transferred to an obit witha larger redius. in the wave mechanical model, these higher nergy states corespond ty different kinds of orbitals with diferent shapes Hydrogen Energy Levels [A this point we need to gop au consider how the hydrogen atom i org rized, Remember, we showed caller tha the hydrogen atom has diserete {nergy levels We cll these levels peineipal energy levels anc tabel them ne ‘nth whole mambers Gee Hgure 11.13). Next we find that each of these & Teves is subdivided into subleves, The following analogy should help you | ‘understand this, Picture an inverted triangle (ee Figure 11.14), We divide = assigned an integer, Two ube nol ne abil a ang Anilstaon of how pci lel can be ‘ied nto bles 11.3 « Atomic Orbials © 371Uke out tangle the principal energy levels In the hydrogen atom onal sublevls Ase wll se presently thee sublevelscomtain spaces for the letron that we cll orbitals. Principal eneay level 1 conse of| {ust one sublevel, or one type of omit. Tis ortital Is spherical in shape, ‘We label tis omit 1s, The number Tis forthe principal energy level and sia shorthand way to label a particular sublevel type of orbital), [Fria ergy The tgotat 8! Se Principal energy level 2has two sublevels (Note the conespondence betiveen the principal energy level number and the numberof subeves) These sublevel are labeled 2s and 2p. The 2s sublevel consists of one eritl (lo! {he 2s) an the 2p sublevel consis of thre ori (cl 2 2, and 2p) ‘Let tun to the inverted eagle to state this, Figure 1:13 shows pen: Sil ev 2 dived into the subleves 2s and 2p (bch is subvded into 2p, ee 2p and 2p, The otal have the shapes shown in Figures 11.16 and 11.49, ingle 2 stun, ‘THE 25 eta i sphere the 1s ental ut ager se (e 11.16 aed et the 2am The thre 2poxital are not spherical but have two “lobes” These Sas ag 2p sible, shown fy Figure 11.17 both as electron probability maps and as surfaces that, Contain 99% ofthe total election probability Notice that the label xy, orn ‘Whats the relationship between the principal evel and the number Figure 11.16 of sublevels? “There sso the Isan Zot, ‘What we have learned so far about the hydrogen atom is summarized of ytogen ln igure 11.18, * Principal energy level 1 has one subleve, which contains the ts orbital Principal energy level 2 contains two sublevels, one of which contains Figure 11.17 the & orbital and one of which contains the 2p orbital (thee of them). Rees + Note that each ovbital is designated by a symbol o label 2, ©) 209 (0-2, naees nae EY Kral along whch ast to lees oe dee. ach tai showm bath a Probab mapa Seta ena 91% ofthe dcr prea, eo] m | 372 + Chapter 11 + Modern Atomic Theory. . . Figure 11.18 | ; Adega t rece Segoe ate pi Q Song e ape or * Sat cme tested : fe i » % » Le Orbital Labels +The number tls the principal energy level +The letter tells the shape. Th letter 5 means a spherical orbital; the letter p means a two-lobed orbital. The xy, or z subscript on ap orbital Jabel tls along which othe coordinate axes the two lobes ie. ‘One important charactedstcof orbitals is hat asthe level number increases, the average distance ofthe electron In that orbital fom the nutes also increases Tati, when the hydrogen electron is inthe ts obital (the gtound stat) it spends most of its time much closer to the nucleus than when it occupls the 2s orbital (an exited stat) Hydrogen Orbitals Yat ay be wondering ths pln why hyogen, which as lone Clston, has more than ont oval His best to think ofan orbital sa @) Peta acorn cere, The hyaogen det an Occ ct ee ster tabeche coakacsalenimsitoalhe ye see eaten oo ofthe, orerxanla rhea yeas eee ees | aD Se ne ely eee ea ee ree ery er ie a acct wa a aCe ottelp beat are usd only yo ype ney ers. Th ae er ce isbn org 8, ah re rata Tien able conaia ange ela, peta Sou ge han sands bt yr 19) Stee conta se Set py any och Soe the pa xe tat ae Benard iol tan ie 3 ath ihe capes ed Mn Pre 1158 (ods nt neo meno the 3 a SEIT nc Toc wc hom br comleunen) Think of ital a ways of diving up the space ‘round a nucle. eee 11.3 « Atomic Orbitas # 373Figure 11.20 | me shpes and bel of thee iota Grup? 5 4 4 ty any ae Notice as you compare levels 1,2 and 3 that a new typeof orbital (ui. eve) is added in each principal energy level (Recall thatthe p orbitals are aude in level 2 and the orbitals in level 3) This makes sense because in s0ing farther out from the nucleus, there is more space available and thus oom for more orbitals Temight help you to understand that the number of Cotbitals increases withthe principal energy level if you think ofa sports stadium, Picture a tenis court with ‘itclar rows of seats surrounding i, The farther from the ‘oUrt a 1oW of seas i, the moze seats it contains because the circle is larger, Orbital divide up the spae around 3 Inceus somewhat like the seats inthis stadum. The _teater the distance fom the nucleus, the more space there is and the more orbitals we find The pater of increasing numbers of orbitals continues ith level 4 Level 4 as four sublevels labeled 4s, 4p, and 4f. The 4s sublevel has a single 4s orbital. The 4p Sublevel contains thre omit (4p, 4 and 4). The ‘4 subevel has five 4d orbitals, The -f sublevel as seven Spoils ‘The s, 4p, and Ad orbitals have the same shapes a the eatler sp, and orbitals, respectively, but are large. We will not be concerned hee with the shaaes of the fobitals B. The Wave Mechanical Model: Further Development ‘model forthe atom i of tle use if t does not apply to all toms, ‘The Bohr model was dared because it could be apled only to hydagen, ‘The wave mechanical model can be applied to al atoms in basially the Same frm as we have just used it for hydrogen. in fac, the major tiumphh ‘ofthis model sits ably to explain the periodic table ofthe elements, Real that the elements on the periodic table ae arrange in vertial groups, which Contain elements that typically show similar chemical properties Fr example, the halegens shown tothe let ae chemically silat The wave mechanical ‘mode tthe atom allows us to expla, ted on electron arangements Wty these saris occur. We wil see later how this s done. ‘Atoms Beyond Hydrogen Remember that an atom has 3s many fectons as it has protons to give ita zero overall charge. Therefore, allatons beyond hydrogen have more than one electron, Before we ca ‘onside the atoms beyond hydrogen, we must describe one more property of elections that determines how they canbe artanged in an atoms orbitals This preperty i spin. Each electron appears tobe spinning asa top spins on 374+ Chapter 11 + Moder Atome Theoryts ans. Like the top, an electron can spin in only one of two directions. ‘We often represent spin with an arrow: for | One arrow represents the electron spinning inthe one direction, and the other represents the electron spinning n the opposite direction, For our purposes, what is most impor. tant about election spn i that two electrons must have apposite spins to ‘occupy the same orbital. Tat is, two elections that have the same spin «annot occupy the same obit Paull excision principle nage tom, no two lets ean oc the Sime fomic otal aad ve the same spt Paull exclusion principle: An atomic orbital can hold a maximum of to electrons, and those two electrons must have opposite spas nooo Principal Components of the Wave Mechanical Model of the Atom + Atoms have a series of energy levels called principal energy levels, ‘hich are designated by whole numbers symbolized by nn ean equal 1,2, 3,4, Level I coxesponds to n ~ I, level 2contesponds to n= 2, and son +The energy ofthe level increases asthe yale of increase. ‘+ Each principal energy level contains one ot mote types of omits, called sublevels. ‘+The numberof sublevels present ina given principal energy level ‘equals n. For example, level 1 contains one sublevel 1s); level 2 con- tains two subleves (two types of orbitals), the 2s orbital and the thee 2p orbital; and so on. Tuse are summarized in the following table ‘The number of each type of orbital is shown in parentheses. 1n_ Sublevels (Types of Orbttals) Present 1 1st) 2 2s(1)2913) 3 3s(1) 398) 345) 4 4s(1) 4908) 48) 47) +The n value Is always used to label the orbitals of a given prineipat level and is followed by a letter that indicates the type (shape) ofthe otbital. For example, the designation 3p means an orbital in level 3 that has two lobes (ap cbital always as two lobes) ‘Am osbita can be empty or it can contain one o two elections, but, never more than two. Iftwo electrons occupy the same orbital, they -must have opposite spins. ‘The shape ofan osital des not indicate the deals of electron movement. I indicates the probability distribution for an election residing in that orbital 11.3 Atomic Orbital © 375Tit Indicate whether each ofthe follwing is true o fale sfotements about atomie stracture ‘Ams orbital is always sphzel in shape '. ‘The 2s orbital isthe same size asthe 3s orbital ‘© The numberof lobes on ¢potbital increases asm incteases, Tha 3p otbital has more lobes than a 2p orbital 4d. Level 1 has one 5 omit, level 2 has two s orbitals, level 3 has thie soxbitals, and soon, «The election path isindiated by the surface ofthe orital, Solution 8, Tue. The sizeof the sphere Increases abn increases, but the shape Is always spherical bs, False. The 3s orbital is are (the electron is farther from the nucleus on average) than the 2 orbital False. A porbita always tas to fos, 4. False, Each principal energy level has only one s omit False. The electron i somewhie inside the orbital surface 90% ofthe time The electron does ant move aroun ot this surface, Y Practice Problem + Exercise 11. Define the fllowing tems. 1. Bohr otits bi. onbitals . orbital sue 4. sublevel SECTION 11.3 CER Te © What isthe diference between an oxit and © Tell how many obits are found in each an otbital in atomic theory? type of sublewk sp, d © Draw Figure 11.14 and fil in the different types @ How do the shapes of s orbitals in diferent of subevels foreach principal nergy levels energy levels ofa hydrogen atom compare? How do the sizes ofthese orbitals compare? © Label each ofthe folowing oxital ss, p ee ord © What isthe Paul exclusion principle and eo Nala’ how does it help us determine where an a b . SS fectom i within the atom? 376 + Chapter 11 Mdirn Atomic TheorySECTION 11.4 Pare its ee Le ACA ae) ES Objectives Key Terms + Tocankastand haw the pial every eel wih ers iv wt + Heaton coniguation| beyond hycrogen + tit agra + To eam abou valence elcrns and core lecrons (box diagram) + To kam about the electron cnfigurations of toms with Z = 18 Valence deetons «To understand the general tends in properties in the periodic table Core electrons Lanthanide series A.Electron Arrangements in the First 18 Atoms on | (22 the Periodic Table Mainsgroup elements ‘We will now describe the electron arrangements in atoms with srt to | Gepresentatve = 18 by placing electons nthe various rbtals in the principal enesgy | elements), ' levels, starting with n = 1, and then continuing with n = n= 3,and50 | ayers ‘on, Far the fist 18 elements, the individual sublevels fl inthe fotowing fonder: 1s, then 25, then 2p then 3s, and then 3p. Nonmetas “The most attractive arial to an electron in an alom is always the 1s, | © Metalolds because in this orbital the negatively charged electron is loser to the post- | 5 paomicsze tively charged nucleus than n any other oebital, That is, the 1s orbital " involves the space around the nucles that is closest to the nucleus. Asn | * 'eeation energy Increases, the orbital becomes larger—the electon, on average, occupies space farther fom the nudes, Electron Configurations in its ground state, hydrogen has its Tone electron in the 1s orbital. This is commonly represented in two ways. Fist, we say that hydrogen has the electzon srangemet, or electron configura: Electron | tion, is! This means there one electron inthe 1s oxi, We can also configuration represent this configuration 2y sing an oebltaldlagram, also called 8 Theaangenet of bo dlagram, i which otal ate represented by boxes grouped By eteconsinanatom | subleel with small artows indicating the electrons. Fr nde, the elecuon configuation a box agama pup s secon ae Ol fetter! cethinn Ottddgpn ash vader LL tcp ip tp of Soariee) ea ‘The arcow represents an electron spinning in a particular dtection, The next element is liam, Z = 2. It has two protons in Its nucleus and so has to electrons, Because the 1 orbital is the most desirable, both electrons go there but with opposite spins For helium, the electron configuration and. box diagram are « 2» ‘The opposite election spins ae shown by the opposing arrows inthe box. Lith (2 = 3) has thre electrons, two of which go into the Is orbital. ‘hati, two eltrons ill that onbtal. The 1s orbital i the only bial for 11.4 Electron Configurations and Atomic Properties * 377‘= 1,90 the third electron must occupy an orbital with n = 2—In tis ase the 25 arbital. Ths gives a 1225 configuration. The electron configuration and bor diagram are ts 28 Ur sts! ® @ ‘Theneat element, eyiium, has four electrons, which occupy the 1s and 2s obitals with opposite spins ts 2s Be: 1922s? o o Bore has five electrons, four of which occupy the Is and 2s obits, ‘The fifth electron goes into the second typeof orbital with m = 2, one of the 2p orbitals 2 » Be Lst2eap! go Oo mo Because all the 2p onitals have the same energy, it doesnot matter which 2p onal the electron occupies, Garon, the next element, has six electrons: two electrons occupy the 1s oxi, tvo occupy the 25 orbital, and two occupy 2p exit, There are three 2p ofits, so each ofthe mutually repulsive electrons occupies a diferent 2p orbital For reasons we will not conser, inthe separate 2p obials the electrons have the same spin, ‘The configuration for carbon could be waiten 12232292 to indie that the electrons occupy separate 2p oxbitals. However, the configuration 5s usualy given as 1s%s2p! and it s understood that the electrons are in Aiferert 2p orbitals wa 2 Quam caewy oF ff mo Because ecto have the Note te like spins forthe unpaed eeetrons in the 2p orbital. same care they epel The configuration for nrogen, which ha sever electron, is 152229 each othe ‘The thie eectons in 2p orbitals occupy separate orbitals and have ike oe spins Is 2s 2p Ni L?2stapt o og om ‘The configuration for oxygen, which bas eight electons, 5 15°2%2p One ofthe 2p orbital is now occupied by apa f electrons with opposite spins, z sequired by the Paull exclusion principe Is 2s 2 0: 1s*2eapH Oo o Hn ‘The electron configurations and orbital diagrams for fluorine (nine lectons) and neon (ten electrons are ls as 2» Be astaetap o @ un) Nes 1s?2s%2g8 o @ (oD With neon, the orbitals with » = 1 and n ave completely fle Chapter 11 * Modern Aton TheoryTor sd, which has elven electrons, the fist en electrons occupy tne 1,25 and 2p orbitals, andthe eleventh eectton must occupy the ist fal yt = 3, he 38 oa. The electzon cnfguation for sod Is {asap To avo wing the Innerieel detons, we after byte the conigaton 12°29 96 NE, where Be eprcens te econ CTT canfguation of neon, 152227 INe) shorthand fr “The orbital diagram fr sodium is Waasage “om ns 0 0 om o ‘The next element, magreson, Z = 12, has the electon configuration 19252936, o [NB ‘The next six elements, annum through ago, have electron configura: tions obtained by filing the 3p orbitals one electon at atime. Figure 11.21 summarizes the electron configurations of the fist eighteen elements by ‘ving the numberof electors i the type of bal (sublevel) occupied ast 4 he a i afcl[uloleln EE ee Figure 11.21 ae The con cnkgoiors inte nb toca ov! | {or the Fst eighteen elements White the orbital diagram for magnesium, Solution Magnesium (Z = 12) has twelve electrons that are placed successively ‘in the 1s, 25, 2p, and 3s orbitals to give the electron configuration 12252983. The orbital dagram is Is os 5 0 om © Cnly occupied onbitals ar shown here Practice Problem + Exercise 11.2 ‘Wate the complete electron configuration and the obital diagram foreach af the element aluminum through argon, 11.4 «Electron Configurations and Atomic Properties © 379Valence electron Theeketon inthe contemost pnp Shera ee fonts, core electron ‘ctton notin the ‘utes prnctpal neg eel of stom Qo 1) shorthand for TSA st emer Classifying Electrons A‘ this point Its wseful fo introduce the concept of valence electrons—that isthe lets in the outermost (highest) pri cng ee ofan ato, For example nitogen, which asthe eecton congue tnion 2p has actions in pindpl lds Lan 2 Thereore lee ; {ech has 2s and p sable i the ence lvl of nitogen, and the 2+ and 2p dectrons are the valence electrons. For the sodium atom (lecton hm > kK > Mm > aly let ey seeker Figure 11.27 The cist of lene meta, ones, and meals 1386 + Chapter 11 + Modem Atomic TheocyTote that as we go down the group, the metals become more Ikely to lose Group? an electron. This makes sense because as we go down the group, the electron ‘being emoved resides, on average, farther and farther ftom the nucleus. That i the 6 election lst fom Cs is much farther from the attractive postive ‘ucleus—and so Is easier to vemave—than the 2s electron that must be ‘emoved from a Ithium atom, ‘The same trend is also seen inthe Group 2 metals (alaline earth ‘metals: the farther down inthe group the metal resides, the more likely itis to lose an electron, Just as metals vary Somewhat in this propesties, so do nonmetal In general, the elements tat can mast effectively pull electrons from ‘metals occur in the upper ight comer ofthe periodic table ‘As a general rule, We can say thatthe ‘+ most chemically active metals appear in the lower left region of the periodic table + most chemically active nonmetal appea in the upper right region. + properties ofthe seme, or metallolds, le between the metals and the nonmetals Atomic Size ‘The ses of atoms vary as shown in Figure 1.28, Notice that atoms get larger 1 we go down a group on the petod table and that they get smaller as we 10 from left right across a peti. ‘We can understand the increase in sie that we observe as we go dawn 4 group by remembering tat as the principal energy level increases, the average distance of the electrons from the nucleus also increases So atoms get bigger as electrons are added to larger principal energy levels. Figure 11.28 Fete toc ses or elected sors Note ht atom ize ness dn 8 (up an eases as a peta. 114+ Electron Configurations and Atomic Properties » 387Explaining the decrease In atone se actos a period requizes some ‘thought about the atoms in a given row (period) of the plod table Recall that the atoms in a particular period all have thelr outermost elec ‘rons in a given principal energy level. That i. the atoms in Period 1 have their oatr electrons inthe 1s oxbital (principal energy level 1), the atoms in Petod 2 have their outermost elettons in principal energy level 2 (2s and 2p orbitals), and so on (See Figure 11.23) Because all the orbitals in a given principal energy level are expected to be the same size, we might expect the atoms in a given period to be the same se, However, remember that the number of protons inthe nucleus increases as we move from atom to atom in the peti, “The resulting increase in postive charge on the nucleus tends to pull the electrons cose to the nucleus. So instead of remaining the same size across 2 period as electrons are added ina given principal energy level, the ‘atoms get smaller as the electron “cloud” Is dravn in bythe increasing rucler charge Ionization Energies Tonization energy | The fonization energy of an atom is the energy required to remove an y Theamount of ‘lecton from an individual atom in the gas phase Tmeamounofceny | lecon fom an nau atom in he gs Scent ens Ma O Mite oo As we have noted, the most characteristic chemical property ofa metal, atom I losing electrons to nonmetal. Another way of saying tis that ‘meals have relatively iw ionization enegles—a relatively small amount of ‘energy is needed 19 remove an electron ftom atypical metal eal that metals atthe bottom of a group lose electrons more easily than thse at the top In other words, ionization energies tend to decrease Jn going from the top to the bottom ofa group. ‘roe In contrast to metals, nonmetals have relatively lange ionization ener- ses Nommetals tend to gain, not lose electrons. Real that metals appear ‘om the lft side ofthe petioic table and nonmetals appear om the right, side. Thus ts not suprising that ionization eneraes fend to increase fom Tet to ight acrosa given period on the period table 388 + Chapter 11 + Modern tonic TheoryIn general, the elements inthe ‘+ Lower lft region of the periodic table have the lowest ionization energies (are the most chemically active metals) + Upper right region ofthe pertic table have the highest tonzaton energies (ae the most chemically active nonmetal) Fireworks The at of using mitures of humic to produce ‘explosives ian ancent one. Back powde—a mint of potassium nate, arco ane stu ‘was beng Used in China wel eorex, 1000, and Ithas ben used through the centuries in mltary pote, constuction Basing, and for fier, {eore the niveteenth century, reworks were confined mainly to rackets and loud ban. Orange and yell Colors came fom the presence of charcoal and itn flings. However, th the great advances in chemistry inthe nineteenth century, new compounds ound thee way nto few. Sls copper, strontium, and barium aed bilan oes Magoesum and Aluminum meals gave a dang white ight How do reworks produce ther brant colors and loud bangs? Actually, only a Fal of dierent chemicals ae responsible for nos ofthe spectacular ‘lets, To produce the nose flashes, an oxidizer (omething wih a strong affinity for electrons is reacted with a metal auch a¢ magnesium or aluminum ined with suf The rest reaction produces balan, which s duet the aluminum or ‘magnesium busing, and lod port is produced by the rapidly expanding gases For a coor eft, an clement with colored lame ic incuded. Yalow colors in frewors are deo sodum.Stentimn sats give the red colar fail rom highway safety Maes Barium sas give green colt ‘Athough you igh hk thatthe chemisy ot te ‘works simple, achieving the vid white flashes and the lian cols requires complex combinations of chemicals, For example, because the white ashes CHEMISTRY IN YOUR WORLD SECU ML Cnr AUC Rees produce high fame temperatures, the colors ten to ‘washout Another problem arses from the wse of Sodium sls Because sodium produces an extremely bright yw coor, sodium sats cannot be used hen ther colors ae dested ln shar, the maniac: {ure of enor that produce the dered effects and axe as safe to handle requies very care selection of chemical eli ees wy ns igh cae frontsCST en are es Hydrogen i the most abundant element inthe Lunivare being the mejor constituent ofall tas "Most ofthe hydrogen found an earth sin the combined stale—in compounds with other ele- iments. The amount of elemental hydrogen () found on eath is actually very snl. The atmo- Sphere contains ony 0,00008% H, gas. Therefore, hen H, gas is required to prodce a substance such as NH in the reaction Ni@) + 3 H(@) > 2NH) the H must be obtained by decomposing a com. ound such as water, Hydrogen i a colores, odes, and tases gas that eats exposvly with oxygen gs. In fat, the energetic reaction of H,(9) wth O,(g) makes ita good candidate as a fuel. Hycrogen actually elves four times as much energy per gram as oes gasoline, The other advantage to using SECTION 11.4 CTE © Wite the orbital diagram for the elements listed below Li Aeast asta? Mg 1tastapae © What is the atference between a valence eee tton and a core election? Select an element from row 3 ofthe petiodic tae and label both a valence electron and a zoe electron using its electron configuration, © Hements in vertical clus groups snow simular chemical bebavir, How ae their ‘eecton configurations simila? 390 + Chapter 11 * Modem Atome Theory Hydrogen (H,) hycrogen a a uel is that the combustion product, | waey, wich 1 nok harmful tothe environment. Curent, hydrogen i too expensive o produce to be competitive asa ful compared to gasline ‘or natural gas. However, if cheaper ways are found to produce it, hydrogen could prove a valuable fuel inthe future gating the pace ite, Postion onthe petodic table and write ts ‘Valence shell electron configuration, 2 hafium, Z = 72 b, radium, Z= 88 ‘© antimony, 2= 1 2 | | | a. lead, © What chemical property distinguishes a metal | from a nonmetal? © How can the property in question § be explained by using ionization energy tends? © Explain the general trends of atone size and loaization energies across rows and down «columns of the period table (Emey Terms [Bf eeomapetc cation wavelength Frequency ! Photons ovnss Vie mean oa orbital Principal energy levels Sublevels Paull excision prince electron contiguration (Orbital dlagram (box cdogram) lence electrons Core electrons | Lanthanide series. | Aan series | ain-group elements (cepreventatv element) i Metals 1 Nonmetas Metals ‘omic ze Ionization eneray — Bier: 1 Review ) Key Ideas ". ‘Atoms and Energy Rutherford stom consis of tiny, dense nucleus tthe center and elections which occupy most ofthe volume af the atom, ‘a Hlctromagnetic radiation + Characterized by ts wavelength and frequency + Can be thought of as sueam of packets of energy called photons ‘+ Atoms can gain energy by absorbing a photon or lose energy by emitting a photon, 11.2 The Hydrogen Atom 12 The hydrogen atom can emit only certain energies ait changes from 2 higher toa lower energy 1 Hydeogen has quantized energy levels 113 Atomie Orbitals ‘© The Bot model assume electwons navel around the nucleus in iter nbts whichis incor. '= The wave mechanical model asumes the electron has both particle anal wave properties and describes electrons as occupying oils ‘+ The nba ate different fom the Boh cis. ‘+ Probability maps indicate the likelihood of fading the eecteon ata given point in space + Thesize ofan atom canbe described by a surface that contains 906 ofthe total eletton probabil. A Electron Configurations and Atomic Properties ‘© Atomic energy level ate broken down into principal levels) lc contain varius aumbets of subleves, ‘+ The sublevels epresent various types of oil pd) leh have diferent shapes. ‘+The numberof sublevels increases 35m increases. 18 A given atom has Z protons nits nucleus and 2 electrons surrouncing the nucleus The electrons occupy atomic orbitals starting wit the lowest nergy (the omit closest tothe nucleus. ‘8 The Faull exclusion principle tates that an orital can hold only two electrons with oppose spins. ‘The electons in he ighes energy Teel are cae vatence electron. 12 The electon arangement fora given atom exphins Its postion on the perio table ‘© Atomic ize generally increases down a group ofthe periodic able and decreases across a period, 1 Ionization energy generally decreases down a group and increases a8 period, Chapter 11 + Review + 391Chapter 11 Assessment All exercises with be numbers have answers i the bck ofthis book. 1.1 Atoms and Energy A. Ratherford's Atom 1. Deseibe the experiment that owed Rutherford to conclude thatthe atom consis of relatively heavy positively charged auceus surrounded by electrons 2. Sketch a pcture ofthe model ef the atom that, Rutherford develope. What questions were et ‘unanswered by Rutherford’ med? Energy and Light What do we mean by eletomapetc rata? ‘Give several examples of diferent sorts of clectromagnetc radiation. 4. How are the afferent types of ectomagnetic radiation simile? How do they difer? 5, What docs the wemeength of eetromagntic radiation represent? Sketch a representation of ‘eave and indicate the waelogpon your graph Hove des the wzelngth of eleeomagnetic radlaton ef from ts fee? 6. What do we mean by the spe of electromag: ‘etc radiation? How do the fguency and the spe of electomagnetcradatin der 7, What sa “packet” ofelectromgnetic energy calle? ‘8, What is meant by the wave patie nature flight? . Emission of Energy by Atoms 9. Do the colors of fame tests reat fom taking in energy of releasing energy? 10. In which case ae higher energy photons released, with Li* or with Cu? How do you now? 392 + Chapter 11 © Madern Atomic Theory 1.2 The Hydrogen Atom [A The Energy Levels of Hydrogen, $/11 What dost mean to say that an atom isn an 2. When an atom in an excite sate retus to its ground state, what happens tothe exces eneigy ff the atom? Describe rely why te study of electromag netic adition has been important to our undettaning of the antangement of electrons What does t mean to say thatthe hyogen atom has let nergy ees? Hove this act reflected in the radiation that excited hydrogen What experimental evidence doses have thatthe energy levels of hydrogen are quanta? What is meant by the grndstate of an atom? B. The Bohr Model ofthe Atom What are the esential points of Boh’ theory of the structure ofthe hydrogen atom? According to Bohr, what types of motions do eleettons have in an atm, and what happens when energy is applied to the aterm? 19. ow does the Bohr theory account for the observed phenomenon of the emission of discrete wavelengths of light by excited atoms? Why was Boh theory fo the hydogen atom intl accepted, and why was i ultimately dlscarded? 2, The Wave Mechanical Model ofthe Atom 2 J. What majr assumption (that was analogous to what had already been demonstrated for electromagnetic radation) did de Broglie and Schrdinget make about the motion of ny patcles? 22, Discus relly the tference between an obit (as descbed by Bo for byrogen and an exit as desabed by the more meer, ‘nave mechanical pice of the atom), 23. We cannot exact speify the location of an ‘econ in an atom but can discus nk where an electron i most lily t0 be at any given tine. How does the concept ofan obit show this?113 Atomic Orbital, |A. The Hydrogen Orbitals 24, Why ate the orbitals ofthe hydrogen atom esrbed a “probabiity maps”? Why are the ges ofthe hydrogen otal sometimes dav to appear "fuzzy"? 25. When we draw a pltue ofan orbital, we are indicating that the probability of finding the electron within this region of space i greater than 90%, Why i this pmbability never 10902 26, What ae the diferences betwsen the 2 orbital, and the ts exital of hychogen? How a they simile? 27-How isthe distance of an decton fom the eles related to the prpal energy lee? Does a higher principal energy level mean thatthe electron is luo or farther aay from the nucleus? 28. fan elton moves fromthe 1s obit tothe 2s obits energy (incrases/derese) 28. Although a hydrogen ato has only oe eleton, the hydrogen atom possess a complete set of avallabe orbitals. What purpose do these ‘adaional exits seve? B. The Wave Mechanical Model: Further Development 30, What ithe Paul exchon principe? How many ‘éectons can occupy an abit, according to this principe? Why? 31. How does the evry of a princpal energy level depend om the vale of i Does a higher valve fof mean a higher oF lower enery? 32, The numberof sublevels ina principal energy evel (nceasesidecreases as increases 33. Which of the following cial designations is (are) not come? 2m bud ex 114 Electron Configurations and Atomic Properties | Electron Arrangements in the Fest 18 ‘Atoms on the Periodic Table 34. Which oxbial is thefstto be filed in any stom? Why? 35. Which electrons ofan atom are the valence elections? Why are thee electrons expecially Important? $36. ttow ae the election atangements ia ave ‘up (vertical column) ofthe period table relate? How itis lations shown in te ropes of the ements inthe given group? 37, Waite the fll electron configuration (12, te) fr each of the fllowing elements, 9 stontiam, Z = 38, bine, 2= 30 helium, 2 = 2 A bromine, 2 = 38 238, Wt the ful electron configuation (1222, et) foreach ofthe following elements. a eam, Z = 20 =19 >. potassium, Z « fuoring,Z .keypton, 2 Wit the compete otal dlagram for ech of the following elements, using boxes to represent logit and arts to represent electons, aluminum, Z = 13 phosphonss, Z = 15 © bromine, Z = 38 4 argon, Z = 18, How many valence electrons does each ofthe following atoms posses? 2. sou, Z = 11 be calclum,Z = 20 odie, Z = $3 trogen, Z = 7 Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table Why do we believe that the valence electrons of ‘alum and potassium reside in the 4s orbital rather than inthe 3d bial? ‘Would you expect the valence eletons of rubidium and stontiam to tse in the Ss forthe dd orbitals? Why? Chapter 11 + Asessment « 393,Indicate the core lection, vite the valene= ‘lection configuration foreach of the falling I ements, ! 2. calcium, Z = 20 franca, 2 = 87 yttrium, 2 = 39 4 cerium, 2 = 58 4 Using the symbol ofthe previous noble gs to inlcate the cor electrons, wie the valence- jtetron configuration for eath ofthe following | 48. Using the solo the pevous noble gst | ements | eee va b. cloring, 2 = 17 a magnesia, Z = 12 i zing Z = 30 45 How many 4d elections ae faund in each ofthe £ he following elements? aysiu, = 39 be icontum, Z = 40 strontium, Z = 38 4 cadmium, 2 = 48, 46 For each ofthe following element, indicate hich set ofertas is beng fle ls 2 plutonium, 2 = 94 >. nobetium, 2 = 102 © praeseodymium, Z 4. radon, 2 = 86 47 Wie the shorthand valence-iecon conigura- } tion of each of the following elements, basing your answer onthe element’ action on the Patio table 2. uranium, 2 = 92 b, manganese, Z = 25 mercury, Z = 80 4 francum, 2 ~ 67 48. What types of ions do the metals andthe ‘nonmetal elements frm? Do the metals lose or gun electrons in ding this? Do the ‘nonmetal elements gan ose elctons In doing this? 394 « Chapter 11 » Modern Atemic Theory $49. lve some similares that exist among the ‘ements of Group I $0. ive some simlaties that exist arnong the ements of Group 7 £51. Where ae the most nonmetal ements located on the periodic table? Why do these ements pull electrons from metalic elements so efectively during a action? 52. Why do the metalic elements of 2 given period (horizontal rm) typically have much lower Joniztion energies than do the nonmetallic ements of the same petiog? 53. Explain why the atoms ofthe elements at the bottom ofa sven group (vera column) of the periodic tbl are Jaye than the atoms ‘ofthe elements atthe top ofthe same group ‘54. Though al the clements is a gven psiod {horizontal row) ofthe periodic table have this vlence electrons in the sae Sypes of ‘tit the sizes ofthe atoms decease from Jef to right within a perio, Explain why. 35.In each ofthe following sts of elements, which element shows the last ably to gino lose elections? Rb, Na Ba, Ca, Be cE CL Br 40,65 £56.1n each ofthe following sets of elements, which ‘element would be expected to have the highest, ionization energy? Cy KUL ba S1,Ca clara Mg sis £57 Arrange the following sets of element inorder of increasing atomic ize. Sa, Xe, Rb, Se 1. Ro, He, Xe, Kr ©, Ba, At eeee] Gtitical Thinking £.65.How do we know thatthe energy levels of the FE nydrogen atom ate not continous, as physicists orginally assumed? 66. Wty do the two electrons in the 2p sublevel of . bromine, 2 = 35 éement? «tells, 2 = $2 4, potassium, Z = 19 € sult, 2= 16 464, tow many valence electons does each ofthe following atoms have? a titanium, Z = 22 btodine, Z = 53 radium, 2 = 88 4. manganese, Z « How many valence electrons does a ‘etal atom ofthis element ave? 4. How many levels of electrons are ‘occupied when this element iin ts ‘ground sate? Chapter 1 # Assessment « 39571. Given elements with the following eleetton ‘confguration,speciy which meet the following conditions breading i 122th ast iti a2 iv 12229! 1222p vie 1222p! {Which wil normally farm a negative ion fn sation? >. Which wil have the lone fonzation| ' ey «Wh wos be the mst eacve mal \ d. Which has the greatest number of | ae cece ‘Which metal would combine with ‘oxygen ina oneoone ratio? " Predict the formula forthe compound ‘that woud form between i and), 1 6 Predict the forma forthe compound | ‘that would form between (i and (). List the six elements In onder of Increasing tonvation exergy. | ‘72. enty the following element, 396 + Chapter 11» Modern Atomic Theory 4 the mos reactive nonmetal (nota noble 8) on the periodic tale be the smallest lanthanide the largest metal AL the metal with the lowest fonlzation enengy the least reactive halogen 4. the last reactive member ofthe ith peed 1 the atinide withthe highest nace charge 73, Suppose that element 120 as just been scovered Kentify four chemical or physical, Dropetties expected af this element. 74, Suppose that in another universe there is ‘completely diferent se of elements from the ‘ones we know. The inhabitants asin symbols ‘oF A,B,C, and so on In onder of increasing atomic number, using all ofthe eters of our phat. They tnd thatthe following elements ‘osely resemble one another in tems oftheir Properties A.C,G,,Q and Y B,J, Band X Visits own family Stetch a periodic tbl, simi to ous, wing {his information,