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VascularFunction
&
ControlMechanisms

Physiology2016

Overviewofthecirculatorysystem
o 3components:theheart,
thebloodvesselsandthe
blood.

o Rapidflowofblood
producedbypressures
createdbythepumping
actionoftheheart.

o Branchingofbloodvessels
ensuresthatalmostallcells
areveryclosetocapillaries.

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o Only5 6%ofthetotalcirculatingblood
isinthecapillaries.
o This5to6%isperformingtheultimate
functionofthecardiovascularsystem
(nutrients,O2 delivery;CO2 andwaste
productsremoval).
o Allcomponentsofthesystemfunctionto
gettingadequatebloodflowthroughthe
capillaries.

VascularPathways
Arteriesandarteriolesarecharacterizedbyadivergent
patternofbloodflow.
o bloodleaveseachventricleviaasinglearterybutsplit
intonumerousandsmallerdiametervessels
o Arteriolesbranchintocapillaries
o capillariesarethemostnumerousbloodvesselwiththe
smallestdiameter
Venules andveinsarecharacterizedbyaconvergentpattern
ofbloodflow
o bloodflowsoutofmanycapillariesintoasinglevenule
withalargerdiameter.
o fromthevenules,bloodflowsintoveinsthatarelarger
indiameterwhichmergeintoasinglevesseltodeliver
bloodtotheatria
o ~60%ofthebloodvolumeatrestisintheveins

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WhatDeterminesBloodFlow?
Bloodflow(F)throughthevascularsystemisdirectly
proportionaltothepressuregradient(P)betweento
pointswithinthesystem:F P
o ifthepressuregradientincreases,flowincreases
o ifthepressuregradientdecreases,flowdecreases
o bloodpressureistheamountofforcebloodexerts
outwardlyonthewallofavessel
Thetendencyofthevascularsystemtoopposebloodflow
iscalleditsresistance(R)andisinverselyproportionalto
flow:F 1/R
o iftheresistanceincreases,flowdecreases
o iftheresistancedecreases,flowincreases

Combiningtheequationsaboveresultsin:F P/
R

Why does blood flow through this closed circuit?

Blood flows down a pressure gradient

Bloodflowisproportionaltobloodpressure

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The absolute value of the pressure is not important to flow, but

the difference in pressure (DP or gradient) is important to
determining flow.

systemic

pulmonary

Thus,althoughsystemicandpulmonarybloodpressures
areverydifferent,bloodflowmightbesimilar.

ResistancetobloodflowandVascularWalls.

Allbloodvesselsarelinedwithathinlayerofendothelium,a
typeofepitheliumwhichissupportedbyabasement
membrane
o calledthetunicaintima (ortunicainterna)
o onlylayerofcapillarywalls.

Thewallsofmostarteriesandveinshavelayersofsmooth
muscleand/orelasticconnectivetissuecalledthetunica
mediaandfibrousconnectivetissuecalledthetunicaexterna,
surroundingtheendothelium.

Thethicknessofthetunicamediaandexterna varyindifferent
vesselsdependingontheirfunctionortheamountofinternal
(blood)pressurethattheyencounter.

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inner outer

compliance of vein is higher than that of artery

(becuz of the impact of wall thickness on diffusion)

SmoothMuscle
Mostbloodvesselscontainvascularsmoothmuscle
arrangedincircularlayerswhichispartiallycontracted
atalltimescreatingaconditionknownasmuscletone.
o Additionalcontractionofthesmoothmuscleresultsin
vasoconstrictionwhichnarrowsthediameterofthe
vessellumen.
o Relaxationofthesmoothmuscleresultsin
vasodilation whichwidensthediameterofthevessel
lumen.

Neurotransmitters,hormonesandparacrine signals
influencevascularsmoothmuscletonewhichinturnwill
affectbloodpressureandbloodflowthroughoutthe
cardiovascularsystem.

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diameter increases

regulating BP through affecting resistance of blood flow

Pressuresinthevascularsystem

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WhatDeterminesArterialBP?

In

Out

Meanarterialpressureisabalancebetweenbloodflowinto
thearteriesandbloodflowoutofthearteries
o ifflowinexceedsflowout,pressureincreases
o ifflowoutexceedsflowin,pressuredecreases
Bloodflowinisequaltothecardiacoutput
Bloodflowoutisinfluencedprimarilybythevascular
resistanceofferedbythearteriolesdeterminedmainlyby
theirdiameter.
MAP COXResistancearterioles

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AorticPressurechangesduringthecardiaccycle

Sincearterialpressureispulsatile,themeanarterial
pressure(MAP)isusedtorepresentthedrivingpressure
ofbloodthroughthevascularsystem
oMAP=diastolic+1/3(systolic diastolic)
oMAP=80+1/3(120 80)=93mmHgintheaorta

Systolic
During ventricular contraction,
the elastic walls of the arteries
expand as the arteries fill with
high-pressure blood.

Diastolic
During ventricular relaxation,
elastic recoil of arterial walls
pushes arterial blood forward
into circulatory system.

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MeasuringArterialBloodPressure

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Regulationofsystemicbloodpressure

ThemajorfactorsthatinfluenceBParecardiacoutput,
bloodvolumeandperipheralresistance.

3typesofregulation:

Rapidandshorttermregulation (reflex)
Mediumtermregulation (hormonal)
Longterm regulation (bloodvolumecontrol)

Shorttermcontrolofbloodpressure

Neural controls: ANS (SNS/PNS)

o vasomotor center (cardiovascular control center)
in medulla
- transmitting parasympathetic impulses
through the vagus nerve to the heart
- transmitting sympathetic impulses through
the spinal cord to blood vessels of the body
o sympathetic nervous system (SNS) innervates:
the blood vessels and the heart
o parasympathetic nervous system (PNS)
influences the heart (HR)/little influence in blood
vessels

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Reflexcontrolofblood
pressure

Main coordinating center is in the

medulla oblongata of the brain;
medullary cardiovascular control
center

Baroreceptorinitiatedreflexes.
Pressuresensors:afferentsto
cardiovascularcontrolcenter.
o activatedbystretching.
olocatedincarotidartery
(carotidsinus),aorticarch.

Efferents toheart,arteries,and
veins.

Baroreceptors

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baroreceptors activity increases with BP

Changesinbaroreceptors activitywithchangesinblood
pressure

Changesinbaroreceptors activitywith
changesinbloodpressure

optimum activity

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Importance of the baroreceptor reflex

o To keep the arterial pressure relatively

constant through short term regulation of
blood pressure in the range of 70 mmHg to
150 mmHg, maintain the mean blood
pressure at about 100 mmHg.
o Pressure buffer system reduce the blood
fluctuation during the daily events, such as
changing of the posture, respiration,
excitement, etc.

without baroreceptor

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Effect of Rapidly Acting Pressure Control

Mechanisms in response to LOW BP
o To cause constriction of the veins and provide transfer
of blood into the heart. to promote venous return
o To cause increased heart rate and contractility of the
heart and provide greater pumping capacity by the
heart
o To cause constriction of the peripheral arterioles to
impede the flow of the blood out of the arteries.

All these effects occur almost instantly to raise

the arterial pressure back into a survival range.

Baroreceptor Resetting

If blood pressure is elevated for a long period of time

(several days or years), the control set point will change to
the elevated mean blood pressure.

This adaptation of the baroreceptor prevents the

baroreceptor reflex from acting as a long term
control system. That makes the baroreceptor
system unimportant for long-term regulation of
arterial pressure

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Reflex involving arterial chemoreceptors

Chemoreceptors: situated in the carotid body and
Peripheral chemoreceptorsaortic body
Response:Stimulationof
chemoreceptors leadstoareflexincrease
invasomotortone,whichcauses
generalizedvasoconstrictionandhencea
riseinbloodpressure.

Importance:Chemoreceptormechanism
isimportantinregulationofblood
pressurewhenpressurefallsbelowthe
baroreceptors range(70mmHg).
Chemoreceptorreflexactivateswhen
pressurewhenpressurefallstoalevel
between40and70mmHg.

CNS ischemic response

If blood pressure drops below 40 mmHg, the last mechanism for
survival is the central nervous system (CNS) ischemia response.

o This reflex is evoked by ischemia (poor blood flow) of the

central nervous system.
o CNS ischemia reduces blood flow to the vasomotor centre
(VMC).
o Reduction in blood flow to the VMC leads to reduced Po2 and
elevated Pco2 in the medulla region.
o Both these factors stimulate the VMC directly, leading to
vasoconstriction and consequently rise in blood pressure.

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Medium term regulation: Chemical and hormonal

control of cardiovascular function

The onset is slow but it has long-lasting influences on

cardiovascular function.

Hormones and chemicals are classified into two

groups:

oVasoconstrictors
oVasodilators

Vasoconstrictors and Vasodilators

Vasoconstrictors
o Norepinephrine
o Angiotensin II
o Vasopressin
Vasodilators
o Epinephrine
o ANP

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Epinephrine and Norepinephrine

o The adrenal medulla secrete both
epinephrine (80%) and norepinephrine (20%)
o carried by blood flow to everywhere in the
body.
o In the blood, only a little norepinephrine
comes form the endings of the adrenergic
fibers.

Adrenergicreceptors

Epinephrine 1 receptor on vessels Vasoconstriction

1 receptor on heart Positive effect

Norepinephrine 2 receptor on vessels Vasodilation

(skeletal muscle and liver)

o Ontheheart,bothincreasetheforceandrateof
contraction(mediatedthrough1receptors
stimulation).
o Onperipheralresistance:
Norepinephrine producesvasoconstrictioninmost
vascularbedsvia1receptorsstimulation
epinephrinedilatesthebloodvesselsinskeletalmuscle
andthelivervia2receptors.

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Angiotensin II
o very potent vasoconstrictor
o formed in the plasma through a chain reaction
triggered by renin released form kidneys.
Renin is released from kidneys in response to renal
ischemia, which may be due to a fall in blood pressure.

Effect of Angiotensin II
o powerful constrictor.
o release aldosterone from the
adrenal cortex.
o acts on the brain to create
the sensation of thirst.
o inhibit the baroreceotor
reflex.
o increase the release of
norepinephrine from the
sympathetic postganglionic
fiber.

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Vasopressin

Also called antidiuretic hormone (ADH),

o formed in the hypothalamus (mainly)

o secreted through the posterior pituitary gland.
o even more powerful than angiotensin as a
vasoconstrictor.

The high concentration of vasopressin produced during

hemorrhage can raise the arterial pressure as much as 40 to 60
mmHg.

Longtermregulation:adjustmentofbloodvolume
Althoughthevolumeofbloodisusuallyrelativelyconstant,
changesinbloodvolumecanaffectmeanarterialblood
pressure.
o Ifbloodvolumeincreases(fluidintake),blood
pressureincreases.
o Ifbloodvolumedecreases(fluidloss),blood pressure
decreases.

Answer:Therenalbloodvolume/pressurecontrolmechanism.
Hormoneinvolved:Aldosterone.
Importance:Ittakesafewhourstoshowsignificantresponse
forthesemechanisms.

Returnthearterialpressureallthewayback.

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WhatElseDeterminesMeanArterialBP?
Relativedistributionofbloodbetweenthevenousandarterial
sidesofcirculationisanimportantfactorinregulatingarterial
bloodpressure.
Whenarterialbloodpressurefalls,vasoconstrictionoftheveins
redistributesbloodtothearterialside.
Note:Asbloodmovesthroughthevessels,pressureislostdueto
frictionbetweenthebloodandthevesselwalls.Thelowpressure
bloodinveinsinferiortotheheart(arms,abdominopelvic cavity
andlegs)mustflowagainstgravitytoreturntotheheart.
Toassistvenousflow,theseveinshaveinternalonewayvalvesto
ensurethatbloodpassingthevalvecannotflowbackward.
Themovementofbloodthroughveinsisalsoassistedbythe
contractionofskeletalmuscle.Veinslocatedbetweenskeletal
musclesaresqueezedduringcontraction.Thisincreasesthe
venouspressureenoughtomovethebloodthroughthevalves,
backtowardstheheart

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Insummary..

Three mechanisms regulating arterial blood pressure

react rapidly, within seconds or minutes (baroreceptor

feedback mechanism, the central nervous system
ischemic mechanism and the chemoreceptor
mechanism)
respond over an intermediate time period, minutes
or hours (The renin-angiotensin system, the stress-
relaxation property of the vasculature, the shift of fluid
through the tissue capillary wall in and out of the
circulation to adjust the blood volume as needed)
provide long-term pressure regulation, days, months,
and years (the renal blood volume pressure control
mechanism, Aldosterone).

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Mean arterial pressure is affected by blood volume, cardiac output, resistance,

and distribution.

TheEnd.

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