Life Cycle Approach

Just like living organisms, products have a life cycle as well. Where living organisms originate,
reproduce, and eventually die, products are produced from raw materials, used by consumers,
and eventually disposed of. A products life cycle is generally broken down into stages. The
number of stages can vary; six stages are often distinguished (figure 1):

1) Product design (not shown in figure);

2) Raw material extraction and processing;

3) Manufacturing of the product;

4) Packaging and distribution to the consumer;

5) Product use and maintenance;

6) End-of-life management: reuse, recycling and disposal.

Figure 1: Stages of a Product Life Cycle

Life Cycle Assessments

Industries today deal with a range of environmental pressures that are diverse, dynamic, and
demand new levels of accountability, financial commitment, and supply chain capabilities.
Environmental pressures stem from four key sources, including regulations, resource
accessibility, ethical responsibility, and consumer demand for environmentally minded products
[1]. As these concerns filter down to an operational level, they challenge industries to conduct
business in ways that are sustainable, or minimize impact on the natural environment and human
health while improving societal interests. Materials selection decisions provide one important
lever to improve the environmental performance of firms because of the impact of a material
choice over a products entire lifecycle. A products constituent materials drive its environmental
profile because of the burden associated with extraction and processing from material to product,
product performance during use, and end-of-life (EOL) disposal. Given their fundamental
impact, effective tools to inform the environmental implications of materials selection are critical
to enabling the transition to a sustainable enterprise. In life cycle assessments (LCA) involving
materials recycling a method must be chosen for allocating processes and avoided emissions that
is in line with the LCAs goal and scope definition. This choice has a major influence on the
results of the LCA for the product(s) in question. It is also a value choice, as there are no
guidelines from the natural sciences.

The Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is widely recognized as the best framework for
assessing the potential environmental impacts of products, systems and services (EC
Communication, 2003). By accounting for inputs (materials, energy) and outputs (emissions,
waste) at each step of the product life cycle, it enables options for environmental improvements
to be identified.
There are two main approaches to recycling:

End-of-life (EOL) recycling approach (also known as avoided burden). Environmental benefits
are only granted for the fraction of material that is recovered and recycled after the use phase.

Recycled content (RC) approach (also known as cut off). Environmental benefits are only
granted for the actual fraction of secondary material in a product.

End of Life Recycling

End of life is basically recycling a certain product once the product has lost its purpose or ability
to function.
Approach to Continuous Product Lifecycles

Sustainable materials management (SMM) is a means of reducing the environmental impacts of

a product throughout its life cycle. The environmental impact of a product doesnt come entirely
from when it is disposed. The selection and processing of raw materials to make the product and
its packaging; the fuel used to transport the good to market; the energy used to store, maintain,
and/or operate the product; and the energy and materials used to recycle the product all have
environmental impacts that can be reduced by product design that integrates SMM principles.

Successful businesses are adept at maximizing customer value and minimizing costs. The
environmental impacts of end-of-life disposal, materials sourcing, and product use are not always
considered in product design and distribution as such issues have not always been clearly valued
by consumers. As consumer tastes and preferences change, companies are responding to the
increased demand for environmentally sustainable products by adding value through sustainable
materials sourcing, recycling take-back programs, reduced and recyclable packaging, and greater
user customization and upgradability.

Consider sustainable sourcing options.

o Use post consumer recycled content raw materials.
o Consider sustainable raw material products such as wood approved by the Forest
Stewardship Council.

Reduce materials and energy use in processing.

o Improve or reduce the need for in-process recycling of scrap material and
processing fluids by using less material and/or achieving higher recovery rates.
o Pursue zero-landfill goals or policies.
o Have an effective environmental management system for auditing wastes and
identifying areas to improve production.

Design for durability and optimal recycling or reuse.

o Design products to last. Make wear parts easy to replace or upgrade, allowing the
user to replace obsolete parts but retain the original working equipment.
 o Consider take-back recycling or repurposing programs for used or obsolete
equipment, also known as extended producer responsibility.
o Several companies, such as Apple, will accept old equipment for refurbishment or
recycling and offer discounts to participating consumers toward the purchase of
new products.
o Make products easy to disassemble and various material types (plastics, metals,
etc.) easy to separate to maximize recycling potential.

Circular Economy
Closed Loop and Open Loop

Closed-loop recycling refers to recycling end-of-life products back into the same product, such
as recycling an aluminum can back into another aluminum can. This is often regarded as a
preferred option because a closed-loop process keeps the material in continuous use. In contrast,
open-loop recycling generally refers to use of recovered materials to make a different product.
This could result in upcycling which refers to the conversion of waste materials into something
of greater value and/or durability (for example recycling of an aluminum can into an airplane
wing). This is also regarded as a preferred option. Or it could result in downcycling, where the
quality and functionality of the resource is diminished and/or capture of the material for further
use is restricted (e.g. office paper recycling that shortens the fiber length so it is only suitable for
lower market applications like tissue paper). Whereas the preferability of closed loop recycling
versus open loop upcycling depends on the specific materials and their end use options,
downcycling is always regarded as the least preferred recycling approach.

The Closed loop method assumes that each product is equally responsible for the
environmental impacts associated with virgin material production, recycling, and final waste
treatment. The burden is therefore an average impact, apportioned equally among products
depending on the number of times recycling occurs in the product cascade.