EDUCATION OF GIRLS IN RURAL INDIA- BETWEEN THE AGE GROUP OF

12 TO 18 YEARS:
A SOCIOLGICAL STUDY

Submitted By: Submitted To:

Astha Mishra Dr. Jisu Ketan Pattanaik

Roll no: 565 Asst. Professor, Sociology

Sem: III B NUSRL, Ranchi

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF STUDY AND RESEARCH IN LAW, RANCHI

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 1. Introduction1

Chapter 2. Review of Literature.......3

Chapter 3. Theoretical Framework..6

Chapter 4. Statement of the Problem...9

Chapter 5. Research Methodology.11

Research Objectives
Universe/Population of the Study
Method of Data Collection

Chapter 6. Effect on Various Relationships of Children...12

Chapter 7. Effect on Childrens Behaviour13

Chapter 8. Effect on Personality Development..15

Chapter 9. Data Analysis and Discussion..16

Chapter 10. Summary of the Findings..20

Chapter 11. Recommendations and Conclusion..21

Reference22
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION

You can tell the condition of a nation by looking at the status of its women
- Jawaharlal Nehru
Education is one of the most powerful instrument for reducing poverty and inequality of
society. Education is the key to enhance Indias competitiveness in the global economy.
Therefore ensuring access to quality education for all, in particular for the poor and rural
population, is central to the economic and social development. The rapid expansion of
higher education system has brought several pertinent issues related to the standards of its
quality and equal availability of higher education facilities to all the categories of people of
the society. India is a country with severe economic and social inequalities. There are some
families with children rolling in wealth on one hand, while on the other, people strive of
hunger. In India a large number of populations fall under middle class family and lower
middle class families. At the same time lower economy class families also exist in large
numbers. Now, when a large number of families and their youth are struggling hard to
fulfill their basic needs, they naturally have to compromise with the higher education
specially the youth of rural and remote areas. Normally it is observed in India, higher
education institutions are mostly located in cities, main towns etc.; where it is not possible
for all the youth to stay away from their families as they may be the only bread earner of
their families. Apart from this poor communication & transportation system of the rural
areas also hinders equal access of higher education. The most important problem in the
higher education system in India is the lack of quality of the institutions in rural areas. The
quantitative expansion is not adequate.
Despite progress, girls and women continue to be discriminated against in accessing
education and within education systems. 57 million children worldwide, including 31
million girls, are out of school and two thirds of illiterate adults are women. In developing
countries, adolescent girls are more likely to drop-out of secondary school than boys,
particularly in rural areas.

CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE

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 The present review of literature looks at the effect . Various studies address the effect of
divorce on children from different perspectives.

. Studies specific to the subject of present research There is no dearth of studies on the link
between education and social transformation with reference to the situation in India. Kamat
(1968), in his study showed that the progress of education among the land owing peasants
was higher when compared to that of the landless, the study identified the decline in
educational participation of the labour strata in rural community.
Another study by Unni (1996) revealed the same truth that land owning status as the main
determinant of economic position in rural areas exerted a great influence on enrolment (as
can be seen by higher enrolments among families with larger land holdings). Children of
families with small/marginal land holdings face a problem, as their children are often
withdrawn to work on land. He points out that as the size of cultivated land increases, the
proportion of girls attending school increases.
Studies by Acharya (1982) showed that literacy and enrollment decline steeply with the
hierarchical order of the rural society. The participation of the lower classes of agrarian
society in the process of 47 organisation of education for the area was negligible. The study
revealed that most of the respondents from higher strata opposed the introduction of UEE,
even though their children registered a higher per cent of enrollment. The reason for their
opposition was the fear of losing contribution from the children through their labour and
possible threat to the traditional authority pattern. One has to note that children from poor
families contribute income from their labour for the survival of their parents and siblings.
Another study by Upadhyaya (1983) identified the causes of educational backwardness of
girls and mentions that the income of the family had been greatly influenced by the
enrollment and dropout situation as regards girls. The higher the income, higher is the
enrollment and lower rate of dropouts and lower the income, lower the enrolment and
higher the dropouts.
Bhattacharya (1984), in his study has shown that inequalities in educational opportunities
prevailed in the education system of West Bengal for long time. Considering social mobility
in a family for over three generations by the author revealed that a majority of those in the
lower social strata remained socially immobile, while among the middle classes, mobility
was evident to the extent that it operated within a set boundary. The study also informed
about inequality caused by lack of logistic support and presence of cultural inequalities at
home clashing 48 with the organizational climate and effectiveness of the system of

4 | Page
 education. The study stressed that the system of education acted as a reinforcement of
existing social stratification and inequality.
The study by Usha Devi M D and C S Nagaraju (1989) looked into the growth of literacy
among school-going age children during the 60s and the 70s, using census data. It showed
that the literacy rates of rural and urban population varied and used sex of the respondent as
a variable. Rural female literacy was low because of poverty, availability of schooling
facility in the same village and attitude of family members towards girls education.
The Government of India as also various state governments introduced a number of measures
to improve the status of the families belonging to the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes. Of these measures, the provisions of education facilities appear to be the most
significant one as they are essential for the welfare of vulnerable sections like the SCs/STs
by helping to promote awareness about their status and rights.
Another important finding unearthed by this study was that the chief motivation for SC
parents to enroll their daughters in schools was to improve their marriage prospects and
possible employment in future through such literacy; to make them acquire better
communication skills and to enable them to claim better status and stay in their parents-in-
laws house. Exposure to the media was also found to have a positive effect on the
educational status of all the SC girls.
A study by Singh, V (1998) noted that the extent and causes of dropouts among girls in the
rural schools of Chandigarh. The study found that the dropout rate of rural girls was higher
at first standard in the primary stage as compared to other classes; with the rate going down
as one went to the higher grades. Parents were unwilling to send their daughters to schools
because of the need to get domestic work done by them as a training for future feminine
roles and also because the mothers were wage earners. Muslims married off their daughters
at an early age. Those from SC families were generally very poor and they often forced
their daughters to support and supplement the family income by rendering household
chores such as cleaning utensils, washing clothes, cooking and fetching water. Further, lack
of interest in studies, sickness and poor intellect to progress in studies, large family-size,
illiteracy and ill-health of parents, social practices like early marriage and a tradition ridden
orthodox thinking were the other causes for girl child dropout rate in these studied villages.
Further, the study conducted by Pandit R V (1989) also attempted to assess the causes of girls
dropping out from classes at high school level. This study showed that the dropout
percentage is higher in the lower caste group; unfavorable ethos and prevailing unsafe
conditions deterred parents from sending girls who had attained puberty to coeducational
schools. The dropout rate was higher among illiterate families, unemployment created a

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 negative attitude among parents, and young male teachers were substantive causes of
withdrawal of girls from schools. Other major factors were inconvenient school timings,
distance from their house, lack of proper coaching in difficult subjects, and heavy
curriculum. Household factors like excessive load of domestic work, responsibility of
caring for siblings, domestic chores like fetching water, fodder, fuel and helping parents in
their occupation etc. The study suggested that given all their socio-economic constraints,
the availability of a school in the same village would certainly help the girls to continue
schooling.
Another study conducted by Nayar, U et al. (1992) pointed to the dropout and never-enrolled
status among girls belonging to below subsistence level of households in rural Haryana.
Parents pointed out that education was not free of cost and they found it difficult to meet
even the non-tuition fee costs such as on books and uniforms. Domestic work and sibling
care were the main obstacles in the way of girls attending schools and that kept them
always busy. Increased agricultural property brought misery to womens lives. Similar was
the case when the number of livestock also increased substantially. All of that meant more
and more work for women and girls. The drop-out girls, however, expressed their
willingness to return to the school given an opportunity. The parents of such girls had lower
educational and occupational aspirations for their daughters, as compared to what they felt
about their sons as they considered girls as being less important than boys. The study
recommended rationalization of teachers between rural and urban areas to ensure that at
least one woman teacher is present in every primary school; extension of incentives like
free books, uniforms and stationary to all girls who were in poverty-groups, regardless of
caste, extending child care facilities within/near the school to free the girls from sibling
care, better co-ordination with Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS)
(Anganwadi), and also creating a positive climate for girls and their educational
development.
Studies on governmental and other interventions in bringing about social change through
education Much of the inspiration to carry-out studies on education as a conscious
intervention in bringing about social and economic development, has, in fact, originated
from the studies conducted in the USA during the late 1960s and early 1970s. The impact of
such studies on the Indian scene was felt in the late 70s and early 80s. In this context,
education came to be not only viewed as an instrument of change in the entire society but
also as a fundamental tool to reduce intra-societal disparities. Various schemes and
programmes are being proposed and implemented to make education accessible to all

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 sections of the society. The studies have emphasized these developments and have tried to
provide research inputs towards the formulation, implementation and evaluation of schemes
related to the accessibility of schooling to all. Obviously, attention has been directed
towards the issue of education of the downtrodden sections of the society. This area of
studies attracted much attention because of the policies pursued by the state to facilitate the
development of weaker sections and to give greater attention to the education of the girl
child.
Review of works on community participation in social development initiatives
If a community is indifferent towards its teachers, its school and educational system,
it has no reason to expect its children to get good education. If people want their children to
be educated properly, they should be willing and ready to put in their own efforts towards
the allround development of the educational system, beginning with their immediate
neighbourhood. Education as a fundamental right will remain a shallow fundamental right
of the children (just for the sake of being a legislative provision), unless and until certain
conditions are fulfilled and the roles and responsibilities are performed by the school,
parents and the community at large. Apart from the school and the family, there is expected
a greater and important role for the community in the context of education as a fundamental
right, mainly at the elementary level. The community also should take care of certain issues
concerning education in school as a solution for various problems. Generally, in the rural
areas, community participation in primary education is very poor and it is worse among
women. The term community participation and empowerment in primary education is a
very comprehensive one and encompasses two important principles. On the one hand, it
could be considered as the total participation of community in the system to facilitate the
achievement of the goals of UEE.
On the other hand, complete community participation could be considered as a tool of
attaining self-development and empowerment of the community. Participation of
communities in promoting enrollment and improving the quality of education in primary
schools has to be understood against the initiatives undertaken by the state since
independence. Participation is called for not only on the part of the direct beneficiaries and
teachers, but also by the community, via its representative organizations and volunteer
groups. Participation also deals with decision-making at all levels, in the process of
education, at both the national and local levels. It implies that the structure and
organizations of the education system will be transformed or adopted, particularly to co-
ordinate centralization and decentralization of the system. Thereby, the community also

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plays a major role in the field of school education (Yadav and Sushanta Kumar Panda
2005). Sangya Srivastava (2005) through his study has provided a few possible ways, by
following which a community can participate in the management of primary education.
They are:
By compulsion: people are able to participate because such participation has been
made compulsory by the system, any violation of the same may lead to coercion and
punishment; By sponsorship: Sometimes, certain official instructions or endorsement are
issued towards sponsorship and no force or compulsion is used. The whole process is
externally supported;
Spontaneous participation: This meant that people come forward on their own to
participate and without any external push or support. The other possible ways of
participation are identified as under:
Participation by official statutory organizations such as Village Education
Committee (VEC), Village Construction Committee (VCC), Parent-teacher Association
(PTA), Mother-teacher Association (MTA), Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRI), District
Institute of Education (DIE) and
By seeking the co-operation of NGOs and Voluntary Organisations. Nevertheless, it
is argued that without involving the community in primary education system, at each level,
the nation cannot achieve its goal of complete literacy in the country, which will be a major
obstacle in human capital formation and development process. The community is expected
to understand the problems faced by the schools at grass-roots 59 levels and try to solve
them at their own level. In order to achieve this goal and to reduce the gap between the
community and education, the subject of primary and middle school education was
transferred to the Panchayats through the 73rd Constitutional Amendment in 1993. This
was expected to help in ensuring community participation in a more meaningful manner. It
is essential that the Panchayati Raj (PR) bodies functioned as decentralized democratic
institutions and ensured cordial relations between the administration and peoples
representation. Under this Constitutional Amendment, the Panchayat Raj Institutions (PRIs)
are expected to put in conscious efforts to:
Provide inputs to the process of social, economic and cultural transformation in
villages; Promote and encourage positive attitude regarding enrollment;
Create an atmosphere of education for both boys and girls without any
discrimination based on caste and gender;

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 Create a positive attitude among the families belonging to the disadvantaged
sections of society towards primary education and 60 Eliminate social discrimination
between a boy and a girl in so far as education is concerned.

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 CHAPTER 3: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

The six major theoretical perspectives, viz.,

I. Functionalism,
II. Conflict Theory, and
III. Symbolic Interaction Theory
IV. Patriarchy Theory
V. Feminist Theory
VI. Parental Attitude

The following presents the theoretical framework focusing on the attitudes

of parents concerning the importance of educating girls. Parental attitudes
are influenced by quantifiable individual and household characteristics. The
choice of characteristics is drawn from what is available given the data, and
what has been drawn upon in previously mentioned studies on the
determinants of school enrollment. Given the values of maximum likelihood
estimation, and the dependent variable being a binary one, a bivariate probit
model will be used as is common for similar models mentioned previously. The
level of education obtained by both the mother and father is included, as well
as household indicators for socio-economic status including social level (in this
case caste or tribe) and religion

They are relevant in the context of the study of the interface between education and
society. Each perspective has different views on education.

The functionalist perspective argues that education serves many important functions
in society. First, it socializes children and prepares them for life in society. This is not only
done by teaching book knowledge, but also teaching the societys culture, including
moral values, ethics, politics, religious beliefs, habits, and norms. The third 36 function that
education serves, according to functionalist theorists, is social control, or the regulation of
deviant behavior.

Structural functionalists believe that society tends to lean towards equilibrium and
social order. They view society as if it is a human body in which institutions, such as
education, are somewhat like important organs that keep the society/body healthy and in a
good condition. By social health is meant the same as social order, which is guaranteed
when nearly everyone accepts the general, moral values of their society. Hence, structural
functionalists believe that the aim of key institutions, such as education, is to socialize the
youngsters (children and teenagers).

Socialization is the process by which the new generation learns the knowledge,
attitudes and values that they will need as productive citizens. The symbolic interaction
view of education focuses on interactions during the schooling process and the outcomes of
those interactions. For instance, interactions between students and teachers can create
expectations on both parts. The teacher begins to expect certain behavior from students,
which, in turn, can actually create the same behavior. This is called the teacher expectancy
effect. For example, if a teacher from a certain upper caste expects a student from a low
caste to perform below average in a mathematics test, as compared to that of the upper caste
students, over time the teacher may act in ways that encourage the low caste students to get
below-average mathematics scores.

Further, the Conflict Theory looks at the disintegrative and disruptive aspects of
education. These theorists argue that education is unequally distributed through society and
is used as a strategy to separate groups (based on class, gender, caste or ethnicity).
Educational level is, therefore, a mechanism for producing and reproducing inequality in
society. Educational level, according to conflict theorists, can also be used as a tool for
discrimination, such as when potential employers require certain educational credentials
that may or may not be important for the job. It discriminates against minorities, working-
class people, and women - those who are often less educated and least likely to have
credentials because of discriminatory practices within the educational system. But still, the
Structural Functionalist Perspective upholds that the social order and this continuity, the
weakness of this perspective The cultural capital of the dominant group, in the form of
practices and relation to culture, is assumed by the school to be the natural and only proper
type of cultural capital and is, therefore, legitimated. It demands uniformly of all its
students that they should have what it does not give (Swartz 2000). This legitimate cultural
capital allows students who possess it to gain educational capital in the form of
qualifications. Those lower-class students are, disadvantaged. To gain qualifications they
must acquire legitimate cultural capital, by exchanging their own (usually working-class)
cultural capital (Harker 1984).

 CHAPTER 4: SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH PROBLEM

Equity is at the heart of a good educational system. We dont have equity. Kapil
Sibal. The Indian Higher Education system is characterized by a large rural- urban and
gender divide. Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER) in rural India is estimated to be about 7%,
while urban areas have a GER of about 23%. Indias GER shows significant variability
across regions. Though the current ruralurban disparity in access to higher education
opportunities is trending towards continuous shrinking, however this disparity is still very
clear. Through this study an attempt is made to highlight the status of higher education in
rural areas as well as what challenges has been faced by the higher educational institution in
rural areas.
 CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

The research paper is going to cover the effect of girls education in rural area and its
varied perspective.

Research objectives:

The study is conducted to the following objectives:

i. To determine the status of higher education in rural areas in India.

ii. To know the problems of higher education in rural areas.
iii. To find out best possible remedies to cope out those problems..
iv. To study the psycho-social problems (societal needs) of adolescent girls related
to family life.
v. To study the psycho social issues related to educational setup among adolescent
girls

POPULATION OF THE STUDY

The population of the study is the entire rural population of India.

Method of data collection

The present research paper is basically based upon analysis of secondary

data available on topic. In this secondary research researchers have reviewed
reports showing the educational trends of female in India. To analyze the
impact of barrier on female education in rural area various researches
conducted at national and international level are reviewed.

 CHAPTER 6: RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

Girls may differ by their place residence i.e. being from rural areas, urban
areas in comparison with regard to their attitude towards parents and teachers
in handling the psychosocial problems, social relationship and psychosocial
adjustment in their individual life.

2) Girls who started their educational carrier with kindergarten (Nalikali)

and whos parents were educated probably give batter performance in their
classes than that of their counter parts.

3) Girls who were studying in English medium, found to be more open up

and much more social in their nature in terms of making psychological
adjustment emotional behavior in comparison to their counter parts.

4) Girls who were more exposed with the mass media most probably well
aware and better educated about their own physical change and reproductive
heath compared to their counterparts who were not exposed with the electronic
media.

5) Girls who were hailing from high socio-economic and demographic

background probably found balanced in coping or handling their psychosocial
problems than that of their counter parts.

 Chapter 7: Research Methodology

In this paper the research is based on secondary data. The data is taken from different
research reports, journals, websites and research papers. The research is based on the study
of Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER) of higher education in Urban and Rural areas of India.

In order to understand clearly the concept of adolescent and its related issues, a well
structured questionnaire was prepared. The standardized questionnaire consists of four main
sections. 1) Personal information. 2) Information about psychosocial issues related to
family life. 3) Knowledge about psycho social problems related to education. 4) Coping
Mechanism related to psychosocial matters related to emotional behaviour.
Research Design
Designing is an important part of every research activity which determines the format
of the research proposal and its out come. The nature of the present study is explorative
cum descriptive. Hence the study is designed to examine and present the plight of girl child
and a future in terms of women, their socio-economic condition, family background,
cultural influence, life cycle ceremonies, male preference attitudinal and behavioral aspects.
The present study carried out among adolescent girls who are studying in urban and rural
high schools .The researcher has made an attempt to present and interpret the collected facts
with the support of quantitative as well as qualitative analysis. Eventually, an effort was
made to develop a theoretical conceptual frame work critically evaluating the review
existing literature in order to understand the adolescent phenomenon, in a more simple way,
from the common mans view of understanding.
Sampling method:
The said study sample was selected by using convenience random sampling method
which will be more appropriate for the present research study.
Method of Data Collection
The research study is based upon secondary sources that includes reports, earlier
conducted research studies, newspaper articles, government and privately conducted
surveys and studies are analysed.

 CHAPTER 8: DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

The National Knowledge Commission chaired by Sam Pitroda has recommended

setting up of 1500 universities in the country. This was done with the objective of extending
the benefits of education to all the people of our country eligible for the same. The UGC in
a report released in early part of 2010 has identified 374 districts of the country as
educationally backward districts. This number as compared to the total nos. of 650 district
of the country amounts to approximately 60% of the districts.


The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), the National Programme for Universalisation of
Elementary Education for children in the age group 6-14 years, was launched by the
Government of India in mission mode in partnership with the States and Union Territories.
Apart from providing quality elementary education, the SSA also focuses on providing free
textbooks for girls, constructing toilets especially for girls, and setting up Village Education
Committees and Mother Teacher Associations to monitor the quality of education. During
the Eleventh Five Year Plan period, efforts are on to retain children upto middle school and
provide Mid Day Meals till Class VIII. The literacy rate has been going up steadily, and the
Census of India 2001 revealed that while the total literacy rate was 65 per cent, for women
and girls it was 54 per cent. The literacy rate of the population aged 7 years and above is
given in Table.

: 1. India, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Department of Higher

Education, Statistics Division. (2009). Selected Educational Statistics 2006-07 (as on 30th
September 2006): Abstract. New Delhi. p. 43. 2.* National University of Educational
Planning and Administration (NUEPA). (2009). Elementary Education in India: Progress
towards UEE 2008-09: Flash Statistics. New Delhi. p.11.


School dropout rate in primary, middle and secondary schools is given in Table 92.
Table 92: School Dropout Rate Classes I-X, (%), 2006-2007

Notes: National Family Health Survey-II, 1998-99 Figures give the percent
distribution of children age 6-17 years who never attended school by the main reason for
never attending school and percent distribution of children age 6-17 years who have
dropped out of school by the main reason for not currently attending school, according to
residence and sex, India, 1998-99.

a. For children who have never attended school. NFHS 1998-99 b. For children who were
not attending school in that year. NFHS 1998-99 c. For children who were not attending
school in that year. NFHS 2005-06, p. 35. Source: India, Ministry of Statistics and
Programme Implemention, Central Statistical Organisation. (2006). Women and Men in
India 2007. New Delhi. p. 96.

Children Attending School: Estimates from Other Sources In some states,
Government statistics show that more than 100% children are enrolled in schools. This
is due to the fact that some over age children are also enrolled in these classes.
Independent surveys carried out by NGOs and other sources reveal that all children are
not in school. The percentage of children attending school as per National Family
Health Survey (2006) is given in Table 96. Table 96: Children Attending School, 2006

Infrastructure facilities are often a factor influencing enrollment and retention in

schools, specially as far as girls continuing attendence is concerned. The infrastructure
facilities available in schools is given in Table


: Male-Female ratios of literacy rates over the years for India

Age Year Inde

x of
Dissi
milar
ity

19 19 19 19 20

5 0.93
and 2.6 2.0 1.8 1.6 1.4
ove
r
 10 1.03
and 2.8 2.2 1.9 1.7 1.4
ove
r

15 1.22
and 3.1 2.4 2.1 1.8 1.5
ove
r

Issues of women's access to education are not uniform along the varying levels as the
figure indicates. Although getting the girl child to enrol in primary schools seems to
be the most problematic, once enrolled girl children are more likely to continue their
primary education. At the secondary level of education, girls tend to drop out more
than boys, again posing a challenge to retain the girl child for secondary education.
Therefore, the focus primarily is on drawing girl children to enrol in schools at the
primary level and ensuring their continuation for secondary education, probability that
once enrolled girls will continue with their education. Similarly, impact on society
with increased participation of women in vocational and professional-level education
 may also be high, since this would mean greater participation in the labour pool and
improved economic and psychological fallouts of the same. Thus, considering issues
pertaining to women's access to education may require a unique lens focusing on the
differing levels, issues and varying degree of impact. A more customised approach to
addressing the problems related to women's access to education is required, as will
also be discussed in the recommendations put forth later in the paper

Most households (55 percent) reported that if they were provided a scholarship they
would send their girls to school, however the remaining 45 percent reported that they
will not enroll their daughters even if they were provided with a cash scholarship.
IS THE OPPORTUNITY COST OF GETTING AN EDUCATION AN IMPORTANT
FACTOR BEHIND THE DROPOUT RATES? To study opportunity costs, the income
or economic productivity that is forgone because a girl is enrolled in school was
calculated using several variables. Income generating labor or activities were used to
calculate the opportunity cost but it was found that only 10 percent of dropout girls
engage in income generating work, and that 83 percent of dropout girls perform unpaid
household work.
Most households (55 percent) reported that if they were provided a scholarship they
would send their girls to school, however the remaining 45 percent reported that they
will not enroll their daughters even if they were provided with a cash scholarship. This
indicates that the two other reported barriers besides the financial barrier are playing a
major role in a households decision.

The most dramatic dropout rate happens at the end of class 9 due to failing the national
exam. Fifty-one percent of girls leave school following that year. The qualitative data
show that coaching (tutoring) a girl to pass the exam poses a significant financial
burden to parents; therefore, girls do not get coaching, they go into the exam ill-
prepared, and end up failing.
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CHAPTERISATION :

1. Higher Education in rural india

India's higher education system is the third largest in the world, after China and the
United States. As of 2009, India has 20 central universities, 217 state universities, 106
deemed universities, 5 institutions established and functioning under the State Act, and
various institutes which are of national importance, such as the IITs, IIMs and universities
such as JNU. Other institutions include 16000 colleges, including 1800 exclusive women's
colleges, functioning under various universities and institutions (Government Report,
2009). Despite these exceptional numbers and acknowledged quality of many institutions, it
is surprising that women record a lower presence across most institutions of higher
education

I. Significant male-female disparities exist in the enrolment of women in higher

education. Gender disparity in enrolment ratio is also because of visible differences
in rural areas. Geographical Differences Literacy rates are not uniform across the
country as shown in Appendix II. Female literacy amongst the four large northern
states - Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh - is lower than the
national average (53.67%), while states such as Kerala, Goa and Mizoram record
comparatively higher literacy rates for women (Census, 2001). The discrepancy
between male and female literacy rates is also higher for states such as Bihar,
 Jharkand, Chattisgarh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. The differences in literacy rate
for women also vary across urban and rural areas. The access level of education for
women in rural areas is almost three times lower than that of urban areas (Census,
2001). There is also considerable inter-state variation in education access, as can be
inferred from the 2001 Census data. While the GER at the aggregate level is about
13%, it is more than the national average in states such as Kerala, Goa, Nagaland
and Manipur and substantially lower in states such as Bihar, Orissa, Madhya
Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. 2.4. Vocational and Technical Education Vocational
education is a separate stream of higher education aimed at providing opportunities
to students to choose programmes of study towards gainful employment. The total
enrolment in over 8000 institutions spread across the country catering to technical
vocational skill building such as the Industrial Training Institutes (ITIs) and the Arts
and Crafts schools is of the order of 1.4 million, of which women constitute less
than 28% (UNESCO report, 1991). Of the 950 or so ITIs including both government
and private, 104 were set up exclusively for women giving training in areas such as
receptionists, electronics, book binding and the like. Even considering technical
education imparted through polytechnics, 35 of the 450 recognised ones have been
exclusively set up for women, providing training in areas such as pharmacy, food
technology, textile design, commercial art etc. Although the rate of participation is
gradually increasing, women constitute, on an average, only about 10 percent of
total enrolment in technical and vocational education at post secondary level, and
about 28 percent at secondary and post secondary levels, taken together.
II. The Schooling Situation in Rural India
By way of orientation, we begin with a brief sketch of the schooling situation
in rural India, with specific reference to the four major states covered by the
PROBE survey: Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh (hereafter the
PROBE states). The main features of the schooling situation in these states, as
they emerge from the PROBE survey, include the following (see also Table 1).3
School availability: Most villages have at least one government primary
school (classes 1 to 5). Government schools charge negligible fees, and never refuse
to enrol a child. There are no Board examinations until class 5 (in fact, well after
class 5 in most states), but primary schools conduct school tests and children are
sometimes asked to repeat a particular class. Only a minority of villages -- about 20
per cent -- have a middle school (classes 6 to 8), but 55 per cent of the rural
population live within 2 kilometres of a middle school.
Private schools: In addition to government schools, private schools with
primary sections are available in a significant minority (about 17 per cent) of
villages. Private schools charge fees, and generally attract children from relatively
privileged families, though children from poor families are not entirely excluded.
Parental motivation: Qualitative data from the PROBE survey suggest that
parental interest in education is generally quite high. Most parents would like their
children (particularly sons) to be educated, and favour compulsory education for all
children. However, they have a dim view of the schooling system. Low teaching
standards is their main complaint.
School participation: In the 6-14 age group, according to the PROBE survey,
85 per cent of boys and 56 per cent of girls are currently enrolled in school. Among
ever-enrolled children in the 13-18 age group, 81 per cent have completed class 5.
Child labour: Time utilisation data from the PROBE survey indicate that out-
of-school children work about 4.7 hours a day on average (about 2 hours more than
school-going children), mainly helping their parents at home and in the fields. Work
hours are a little longer for girls than for boys, and particularly long for eldest
daughters in poor families, many of whom are expected to take care of younger
siblings.
School quality: Aside from parental testimonies, the PROBE survey found
much direct evidence of the dismal state of government schools. To illustrate:
(1) Only one fourth of the sample schools have at least two teachers, two all-
weather classrooms, and some teaching aids;
(2) If all children aged 6-10 in the sample villages were enrolled in a
government primary school, there would be about 113 pupils per classroom on
average, and 68 pupils for each teacher;
(3) At the time of the investigators visit, one third of the headmasters were
absent, one third of the schools had a single teacher present, and about half of the
schools had no teaching activity;
(4) In many schools, class-1 pupils are systematically neglected. In these and
other respects, there is a great deal of variation in the quality of schooling between
different schools and communities.
Silver lining: Aside from the four major states listed earlier, the PROBE
survey also covered Himachal Pradesh, a smaller state located in the Himalayan
region. In sharp contrast with the other states, Himachal Pradesh had high rates of
 school participation (96 per cent of all children aged 6-14 were studying), and low
educational disparities between boys and girls as well as between different
communities.4 There were also many signs of a higher quality of schooling in
Himachal Pradesh, e.g. lower pupil-teacher ratios, better teaching standards, and a
more cooperative rapport between parents and teachers. This success is all the more
impressive considering that, not so long ago, Himachal Pradesh was widely
regarded as a backward region of north India.

2. Barriers to Women's Education

Why do the statistics reflecting women's literacy, their enrolment in primary,

secondary and higher education or their dropout rates read so poorly? What do they tell us
about women's access to education? What systemic errors have aided in this and what can
be done to remedy the situation? This section highlights some of the barriers to women's
education, drawing on previous studies where possible. Inadequate school facilities can
sometimes serve as a deterrent for the girl child's participation in formal schooling. A report
by the International Programs Centre for the U.S. Department of Commerce (Velkoff, 1998)
lists the chief barriers to women's education in India as inadequate sanitary facilities,
shortage of female teachers and gender bias in curriculum. A BBC news report by Kaushik
Basu (2004) notes that a study of 188 government-run primary schools found that 59% of
the schools had no drinking water and 89% had no toilets. Another report in the Times of
India (2005) cites a 2003/2004 data by National Institute of Educational Planning and
Administration that reported only 3.5% of primary schools in Bihar and Chhattisgarh had
toilets for girls. In Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan and
Himachal Pradesh, the rates were 12-16%. Lack of toilets can be particularly detrimental to
girl's school attendance, where the only option of attending to nature's call out in the open
can pose both a physical as well as a psychological barrier. Some of the barriers to women's
education are sociological, rooted in gender stereotyping and gender segregation, and others
are driven by economic concerns and constraints. A consequence of gender profiling and
stereotyping is that women tend to participate more in programmes that relate to their
domestic role. In institutions of higher learning, women are more inclined to enrol in
courses traditionally considered more suitable for them such as arts and education, but less
in courses related to science and technology. Likewise enrolment in vocational and
technical fields has been male-dominated and providers of nonformal education and
training tend to conduct programmes that relate to women's domestic role rather than their
productive role. Families are also far less likely to educate girls than boys, and far more
likely to pull them out of school, either to help out at home or for other socially induced
normative considerations. Parental reluctance to educate girls is a huge factor inhibiting
their access to education. There exist various factors that fuel the choices parents in Indian
society make with regard to refusing or limiting the education of the girl child. The way a
society views its women determines the roles it delegates to them and the choices made for
them or those they are allowed to make. When women are seen primarily as child bearers
and rearers, then education is sometimes viewed as an unnecessary and extravagant
indulgence. A mindset that views education for girls as unlikely to reap any returns ascribes
to the view that investing in the education of the male child is like an investment as the son
is likely to be responsible for caring for aging parents, and women with largely a
reproductive role in society have little need for education and any gains from it are anyway
likely to accrue to the homes they go to after marriage. Economically poorer sections are
often not in a position to send their children to school and are likely to invest in the male
child than in the female child if they can for the above-mentioned reasons. The middle class
too often does not consider education for women an important means for preparing them as
individuals in their own right. Amongst the upper middle class, where education of women
may not be encumbered by economic constraints, discriminatory stances, such as women's
education having lower economic utility or at best being a secondary wage earner, do exist
and are pervasive in the attitudes and norms prevalent in society.

3. Role of the State

Being the largest machinery for dispensing and disseminating education, the role of
the state in providing women access to education is most primal and influential. Over the
years, the government's commitment to education articulated through the constitutional Act
for Free and Compulsory Education until the age of 14, its National Policy on Education, or
its various schemes and initiatives to promote the education of women all have been
oriented towards enhancing women's access to education. The National Policy on
Education 1986, revised in 1992, was an important decision in the field of policy on
women's education. It recognised for the first time the gender imbalances in educational
access and achievement and also the need to redress them through enhancing infrastructure
and the empowerment of women for their participation in the education process. The
Mahila Samakhya programme was launched in 1988 in pursuance of the goals of the New
Education Policy for the education and empowerment of women in rural areas, particularly
of women from socially and economically marginalised groups. Women from remote,
underdeveloped areas or from weaker social groups across more than 21,000 villages fell
under the Mahila Samakhya Scheme. Apart from provisions for education the programme
also aims to raise awareness by holding meetings and seminars at rural levels. Another
government initiative, the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), was started in 2001, with the
intent to provide education to children between 6 and 14 years by 2010. The programme
focuses especially on girls and children with challenged social or financial backgrounds,
charged with providing infrastructure and relevant resource material in the form of free
textbooks to children in remote areas. The effectiveness of the programme is yet to be
measured. Although these various endeavours of the government have, over time, yielded
significant results, especially with respect to increasing literacy levels amongst women,
gender disparities continue to persist, more so in rural areas and amongst disadvantaged
communities. Many villages continue to not even have a school, fewer than one third of
India's primary and middle-school teachers are women and schools have remained
inflexible to the labour demands of girls as various reports suggest. The question of
improving women's access to education then remains, beyond the structural changes, at a
deeper level one of a sociological change rooted in changing mindsets and empowering
women, to challenge the assumptions we hold as a society about the role of women in the
labour market and the value of educating women. The attempt of the state thus far has been
a blanket approach to address the issue of access to education for women. Its various
initiatives such as the Sarva Siksha Abhyan have largely focused on spearheading education
access for all across the country. Although these efforts are commendable, a more
customised approach may be required as discussed earlier. Approaches for addressing the
issues would differ based on the particular requirements of the region. Enhancing literacy
levels should take priority in states with lower literacy rates through sustained interventions
and programmes designed for the purpose, while in other areas where basic education
issues may be addressed, for example states such as Kerala, employable skills and
professional-level education efforts may warrant greater attention to address the issue of
migration. When imbalances in education for women have been pervasive and prevalent for
long, as the continuing 20% differential in literacy rates for men and women suggests, the
state may have to intervene in more drastic ways, as will be discussed in the next section
along with other recommendations.
 4. The Way Forward -

Some Recommendations Although much work has been done to improve the state of
education in India, we are still a long way off from attaining standards comparable even to
other developing nations. India is ranked 109 amongst 128 countries in its education index
for women (see Appendix I for information on global education indices and India's standing
on them). Although there is much work to be done to enhance education in India, particular
attention is warranted to women's access to education. An attempt has to be made to remove
the social, psychological and structural barriers, for participation of majority of women in
education. The state must play a prominent role in preventing gender stereotyping and
segregation in education, and providing stipends, scholarships, loans, transport facilities,
guidance and counseling services to women and their families, especially belonging to the
lower and marginalised sections of society, and with required regulation and intervention,
when necessary, to correct the imbalances in education access. Below are some
recommendations and suggestions for improving access to education for women of the
country. The recommendations can be categorised as those related to (a) grassroots level
improvements related to mindset changes, (b) strategic initiatives related to innovation and
incentivisation and (c) enabling policy level framework that deals with regulation and
reservation, as shown in Figure 2. Each of these is discussed in detail.

Lesser Number of Institutes:

In comparison to the number of higher education institution present in urban areas i.e.,
cities or towns, there are very few institutions in rural areas of India. Technical higher
educational institutions are very rarely established in the rural areas. 2. Access: The Gross
Enrolment Rate (GER), measures, the access level by taking the ratio of persons in all age
groups enrolled in various programs to total population in age group of 18 to 23. The access
to higher education for all eligible in the country is a major issue before the policy makers.
3. Equity:

On one hand GER stands low for the overall population, while on the other there are
large variations among the various categories of population based on urban or rural
habitation and rich and poor. Due to regional disparity in economic development and
uneven distribution of institutions of higher education, the higher education is not equally
available to the different sections of the society. 4. Limitation of Quality:
 The higher educational institutions suffer from large quality variation in so much so
that a NASSCOM- Report-2005 has said that not more than 15per cent of graduates of
general education and 25-30per cent of Technical Education are fit for employment. First,
the quality norms of which are not comparable with international standards cant be
maintained by the higher educational institute of rural areas. Secondly, the enforcement
process is not stringent. Further political interference and corruption dilute the role and
impact of these intuitions in ensuring the desired quality standards.

4. Cost of Education:
One of the main factors of lower enrolment in rural area is the cost of education.
Technical education sometimes only a dream for most of the students of rural areas
where the people are mostly dependent on agriculture. Even sometimes it is seen that
normal higher education expenses cannot be afforded by some of the families coming
under lower middle class tag.
5. Higher Teacher-student Ratio:
Student teacher ratio is one of the indicators used to describe the quality of education
received in any education unit, be it in a city or in any rural areas of the country. UGC
has recommended an ideal ratio of 1:30 for the general undergraduate courses.
Unfortunately, because of lesser no of educational institutes in rural areas, more and
more students are bound to enroll and the teacher-students ratio does vary to the
standard so far as quality education is concerned.
6. Privatization:
In India both public and private institutions operate simultaneously. In the year 2000-
01, out of 13,072 higher education institutions, 42 per cent were privately owned and
run catering to 37 per cent of students enrolled into higher education. Since providing
grant-in-aid to private colleges is becoming difficult, they sometimes not able to
maintain the minimum standard of quality education. The quality of education in these
private colleges is very uneven. Many of the colleges because of shortage of funds are
not able to hire well deserving and quality teachers which at times create a problem for
the students to face. Apart from it some institutions do not have proper infrastructure
like quality laboratory. But on the other side of the coin we actually could see there are
some private colleges which have strived to enhance their standards and some of them
rank better than many Government run colleges today which is not accessible for all.
7. Misuse of Grants:
UGC provides financial assistance to the universities and colleges for various
developmental activities. But the same fund is hardly seen to be properly utilized.
 Specially, in rural areas where the local bodies are not so strong, the guardian of the
students are not so conscious about the proper use of financial assistance, administrative
bodies takes the advantage of it.
8. Lesser Research Activities:
It has been seen that not more that 20% of all students enrolled in a doctoral research
programme complete their work and almost 80% drop out. A lack of motivation
amongst university faculty to conduct and supervise research also stems from
unavailability of good research students and a lack of professional incentive for
research. However, to increase research output, the UGC began giving scholarships to
students enrolled for a PhD in central universities, but ignores State universities.
9. Poor input:

One of the major challenges facing by the higher educational institutes in rural areas
is the standard of input; i.e. students, especially in general education. So far as higher
education is concerned with quality education with quality output, the biggest challenge for
these institutes where minimum cut off mark is not applicable at the time of admission.

10. High dropout rate:

In rural areas of India the school drop out rate is more than normal. As a result of this
very few students taste the sweetness of higher education. Even during college life also
because of family burden, poor infrastructural facilities, lack of monetary support,
apathy towards education etc. we can see high percentage of drop out among rural
students.

12.Lesser use of ICT:

ICT can affect the delivery of education and enable wider access to the same. In
addition, it increases flexibility so that learners can access the education regardless of time
and geographical barriers. It can influence the way students are taught and how they learn.
But in most of the rural colleges and universities, use of ICT is hardly seen while teaching.
There are lots of colleges in India where electricity problem is a common phenomenon. In
those institutions we can expect only the traditional method of teaching.

13. Inadequate physical infrastructure:

Quality education is possible when facilities, resources and technologies are

upgraded. For this funding is needed which has been made on the basis of grades given by
NAAC on the basis of various parameters. The higher educational institution of rural areas
are bound to grade in the lower side since quality of input is also very low, higher ratio of
teacher-students, poor communication etc. and due to this grants are also given on the lower
side which hinders improvement in physical infrastructure. Faculty problem: Quality of
teaching depends upon quality of teachers. Availability of adequate and qualified faculty is
a prerequisite of quality education. Quality teachers always prefer better colleges in the
sense better input, standard teacher-student ratio, better communication, better physical
facilities, better research facilities etc. and due to which the rural institutes has to suffer.

Programmes for Women

Swawlamban, the erstwhile Training-cum-Employment Programme for Women

provides skill training to women to facilitate their employment or self- employment on a
sustained basis in traditional and non- traditional trades. Till December 2002, 902 projects
including 262 continuing projects benefiting 58,458 women were sanctioned. With effect
from 1.4.2006, Swawlamban is being transferred to the States. During 2005-06, 7660
beneficiaries availed benefits under the scheme. The Department has initiated the gender
budgeting exercise to assess the impact and outcome of Government spending on Women.
Gender Budget Cells have been set up in 9 Departments/Ministries namely, Health, Family
Welfare, Elementary Education and Literacy, Labour and Employment, Rural
Development, Social Justice and Empowerment, Tribal Affairs, Urban Employment and
Poverty Alleviation and Small Scale Industries. Statistics on Women in India 2010 16
Measures have been initiated for preparing Gender Development Index for the States and
Districts. Swayamsiddha, an integrated scheme for womens empowerment, is based on the
formation of women into Self Help Groups (SHGs) and aims at the holistic empowerment
of women through awareness generation, economic empowerment and convergence of
various schemes. Against the target of 65,000 SHGs, 69,803 Womens Self Help Groups
have been formed, covering a total of 1.002 million beneficiaries till 2008. The scheme
ended on 31.03.2008. Support and Training for Employment Programme (STEP) provides
updated skills and new knowledge to poor and asset-less women in traditional occupations
for enhancing their productivity and income generation. A package of services such as
training, extension, infrastructure, market linkages, etc. is provided besides linkage with
credit for transfer of assets. Since its inception in 1987, about 0.8 million women have been
covered under various projects till 2008-09. Since 2005-06, each year between 31,000 to
40,000 women benefit under STEP. So far women in dairying sector have received
maximum support keeping in view the nature of demands. This is followed by handlooms,
handicrafts, sericulture, piggery and poultry.

REMEDIES

a. Equal importance in Rural Areas: To assess the availability of various policies

programs and facilities in higher education, there is an urgent need to access and find out
from the students their awareness and utilization of facilities, as also to cross check the
availability of the facilities in institutions where they are enrolled.

b. Enhance Quality of Education: All plans for expansion must have a major thrust
on enhancing quality of education. Hence due care must be taken for developing skills of
teachers for enhancing teaching-learning transaction, creating conducive academic
environment, improving the learning infrastructure, putting technology enabled learning
into practice wherever possible.

c. Establishment of research centers: Establishment of research centers of

excellence in various areas of local relevance must be pursued and these should be affiliated
with the existing universities and institutions of national importance.UGC should focus
more on research-based support to the universities and colleges. It should help in
developing bench-marking in teaching and research, support curricula updation, develop
norms for efficient governance, establish and support large number of interuniversity centre
like institutions that will facilitate institutions of higher education towards quality and
excellence in teaching and research. UGC should furthermore help in developing
networking and electronic connectivity, besides helping institutions in optimally utilizing
them. Checking drop-out ratio: Higher education system should take interest in their feeder
area or supply chain to improve quality and drop out as a priority need of the community
and duty of higher education system and for their own growth i.e., higher education system.

e. Establishing Career Counseling Cells: Special career counseling cells must be set
by the government so that students can also enroll themselves in other technical and
professional courses apart from other general courses. Besides, the students can select
subject according to their needs and capacity.
 f. Adequate fund: To build a high quality education system, adequate funding must
be made available by the Central and State governments to improve quality, at the same
time, making higher education affordable to all specially for the families of rural areas
where income level of the people is low and thus increasing access.

g. Checking proper utilization of grants: The grant provided by Central, State govt.
as well as other bodies to the educational institutes is how effectively utilized is a matter of
doubt. Administrative bodies of the uses the funds as per their own profitability rather than
priority of the institute for greater social interests of the stakeholders. The regulatory bodies
should ensure proper use of funds on the basis of priority.

 CHAPTER 10: SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS

One may ask why education of women is even important, or why the state ought to
focus on it, beyond improving the numbers and statistics to reflect figures at par with the
rest of the developed world. Is it a mere image building exercise in an attempt to stay on top
of the numbers? Although that may be equally important, there are more to accrue for the
individual, family unit and ultimately the nation, with investment in education of its
women. Neglecting the education of women, who constitute nearly half of the population,
does not auger well for the development of any nation. Beyond the obvious imbalance in
the labour pool, education for women is an important determinant of their enhanced self-
esteem and self-confidence, helping to build a positive image, developing their ability to
think critically, fostering better decision making and helping them make more informed
choices about health, employment and even the education of their children. Education will
not only ensure more participation in developmental processes but also enhance awareness
of rights and entitlements in society, so that women can enhance their participation in
society on an equal footing in all areas. The economic independence that education brings
is an added incentive. Economic independence and awareness will help curtail the vicious
cycle of reinforcing negative stereotypes and aid women in chartering paths as individuals
in their own right, contributing to society, polity and the economy.

 CHAPTER 11: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

GIRL CHILDREN DROP OUT OF PRIMARY SCHOOL DUE TO:

early marriagesocial traditions and pressure

poor health and illnesses placement in low income employment

household responsibilities poor access to transportation

poor facilities and teaching at school

WHY SUPPORT WOMENS EDUCATION

An educated woman has greater independence.

If she is employed (with reliable income and safe working conditions), she
contributes meaningfully to her community with an informed an knowledgeable voice.

At home, she will spend a large portion of her income on nutritious food and
healthcare. She will manage the family finances.

She will have fewer and healthier children and ensure their education.

Conclusion:

The importance of parents in a childs life is well known and accepted fact. With a
change in this very fundamental situation that one gets used to since birth by the way of
their divorce has a severe impact on them. Various relationships that these children have or
will form in the future are often affected by these. Further there occur behavioural changes
that can be seen in varying age groups. When their parents divorce, children feel as if their
stability, their security, and their world are all falling apart. Like preschoolers may become
less imaginative and cooperative in their play. Adolescents do understand the gravity of the
situation and seem to mature more quickly following a divorce. They take on increased
responsibilities in the home, show an increased appreciation of money, but to cope up with
such an atmosphere isnt a cake walk for them either. Kids tend to turn rebellious with a
feeling of resentment. An increased level of anxiety is generally a matter of concern. Such
psychological breakdowns lead to emotional pangs, violent behaviour and drug abuse.

Recommendations:

a. Equal importance in Rural Areas: To assess the availability of various policies

programs and facilities in higher education, there is an urgent need to access and find out
from the students their awareness and utilization of facilities, as also to cross check the
availability of the facilities in institutions where they are enrolled.

b. Enhance Quality of Education: All plans for expansion must have a major thrust on
enhancing quality of education. Hence due care must be taken for developing skills of
teachers for enhancing teaching-learning transaction, creating conducive academic
environment, improving the learning infrastructure, putting technology enabled learning
into practice wherever possible.

c. Establishment of research centers: Establishment of research centers of excellence

in various areas of local relevance must be pursued and these should be affiliated with the
existing universities and institutions of national importance.UGC should focus more on
research-based support to the universities and colleges. It should help in developing bench-
marking in teaching and research, support curricula updation, develop norms for efficient
governance, establish and support large number of interuniversity centre like institutions
that will facilitate institutions of higher education towards quality and excellence in
teaching and research. UGC should furthermore help in developing networking and
electronic connectivity, besides helping institutions in optimally utilizing them. Checking
drop-out ratio: Higher education system should take interest in their feeder area or supply
chain to improve quality and drop out as a priority need of the community and duty of
higher education system and for their own growth i.e., higher education system.

e. Establishing Career Counseling Cells: Special career counseling cells must be set
by the government so that students can also enroll themselves in other technical and
professional courses apart from other general courses. Besides, the students can select
subject according to their needs and capacity.

f. Adequate fund: To build a high quality education system, adequate funding must be
made available by the Central and State governments to improve quality, at the same time,
making higher education affordable to all specially for the families of rural areas where
income level of the people is low and thus increasing access.

g. Checking proper utilization of grants: The grant provided by Central, State govt. as
well as other bodies to the educational institutes is how effectively utilized is a matter of
doubt. Administrative bodies of the uses the funds as per their own profitability rather than
priority of the institute for greater social interests of the stakeholders. The regulatory bodies
should ensure proper use of funds on the basis of priority.

 REFERENCES

Bellew, Rosemary T. and Elizabeth M. King, 1993, Educating Women: Lessons from
Experience, in Elizabeth M. King and M. Anne Hill, eds.,

Womens Education in Developing Countries, Baltimore. Central Statistical

Organization, 1994, Statistical Abstract India 1992, New Delhi. India Registrar General,
1995, SRS Based Abridged Life Tables 1988-92, Occasional Paper No. 4 of 1995, New
Delhi. -----, 1996, Sample Registration Bulletin, Vol. 30, No.1, New Delhi. International
Institute for Population Sciences, 1995, India National Family Health Survey, 1992-93,
Bombay.

Jeffery, Roger and Alaka M. Basu, eds., 1996, Girls Schooling, Womens Autonomy
and Fertility Change in South Asia, London. Jejeebhoy, Shireen J., 1995, Womens
Education, Autonomy, and Reproductive Behavior: Experiences from Developing
Countries, Oxford. Kalia, Narendra Nath, 1988, Women and Sexism: Language of Indian
School Textbooks, in Rehana Ghadially, ed.,

Women in Indian Society, New Delhi. King, Elizabeth M., 1990, Educating Girls and
Women: Investing in Development, Washington, DC. Ministry of Human Resource
Development, 1993, Selected Educational Statistics, 1991-92, New Delhi. Registrar
General and Census Commissioner, 1977, Census of India 1971, Social and Cultural
Tables, Series I-India, Part II-C(ii), New Delhi. -----, 1993, Census of India 1991,

Final Population Totals: Brief Analysis of Primary Census Abstract, Series-1, New
Delhi. Rugh, Andrea, 1994, Situational Analysis of Girls Education in India, paper
prepared for the U.S. Agency for International Development, Washington, DC. The World
Bank, 1997a, India: Achievement and Challenges in Reducing Poverty, Washington, DC.
-----, 1997b, Primary Education in India, Washington, DC.

Questionnaire

1. Name of the person interviewed

2. Designation(if any)

3. Age

4. Education Qualification

1. What is the general age range of this group? 12-

15 15-17 17-20 20+

(Note for the interviewer: ask about the age and then circle of the above
ranges)

2. What was the last grade you attended in school?

3. How many sisters and brothers do you have?

a. How many brothers and how many sisters currently attend school and
what grades are they in? 4. Why did you leave the school?

(Note for the interviewer: list the things that each participant says)

a. Why did you leave the school?

b. Was it for financial reasons?
c. Get details.

5. Did your parents have expectations that you should be doing

something else, other than going to school? What? Get details.

6. Do you know boys who dropped out of secondary school?

a. What are they doing now?

b. What is their social status in the community?

7. Do you know girls who dropped out of secondary school?

a. What are they doing now?

 What is their social status in the community?

8. What are the main reasons that boys drop out of secondary school?

9. What is the main reason that girls drop out of schools and do not reach
secondary school?

10. What are the differences between boys and girls in terms of
completing schooling in your community?

a. Is there a reason as to why boys should get education

b. And why should girls get education?

c. If you think that there is a difference, why do you think there is a

difference?

11. Are you planning to marry an educated girl? Why or Why not?

12. Will you educate your daughter(s) if you have any later?

a. Upto what level of education?

13. Are you currently planning to enroll in a school?

If so, what grade will you enroll in?

14. Will your family (mother/father/other extended family) support you if

you received a scholarship to go back to school?

15. How would you rate the general quality of the school which you were
attending?

a. Cannot tell or i) Slightly good ii) Good iii) Excellent

b. Why?

16. Was there something that you liked about your school? What was it?

a. What did you like about it?

17. What did you not like about your school?

 18. What did you learn in your school that helped you in your life outside
of school?

19. Did you like your teachers? Did you feel that they were good teachers
and taught you well? 20. Did other boys/teachers treat you well in school?

a. If the answer is no, why? What did they do/say that made you feel that
they did not treat you well?

21. If you could have had something that would have made school easier
for you and complete secondary education without dropping out, what would it
be?

22. How much per month (range) did your parents spend to send you to
school? a. What did this money cover?

23. Note for this interviewer: This question is for boys whose brothers and
sisters are currently in schools Do you know the range of money that your
parents spend on the education of your brothers and sisters in sec. school now?

a. How much (range) do you think it is?

24. How much money (range) does it take per month to send a girl to
secondary school? a. Is there is a difference between cost of secondary school
compared with primary school?

How?

Social

1. Child marriage stood against the education of the girls

Yes/No

2. The literacy rate was very low. Yes/No

3. Ignorance and traditional thoughts played a negative role in educating

female child. Yes/No

4. Society didnt allow to receive education through co-educational

Institution. Yes/No
 5. People of the society were interested only in education the male
Yes/No

Economics 1.

Parents poverty was the major hindrance of female education. Yes/No

2. Parents had engaged their female child at working in field, fishing and
household works. Yes/No 3. Female child engaged in traditional workplace for
improving the Economy of parents. Yes/No

4. There was no state assistance for educating female child.

Yes/No

5. Female education was considered to be a meaningless expenditure.

Yes/No

Parents consciousness

1. Illiteracy of parents was responsible for not giving education to their

female child. Yes/No

2. Negligence of the parents was one of the cause of not giving education
to the female child. Yes/No

3. Parents supposition was that without receiving formal education their

female child would be capable to lead a happy life.
Yes/No

4. Parents were not far-sighted.

Yes/No

5. Rural atmosphere compelled them to think negatively for education of

the female child. Yes/No

Learners Interest

1. The female child had no interest in receiving education.

Yes/No

2. There was no educational institution nearby their residence.

Yes/No
 3. Parents and society didnt provide encouragement for educating the
female child. Yes/No

4. Female child preferred staying at home to going to school.

Yes/No

5. Peer group influence was lacking in educating themselves.

Yes/No

Communication

1. Technological advancement was not up to the mark to supply

Information regarding education. Yes/No

2. School were at distance places which became a problem for attending

schools. Yes/No

3. No scope was available for communication through Road/ Vehicle/Tele

communication. Yes/No 4. No communication with the elite society. Yes/No 5.
Use of TV, Newspaper, Radio etc. were not available.
Yes/No

Teaching and Learning

1. No psychological method of teaching and learning was adopted.

Yes/No

2. Learners needs were not considered for receiving education.

Yes/No

3. No motivation was done by the parents, teachers and the members of

the society for education of the female learners. Yes/No

4. The female child faced problems of adjustment in the school

Environment. Yes/No

5. No procedural was adopted to make female child interested towards

receiving education. Yes/No