Magnetohydrodynamics

For the academic journal, see Magnetohydrodynamics

(journal).
Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD; also magneto-uid

The sun is an MHD system that is not well understood.

Michael Faraday
dynamics or hydromagnetics) is the study of the mag-
netic properties of electrically conducting uids. Ex-
amples of such magnetouids include plasmas, liquid transfer of momentum from the Sun to the
metals, salt water and electrolytes. The word mag- planets, which is fundamental to the theory
netohydrodynamics is derived from magneto- meaning (11). The importance of the magnetohy-
magnetic eld, hydro- meaning water, and -dynamics drodynamic waves in this respect are pointed
meaning movement. The eld of MHD was initiated by out.[2]
[1]
Hannes Alfvn, for which he received the Nobel Prize
in Physics in 1970. The ebbing salty water owing past Londons Waterloo
The fundamental concept behind MHD is that magnetic Bridge interacts with the Earths magnetic eld to pro-
elds can induce currents in a moving conductive uid, duce a potential dierence between the two river-banks.
which in turn polarizes the uid and reciprocally changes Michael Faraday tried this experiment in 1832 but the
the magnetic eld itself. The set of equations that de- current was too small to measure with the equipment at
scribe MHD are a combination of the Navier-Stokes the time,[3] and the river bed contributed to short-circuit
equations of uid dynamics and Maxwells equations of the signal. However, by a similar process the voltage in-
electromagnetism. These dierential equations must be duced by the tide in the English Channel was measured
solved simultaneously, either analytically or numerically. in 1851.[4]

1 History 2 Ideal and resistive MHD

The rst recorded use of the word magnetohydrodynam- The simplest form of MHD, Ideal MHD, assumes that
ics is by Hannes Alfvn in 1942: the uid has so little resistivity that it can be treated as a
perfect conductor. This is the limit of innite magnetic
At last some remarks are made about the Reynolds number. In ideal MHD, Lenzs law dictates

1
2 2 IDEAL AND RESISTIVE MHD

often accomplished with approximations to the heat ux

through a condition of adiabaticity or isothermality.
The main quantities which characterize the electrically
conducting uid are the bulk plasma velocity eld v, the
current density J, the mass density , and the plasma
pressure p. The owing electric charge in the plasma
is the source of a magnetic eld B and electric eld E.
All quantities generally vary with time t. Vector opera-
tor notation will be used, in particular is gradient, is
divergence, and is curl.
The mass continuity equation is

+ (v) = 0.
MHD Simulation of the Solar Wind t
The Cauchy momentum equation is
that the uid is in a sense tied to the magnetic eld lines.
To explain, in ideal MHD a small rope-like volume of ( )

uid surrounding a eld line will continue to lie along a + v v = J B p.
magnetic eld line, even as it is twisted and distorted by t
uid ows in the system. This is sometimes referred to The Lorentz force term JB can be expanded using Am-
as the magnetic eld lines being frozen in the uid.[5] peres law and the vector calculus identity
The connection between magnetic eld lines and uid in
ideal MHD xes the topology of the magnetic eld in
the uidfor example, if a set of magnetic eld lines 1
are tied into a knot, then they will remain so as long (B B) = (B )B + B ( B)
2
as the uid/plasma has negligible resistivity. This di-
culty in reconnecting magnetic eld lines makes it possi- to give
ble to store energy by moving the uid or the source of
the magnetic eld. The energy can then become avail- ( )
able if the conditions for ideal MHD break down, allow- (B ) B B2
JB= ,
ing magnetic reconnection that releases the stored energy 0 20
from the magnetic eld.
where the rst term on the right hand side is the magnetic
tension force and the second term is the magnetic pressure
2.1 Ideal MHD equations force. The ideal Ohms law for a plasma is given by

E + v B = 0.

Faradays law is

B
= E.
t
The low-frequency Amperes law neglects displacement
current and is given by

Magnetohydrodynamic ow simulation showing magnetic ux

density 0 J = B.

The ideal MHD equations consist of the continuity equa- The magnetic divergence constraint is
tion, the Cauchy momentum equation, Amperes Law ne-
glecting displacement current, and a temperature evolu-
tion equation. As with any uid description to a kinetic B = 0.
system, a closure approximation must be applied to high-
est moment of the particle distribution equation. This is The energy equation is given by
2.4 Importance of kinetic eects 3

quickly. When this happens, magnetic reconnection may

( ) occur in the plasma to release stored magnetic energy as
d p waves, bulk mechanical acceleration of material, particle
= 0,
dt acceleration, and heat.
where = 5/3 is the ratio of specic heats for an Magnetic reconnection in highly conductive systems is
adiabatic equation of state. This energy equation is, of important because it concentrates energy in time and
course, only applicable in the absence of shocks or heat space, so that gentle forces applied to a plasma for long
conduction as it assumes that the entropy of a uid ele- periods of time can cause violent explosions and bursts
ment does not change. of radiation.
When the uid cannot be considered as completely con-
ductive, but the other conditions for ideal MHD are sat-
2.2 Applicability of ideal MHD to plasmas ised, it is possible to use an extended model called re-
sistive MHD. This includes an extra term in Ohms Law
Ideal MHD is only strictly applicable when: which models the collisional resistivity. Generally MHD
computer simulations are at least somewhat resistive be-
1. The plasma is strongly collisional, so that the time cause their computational grid introduces a numerical re-
scale of collisions is shorter than the other charac- sistivity.
teristic times in the system, and the particle distri-
butions are therefore close to Maxwellian.
2.4 Importance of kinetic eects
2. The resistivity due to these collisions is small. In
particular, the typical magnetic diusion times over Another limitation of MHD (and uid theories in general)
any scale length present in the system must be longer is that they depend on the assumption that the plasma is
than any time scale of interest. strongly collisional (this is the rst criterion listed above),
so that the time scale of collisions is shorter than the other
3. Interest in length scales much longer than the ion characteristic times in the system, and the particle distri-
skin depth and Larmor radius perpendicular to the butions are Maxwellian. This is usually not the case in
eld, long enough along the eld to ignore Landau fusion, space and astrophysical plasmas. When this is
damping, and time scales much longer than the ion not the case, or the interest is in smaller spatial scales,
gyration time (system is smooth and slowly evolv- it may be necessary to use a kinetic model which prop-
ing). erly accounts for the non-Maxwellian shape of the dis-
tribution function. However, because MHD is relatively
simple and captures many of the important properties of
2.3 Importance of resistivity plasma dynamics it is often qualitatively accurate and is
therefore often the rst model tried.
In an imperfectly conducting uid the magnetic eld can
generally move through the uid following a diusion law Eects which are essentially kinetic and not captured by
with the resistivity of the plasma serving as a diusion uid models include double layers, Landau damping, a
constant. This means that solutions to the ideal MHD wide range of instabilities, chemical separation in space
equations are only applicable for a limited time for a re- plasmas and electron runaway. In the case of ultra-high
gion of a given size before diusion becomes too impor- intensity laser interactions, the incredibly short timescales
tant to ignore. One can estimate the diusion time across of energy deposition mean that hydrodynamic codes fail
a solar active region (from collisional resistivity) to be to capture the essential physics.
hundreds to thousands of years, much longer than the ac-
tual lifetime of a sunspotso it would seem reasonable
to ignore the resistivity. By contrast, a meter-sized vol- 3 Structures in MHD systems
ume of seawater has a magnetic diusion time measured
in milliseconds. Further information: Magnetosphere particle motion
Even in physical systems which are large and conduc- In many MHD systems most of the electric current
tive enough that simple estimates of the Lundquist num- is compressed into thin nearly-two-dimensional ribbons
ber suggest that the resistivity can be ignored resistivity termed current sheets. These can divide the uid into
may still be important: many instabilities exist that can magnetic domains, inside of which the currents are rel-
increase the eective resistivity of the plasma by factors atively weak. Current sheets in the solar corona are
of more than a billion. The enhanced resistivity is usu- thought to be between a few meters and a few kilome-
ally the result of the formation of small scale structure ters in thickness, which is quite thin compared to the
like current sheets or ne scale magnetic turbulence, in- magnetic domains (which are thousands to hundreds of
troducing small spatial scales into the system over which thousands of kilometers across). Another example is in
ideal MHD is broken and magnetic diusion can occur the Earths magnetosphere, where current sheets sepa-
4 5 EXTENSIONS

Phase velocity plotted with respect to for vA < vs .

Schematic view of the dierent current systems which shape the

Earths magnetosphere

rate topologically distinct domains, isolating most of the

Earths ionosphere from the solar wind.

4 Waves
See also: Waves in plasmas
Phase velocity plotted with respect to for vA > vs .
The wave modes derived using MHD plasma theory are
called magnetohydrodynamic waves or MHD waves.
In general there are three MHD wave modes: vs = p

is the ideal gas sound speed. The plus branch corresponds

Pure (or oblique) Alfvn wave to the fast-MHD wave mode and the minus branch cor-
responds to the slow-MHD wave mode.
Slow MHD wave
The MHD oscillations will be damped if the uid is not
Fast MHD wave perfectly conducting but has a nite conductivity, or if
viscous eects are present.
All these waves have constant phase velocities for all fre- MHD waves and oscillations are a popular tool for the re-
quencies, and hence there is no dispersion. At the limits mote diagnostics of laboratory and astrophysical plasmas,
when the angle between the wave propagation vector k e.g. the corona of the Sun (Coronal seismology).
and magnetic eld B is either 0 (180) or 90 degrees, the
wave modes are called:[6]
The phase velocity depends on the angle between the 5 Extensions
wave vector k and the magnetic eld B. An MHD wave
propagating at an arbitrary angle with respect to the
Resistive Resistive MHD describes magnetized uids
time independent or bulk eld B0 will satisfy the disper-
with nite electron diusivity ( = 0 ). This diu-
sion relation
sivity leads to a breaking in the magnetic topology;

k = vA cos magnetic eld lines can 'reconnect' when they col-

where lide. Usually this term is small and reconnections
can be handled by thinking of them as not dissimilar
vA = B00 to shocks; this process has been shown to be impor-
is the Alfvn speed. This branch corresponds to the shear tant in the Earth-Solar magnetic interactions.
Alfvn mode. Additionally the dispersion equation gives
Extended Extended MHD describes a class of phenom-
[ ] 12
ena in plasmas that are higher order than resistive
k = 2 (vA + vs ) 2 (vA + vs ) 4vs vA cos
1 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2
MHD, but which can adequately be treated with a
where single uid description. These include the eects of
6.2 Astrophysics 5

Hall physics, electron pressure gradients, nite Lar- interior. After running the simulations for thousands of
mor Radii in the particle gyromotion, and electron years in virtual time, the changes in Earths magnetic eld
inertia. can be studied. The simulation results are in good agree-
ment with the observations as the simulations have cor-
Two-uid Two-uid MHD describes plasmas that in- rectly predicted that the Earths magnetic eld ips ev-
clude a non-negligible Hall electric eld. As a re- ery few hundred thousands of years. During the ips,
sult, the electron and ion momenta must be treated the magnetic eld does not vanish altogetherit just gets
separately. This description is more closely tied to more complex. [12]
Maxwells equations as an evolution equation for the
electric eld exists.
6.1.1 Earthquakes
Hall In 1960, M. J. Lighthill criticized the applicability
of ideal or resistive MHD theory for plasmas.[7] It Some monitoring stations have reported that earthquakes
concerned the neglect of the Hall current term, a are sometimes preceded by a spike in ultra low frequency
frequent simplication made in magnetic fusion the- (ULF) activity. A remarkable example of this occurred
ory. Hall-magnetohydrodynamics (HMHD) takes before the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake in California,[13]
into account this electric eld description of magne- although a subsequent study indicates that this was lit-
tohydrodynamics. The most important dierence is tle more than a sensor malfunction.[14] On December 9,
that in the absence of eld line breaking, the mag- 2010, geoscientists announced that the DEMETER satel-
netic eld is tied to the electrons and not to the bulk lite observed a dramatic increase in ULF radio waves over
uid.[8] Haiti in the month before the magnitude 7.0 M 2010
[15]
Collisionless MHD is also often used for collisionless earthquake. Researchers are attempting to learn more
plasmas. In that case the MHD equations are de- about this correlation to nd out whether this method can
rived from the Vlasov equation. [9] be used as part of an early warning system for earth-
quakes.
Reduced By using a multiscale analysis the (resistive)
MHD equations can be reduced to a set of four
closed scalar equations. This allows e.g. for more 6.2 Astrophysics
ecient numerical calculations.[10]
MHD applies to astrophysics, including stars, the
interplanetary medium (space between the planets), and
6 Applications possibly within the interstellar medium (space between
the stars) and jets. Most astrophysical systems are not in
local thermal equilibrium, and therefore require an addi-
6.1 Geophysics tional kinematic treatment to describe all the phenomena
within the system (see Astrophysical plasma).
Beneath the Earths mantle lies the core, which is made
Sunspots are caused by the Suns magnetic elds, as
up of two parts: the solid inner core and liquid outer
Joseph Larmor theorized in 1919. The solar wind is also
core. Both have signicant quantities of iron. The liq-
governed by MHD. The dierential solar rotation may be
uid outer core moves in the presence of the magnetic eld
the long-term eect of magnetic drag at the poles of the
and eddies are set up into the same due to the Coriolis ef-
Sun, an MHD phenomenon due to the Parker spiral shape
fect. These eddies develop a magnetic eld which boosts
assumed by the extended magnetic eld of the Sun.
Earths original magnetic elda process which is self-
[11]
sustaining and is called the geomagnetic dynamo. Previously, theories describing the formation of the Sun
and planets could not explain how the Sun has 99.87% of
the mass, yet only 0.54% of the angular momentum in the
solar system. In a closed system such as the cloud of gas
and dust from which the Sun was formed, mass and an-
gular momentum are both conserved. That conservation
would imply that as the mass concentrated in the center
of the cloud to form the Sun, it would spin faster, much
like a skater pulling their arms in. The high speed of ro-
tation predicted by early theories would have ung the
proto-Sun apart before it could have formed. However,
magnetohydrodynamic eects transfer the Suns angular
momentum into the outer solar system, slowing its rota-
Reversals of Earths magnetic eld
tion.
Based on the MHD equations, Glatzmaier and Paul Breakdown of ideal MHD (in the form of magnetic re-
Roberts have made a supercomputer model of the Earths connection) is known to be the likely cause of solar ares.
6 8 NOTES

The magnetic eld in a solar active region over a sunspot
can store energy that is released suddenly as a burst of mo-
tion, X-rays, and radiation when the main current sheet
collapses, reconnecting the eld.
6.3 Sensors
MHD power generation fueled by potassium-seeded coal
combustion gas showed potential for more ecient en-
ergy conversion (the absence of solid moving parts allows
operation at higher temperatures), but failed due to cost-
prohibitive technical diculties.[19] One major engineer-
ing problem was the failure of the wall of the primary-
coal combustion chamber due to abrasion.
In microuidics, MHD is studied as a uid pump for pro-
ducing a continuous, nonpulsating ow in a complex mi-
crochannel design.[20]
MHD can be implemented in the continuous casting pro-
cess of metals to suppress instabilities and control the
ow.[21][22]

6.5 Magnetic drug targeting

An important task in cancer research is developing more
precise methods for delivery of medicine to aected ar-
eas. One method involves the binding of medicine to bio-
logically compatible magnetic particles (e.g. ferrouids),
which are guided to the target via careful placement of
permanent magnets on the external body. Magnetohydro-
Principle of MHD sensor for angular velocity measurement
dynamic equations and nite element analysis are used to
study the interaction between the magnetic uid particles
[23]
Magnetohydrodynamic sensors are used for precision in the bloodstream and the external magnetic eld.
measurements of angular velocities in inertial navigation
systems such as in aerospace engineering. Accuracy im-
proves with the size of the sensor. The sensor is capable 7 See also
of surviving in harsh environments.[16]
Computational magnetohydrodynamics

6.4 Engineering Electrohydrodynamics

MHD is related to engineering problems such as plasma Electromagnetic pump

connement, liquid-metal cooling of nuclear reactors, Ferrouid
and electromagnetic casting (among others).
List of plasma physics articles
A magnetohydrodynamic drive or MHD propulsor is a
method for propelling seagoing vessels using only electric Lorentz force velocity meter
and magnetic elds with no moving parts, using magne-
tohydrodynamics. The working principle involves elec- Magnetic ow meter
trication of the propellant (gas or water) which can then
Magnetohydrodynamic generator
be directed by a magnetic eld, pushing the vehicle in the
opposite direction. Although some working prototypes Magnetohydrodynamic turbulence
exist, MHD drives remain impractical.
Molten salt
The rst prototype of this kind of propulsion was built
and tested in 1965 by Steward Way, a professor of Plasma stability
mechanical engineering at the University of Califor-
nia, Santa Barbara. Way, on leave from his job at Shocks and discontinuities (magnetohydrodynam-
Westinghouse Electric, assigned his senior-year under- ics)
graduate students to develop a submarine with this new
propulsion system.[17] In the early 1990s, a founda-
tion in Japan (Ship & Ocean Foundation (Minato-ku, 8 Notes
Tokyo)) built an experimental boat, the 'Yamato-1,'
which used a magnetohydrodynamic drive incorporat- [1] Alfvn, H (1942). Existence of electromagnetic-
ing a superconductor cooled by liquid helium, and could hydrodynamic waves. Nature. 150: 405406.
travel at 15 km/h.[18] Bibcode:1942Natur.150..405A. doi:10.1038/150405d0.

[2] Alfvn, H., "On the cosmogony of the solar system III,
Stockholms Observatoriums Annaler, vol. 14, pp.9.19.29
[3] Dynamos in Nature by David P. Stern
[4] McKetta J McKetta, "Encyclopedia of Chemical Process-
ing and Design: Volume 66" (1999)
[5] Eric Priest and Terry Forbes, Magnetic Reconnection:
MHD Theory and Applications, Cambridge University
Press, First Edition, 2000, pp 25.
[6] MHD waves [Oulu]
[7] M. J. Lighthill, Studies on MHD waves and other
anisotropic wave motion, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., Lon-
don, vol. 252A, pp. 397430, 1960.
[8] Witalis, E.A. (1986). Hall Magnetohydrodynam-
ics and Its Applications to Laboratory and Cos-
mic Plasma. IEEE Transactions on Plasma Sci-
ence. PS-14: 842848. Bibcode:1986ITPS...14..842W.
doi:10.1109/TPS.1986.4316632.
[9] W. Baumjohann and R. A. Treumann, Basic Space Plasma
Physics, Imperial College Press, 1997
[10] Kruger, S.E.; Hegna, C.C.; Callen, J.D. Reduced MHD
equations for low aspect ratio plasmas (PDF). University
of Wisconsin. Retrieved 27 April 2015.
[11] NOVA | Magnetic Storm | What Drives Earths Magnetic
Field? | PBS
[12] Earths Inconstant Magnetic Field NASA Science
[13] Fraser-Smith, Antony C.; Bernardi, A.; McGill, P.
R.; Ladd, M. E.; Helliwell, R. A.; Villard, Jr., O.
G. (August 1990). Low-Frequency Magnetic Field
Measurements Near the Epicenter of the M 7.1 Loma
Prieta Earthquake (PDF). Geophysical Research Letters.
Washington, D.C.: American Geophysical Union. 17
(9): 14651468. Bibcode:1990GeoRL..17.1465F.
doi:10.1029/GL017i009p01465. ISSN 0094-8276.
OCLC 1795290. Retrieved December 18, 2010.
[14] Thomas, J. N.; Love, J. J.; Johnston, M. J. S.
(April 2009). On the reported magnetic pre-
cursor of the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake.
Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors. 173
(34): 207215. Bibcode:2009PEPI..173..207T.
doi:10.1016/j.pepi.2008.11.014.
[15] KentuckyFC (December 9, 2010). Spacecraft Saw
ULF Radio Emissions over Haiti before January
Quake. Physics arXiv Blog. Cambridge, Massachusetts:
TechnologyReview.com. Retrieved December 18, 2010.
[16] D.Titterton, J.Weston, Strapdown Inertial Navigation
Technology, chapter 4.3.2
[17] Run Silent, Run Electromagnetic. Time. 1966-09-23.
[18] Setsuo Takezawa et al. (March 1995) Operation of
the Thruster for Superconducting Electromagnetohydrody-
namic Propu1sion Ship YAMATO 1
7
[19] Partially Ionized Gases, M. Mitchner and Charles
H. Kruger, Jr., Mechanical Engineering Department,
Stanford University. See Ch. 9 Magnetohydrodynamic
(MHD) Power Generation, pp. 214230.
[20] Nguyen, N.T.; Wereley, S. (2006). Fundamentals and Ap-
plications of Microuidics. Artech House.
[21] Fujisaki, Keisuke (Oct 2000). In-mold electromag-
netic stirring in continuous casting. Industry Appli-
cations Conference. 4. IEEE. pp. 25912598.
doi:10.1109/IAS.2000.883188.
[22] Kenjeres, S.; Hanjalic, K. (2000). On the implemen-
tation of e ects of Lorentz force in turbulence closure
models. International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow.
21: 329337. doi:10.1016/S0142-727X(00)00017-5.
C1 control character in |title= at position 27 (help)
[23] Magnetohydrodynamics
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 9

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undertow, Peter Horn, SkyWalker, Daggerstab, N2e, Dashpool, Cydebot, Sloth monkey, Dchristle, Omicronpersei8, Thijs!bot, Bpsullivan,
Bovaz, Dawnseeker2000, Seaphoto, Vigeesh, X4096, Spacehippy, WikiDang, Pixel ;-), Pixie2000, David Eppstein, Mattbuie, ABlake,
We todd ed, LordAnubisBOT, Tokamac, Jkeohane, ScienceJunky, Izno, VolkovBot, CWii, USferdinand, Rjw62, SieBot, BotMultichill,
Keilana, Hxhbot, Cypoet, Davidwkennedy, Dolphin51, ClueBot, Niceguyedc, Paleee, Mleconte, Kletetschka, MarkEaston, SchreiberBike,
Warwick-cfsa, Crowsnest, DumZiBoT, Arianewiki1, D1ma5ad, Fabulosso, Addbot, Mortense, Mintysmum, Immae, AndersBot, Light-
bot, Malmax, Legobot, Yobot, Bunnyhop11, Patreides, RockScient, AnomieBOT, Turbulent, Piano non troppo, Unara, Sz-iwbot, Jagons,
Hanewapawe, Omnipaedista, Mnmngb, MetaNest, Anterior1, Tom.Reding, Trappist the monk, Jonkerz, Rakeshk123, Dalba, MagnInd,
Tank00, Francisco Quiumento, JSquish, Sobeita, Mahendrakverma, RaptureBot, Maschen, RockMagnetist, Xonqnopp, ClueBot NG, Bib-
code Bot, ShashankSawant, BG19bot, Rwbest, Zyxwv99, Juuomaqk, Shawn Worthington Laser Plasma, Comfr, BattyBot, MadGuy7023,
Dexbot, Pieceofmetalwork, Benson Muite, HFEO, Jamesmcmahon0, Markeightfold, J e ed smith, Pscrape, Suren.vasilyan, Joe Vitale 5,
Epigogue, Cyclops112, Skangaroo, Isambard Kingdom, Aaronschutza, Your fellow human, Atif Masood (FetchCFD) and Anonymous:
116

10.2 Images
File:Currents.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Currents.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
David P. Stern, 1994: The art of mapping the magnetosphere (Journal of Geophysical Research, DOI: 10.1029/94JA01239); Trans-
ferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Sir48 using CommonsHelper. Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Australia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b9/Flag_of_Australia.svg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Brazil.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi-
nal artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Canada.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/cf/Flag_of_Canada.svg License: PD Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, rewritten by User:Gabbe
File:Flag_of_Europe.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg License: Public domain
Contributors:
File based on the specication given at [1]. Original artist: User:Verdy p, User:-x-, User:Paddu, User:Nightstallion, User:Funakoshi,
User:Jeltz, User:Dbenbenn, User:Zscout370
File:Flag_of_France.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Orig-
inal artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Germany.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg License: PD Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_India.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Iran.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg License: Public domain Contrib-
utors: URL http://www.isiri.org/portal/files/std/1.htm and an English translation / interpretation at URL http://flagspot.net/flags/ir'.html
Original artist: Various
File:Flag_of_Italy.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Japan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi-
nal artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: own code, construction sheet Original artist: -x-
File:Flag_of_Pakistan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: The drawing and the colors were based from agspot.net. Original artist: User:Zscout370
File:Flag_of_Portugal.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: http://jorgesampaio.arquivo.presidencia.pt/pt/republica/simbolos/bandeiras/index.html#imgs Original artist: Colum-
bano Bordalo Pinheiro (1910; generic design); Vtor Lus Rodrigues; Antnio Martins-Tuvlkin (2004; this specic vector set: see sources)
File:Flag_of_Russia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi-
nal artist: ?
10 10 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Flag_of_South_Korea.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg License:

Public domain Contributors: Ordinance Act of the Law concerning the National Flag of the Republic of Korea, Construction and color
guidelines (Russian/English) Original artist: Various
File:Flag_of_Spain.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Sweden.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg License: PD Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Switzerland.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Flag_of_Switzerland.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: PDF Colors Construction sheet Original artist: User:Marc Mongenet

Credits:
File:Flag_of_Ukraine.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: 4512:2006 . Original artist: Government of Ukraine
File:Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.
svg License: Public domain Contributors:
-x-'s le
-x-'s code
Zirlands codes of colors
Original artist:
(of code): SVG version by cs:-x-.
File:Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370
File:Flag_of_the_People{}s_Republic_of_China.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Flag_of_the_
People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, http://www.protocol.gov.hk/flags/eng/n_flag/
design.html Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, redrawn by User:Denelson83 and User:Zscout370
File:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg Li-
cense: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg License:
PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_
oil_1842.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Thomas Phillips, 1842 Original artist: Thomas Phillips
File:Magnetohydrodynamic_Flow_Simulation.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/
Magnetohydrodynamic_Flow_Simulation.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work http://fetchcfd.com/view-project/300
Original artist: Atif Masood (FetchCFD)
File:MhdVphFig1.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/MhdVphFig1.png License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Con-
tributors: Own work Original artist: Aaronschutza
File:MhdVphFig2.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/MhdVphFig2.png License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Con-
tributors: Own work Original artist: Aaronschutza
File:NASA_54559main_comparison1_strip.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/NASA_54559main_
comparison1_strip.gif License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Principle_of_MHD_Sensor.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b4/Principle_of_MHD_Sensor.jpg License:
Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Question_book-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0
Contributors:
Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist:
Tkgd2007
File:T3e_troy.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/T3e_troy.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
https://web.archive.org/web/20060929055925/http://www-lep.gsfc.nasa.gov/sptp/t3e.html Original artist: D. Aaron Roberts, Sanjoy
Ghosh, and/or Leon Ofman.
File:The_sun_is_an_MHD_system_that_is_not_well_understood-_2013-04-9_14-29.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/8/8e/The_sun_is_an_MHD_system_that_is_not_well_understood-_2013-04-9_14-29.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: NASA image of the day: Suns Quiet Corona Original artist: NASA/SDO

10.3 Content license

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