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Analysis and Design of Pultruded FRP Shapes Under Bending
Analysis and Design of Pultruded FRP Shapes Under Bending
and E. J. Barbero
Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering and CFC, West Virginia University,
Morgantown, West Virginia 26506-6103, USA
(Received December 1994; accepted April 1995)
A comprehensive approach for the analysis and design of pultruded FRP beams in bending is presented. It is
shown that the material architecture of pultruded FRP shapes can be efficiently modeled as a layered system.
Based on the information provided by the material producers, a detailed procedure is presented for the
computation of fiber volume fraction (Vf) of the constituents, including fiber bundles or rovings, continuous
strand mats, and cross-ply and angle-ply fabrics. Using the computed Vfs, the ply stiffnesses are evaluated
from selected micromechanics models. The wall or panel laminate engineering constants can be computed
from the ply stiffnesses and macromechanics, and it is shown that the predictions correlate well with coupon
test results. The bending response of various H and box sections is studied experimentally and analytically.
The mechanics of laminated beams (MLB) model used in this study can accurately predict displacements
and strains, and it can be used in engineering design and manufacturing optimization of cross-sectional
shapes and lay-up configurations. The experimental results agree closely with the MLB predictions and
finite element verifications.
(Keywords: pultrusion; F R P shapes; modeling; micromechanics; laminated beams; experimental results; finite elements)
295
Analysis and design of pultruded FRP shapes: J. F. Davalos et al.
micromechanics formulae for the computation of the laminated composites require accurate predictions of
laminae stiffnesses based on their respective Vfs. In ply stiffnesses, which can be evaluated through micro-
particular, the use of micromechanics formulae for mechanics by estimating the Vf of the constituents; and
composites with periodic microstructure 3 is recom- (2) the modeling of member response requires a relatively
mended. The ply stiffnesses can then be used in classical simple, but accurate method that can be used in
lamination theory (CLT)4 to predict the laminate engineering analysis and design, which can be accom-
stiffnesses. In this study, predictions with CLT are plished by the proposed MLB model.
favorably compared to experimental results of FRP
coupon samples cut from full-size sections.
Based on a formal engineering approach of first-order 2.1. Prediction of material properties
shear deformation theory, the mechanics of thin-walled
Pultruded sections, such as H, box, and other shapes,
laminated composite beams (MLB) was developed5.
consist typically of arrangements of flat walls or panels.
Accounting for the cross-section geometry and material
Usually, the reinforcement used is E-glass, and the resin
anisotropy, this formulation permits the computation of
or matrix is either vinylester or polyester. Although these
beam stiffness coefficients and shear correction factor,
sections are not produced by lamination lay-up, the
that can be conveniently used in Timoshenko beam
arrangement of the constituent materials can be simu-
equations. Then, the stress resultants are used to
lated as a layer system, and the stiffness properties of
compute ply stresses in a post-processing operation. In
each panel can be predicted by lamination theory in
this study, MLB is used as an efficient tool for the
terms of the ply stiffnesses computed through micro-
analysis and design of pultruded FRP sections. The
mechanics. A typical pultruded section may include the
predictions of MLB for H and box beams are validated
following four types of layers (Figure 1 ): (1) A thin layer
with finite element analyses and an experimental
of randomly-oriented chopped fibers (Nexus) placed on
program.
the surface of the composite. This is a resin-rich layer
The experimental study presented in this paper
primarily used as a protective coating, and its contribu-
includes two H and two box pultruded beams, which
tion to the laminate response can be neglected; (2)
are tested in bending to evaluate displacements and
continuous strand mats (CSM) of different weights
strains. The samples are subjected to 3-point and 4-point
consisting of continuous randomly-oriented fibers; (3)
loadings, and the largest box section (10 10 3/4") is
stitched fabrics (SF) with different angle orientations,
tested at various span-to-depth ratios to evaluate shear
and (4) roving layers that contain continuous unidirec-
effects. The predictions of the MLB model agree well
tional fiber bundles, which contribute the most to the
with the experimental results, which are also verified with
stiffness and strength of a section. Each layer is modeled
finite element analyses using 8-node isoparametric shell
as a homogeneous, linearly elastic, and generally
elements of ANSYS. Through the analytical and
orthotropic material, and to evaluate its properties, the
experimental program described in this paper, an
information provided by the material producer and
efficient and comprehensive analysis and design
pultrusion manufacturer are used to compute Vf of each
approach for pultruded FRP beams is illustrated. The
equivalent ply, as explained next.
proposed approach intends to bridge a gap between the
sophisticated modeling of composite materials and the
requirement for a simple but consistent tool for 2.1.1. Computation of fiber volume fraction. The Vf
engineering design. for each ply, either a roving or a CSM or a SF layer, is
Since there are no simplified and yet rigorous design
guidelines for pultruded FRP members, it is significant
that this paper presents a practical method that can be 62.5/ft - 61 yield roving o
used for the analysis, design, and optimization of FRP S Nexus Veil ~ ] _ / / 1 5 . 5 oz 90 SF
beams. The paper is organized in two major sections: (1) ~ ~ ~ \ \ ~ \ ~ 1/2 oz CSM
Modeling considerations, which include prediction of [ O O O O qlp O O ~ID O I - 1 oz CSM
ply/laminate stiffnesses and member response; and (2)
12 oz +45 SF
analytical and experimental evaluations of FRP beams,
which include test results of coupon samples and full-size 52.5/ft - 61 yield
members. 15.5 oz 90 SF
t oz CSM
296
Analysis and design of pultruded FRP shapes: J. F. Davalos et al.
defined as the ratio of the volume of fibers present to the reasonably accurate stiffness predictions for roving and
total volume of the layer, and therefore, the relative SF layers. The formula for G12 given by the composite
volumes of fiber and matrix are determined to evaluate cylinders model is
the ply stiffnesses. Similarly, the Vr of the whole section
(1 4- Vf)Gf 4- (1 - Vt,)Gm
can be defined. For the CSM and SF layers, which are GI2 = Gm (5)
respectively specified in oz/ft 2 and oz/yd 2, the Vr can be ( 1 - vf)af 4- (1 4- Vf)6 m
determined as follows: For comparative purposes and because of its popularity,
W the elastic properties of roving and SF layers are also
( Vr)CSM/SF pt (1) computed by the mechanics of materials rule of mixtures
approach 4. For example, the expression for G12 is given
where, w is the weight per unit area in lb/in 2, p is the by
unconsolidated density of the CSM or SF fibers in lb/in 3,
and t is the "as manufactured' thickness of the material GmGr
(inches) as provided by the material producer. Thus, as G12 = (1 - Vt-)Gr + gfG m (6)
an approximation, it is assumed that the thicknesses of The stiffness of the CSM layers are estimated from the
these constituents remain constant during part manu- approximate expressions ~1 for randomly oriented com-
facturing, and that the voids are filled with resin. For the posites, based on the assumption that the material is
roving layers, the Vr is defined as: isotropic in the plane 12. The following expressions given
nrAr in ref. 11 are used:
(v0r - (2)
tr E
E = g E3 , + 5E 2 G = ~ E , +E~. u = - 2G
-- 1 (7)
where, nr is the number of rovings per unit width (in J)
provided by the manufacturer, tr is the assumed in situ where, E I and E2 are computed from any of the micro-
thickness of the roving-matrix layer, which is computed mechanics models described earlier, and E, G, and u are
by subtracting the thicknesses of the CSM and SF layers equivalent isotropic elastic constants. Recent experi-
from the pultruded laminate thickness; A r is the area of mental results for CSM strips have shown that the
one roving computed from: extensional stiffness, E, estimated with the above formula
1 is approximately 15% higher than the experimental
Ar = (3) valuel3.
YPr
where, Y is the yield specified in yards/lb and converted
2.1.3. Prediction of panel stiffhesses. Once the ply
to in/lb, and p~ is the density of the fibers given by the
stiffnesses for each flat panel or wall section of a pul-
producer. Once the Vfs for all the typical layers are
truded shape are computed through micromechanics
computed, the ply stiffnesses are predicted using selected formulas, the stiffnesses of a panel can be computed
micromechanics formulas. from classical lamintion theory (CLF) 4. In particular,
the compliance matrix corresponding to the extensional
2.1.2. Prediction of ply stiffhess. Several formulae of stiffness matrix, A, can be used to evaluate the laminate
micromechanics of composites have been developed engineering properties in terms of the transformed stiff-
and used over time 6. The degree of correlation between
ness coefficients ~)ij. An example is given next to illus-
experimental data and theoretical predictions depends trate the computation of ply and laminate elastic
on the accuracy of the model used. In this study, the properties.
ply stiffnesses for the roving and stitched fabric layers
are computed using primarily a recent micromechanics
model for composites with periodic microstructure 2.1.4. Example: elastic properties of a pultruded box
developed by Luciano and Barbero 3. Detailed expres-
section. Using the manufacturer's information and
sions for the computation of the elastic constants E l , the micro/macromechanics approach described above,
the material properties of the box section shown in
E2, GI2 , and u12 are given in the original paper along
with experimental correlations. As an illustration, the
Figure 1 are evaluated. This 4 x 8 x 1/4" pultruded
shape was manufactured using E-glass and vinylester
expression for the computation of the in-plane shear
resin by Creative Pultrusions Inc., and it consists of six
modulus G12 is given by:
CSM layers, two cross-ply and two angle-ply SF layers,
and two roving layers. The Vrs' of the constituent layers
G12 = a m - v f - -~ G m - G (4) are computed from equations (1) and (2) and the infor-
mation given in Table 1. As explained before, the thick-
where, the subscripts f and m refer to fiber and matrix ness of the roving layers is computed by subtracting the
respectively, and $3 is given by thicknesses of the CSM and SF layers from the total
S 3 = 0.49247 - 0.47603 Vf - 0.02748 Vf2 thickness of the laminate (0.25").
To evaluate the ply stiffnesses through micromecha-
In addition, the composite cylinders model 7 which is nics, the properties of fiber and resin are given in Table 2.
based on the self-consistent theory s ~0, can provide To obtain accurate results, the elastic properties of the
297
Analysis and design of pultruded FRP shapes. J. F. Davalos et al.
No. of plies and type Nominal weight* w (lb/in 2) Ar (in2) t Thickness (in) Vf
Table 2 Material properties of the constituents The compliance matrix [a], which is the inverse of A,
Material E (psi) G (psi) u p (lb/in 3)
becomes:
E-glass fiber 10.5 106 4.1833 106 0.255 0.092 1.19 x 10-6 -3.831 x 10-7 0 ]
Vinylester resin* 7.336 105 2.3714 x 105 0.30 0.041
-3.831 x 10 7 1.536 x 10 6 0
J
[Os] --"
* obtained experimentally (Tomblin 1994)
0 0 4.902 x 10 6
1/2 oz CSM 2.093 2.132 2.077 2.093 2.123 2.077 0.407 0.412 0.412 0.744 0.755 0.337
1 oz CSM 1.710 1.758 1.727 1.710 1.758 1.727 0.402 0.407 0.404 0.610 0.625 0.305
15.5oz 90 fabric 4.118 4.276 4.181 1.183 1.141 1.092 0.389 0.281 0.284 0.457 0.455 0.356
1 2 o z + 4 5 fabric 3.505 3.674 3.576 1.056 1.022 1.006 0.396 0.284 0.287 0.405 0.404 0.327
61 yield roving 8.469 8.438 8.478 3.374 3.093 2.796 0.343 0.262 0.264 1.429 1.387 0.941
298
Analysis and design of pultruded FRP shapes. J. F. Davalos et al.
actual stiffness of laminated composite beam elements (Ns = Ms = Msz = 0), and assuming that the off-axis
under flexure for span-to-width ratios _> 6. Therefore, plies are balanced symmetric (al6 =/316 7_ 0), the exten-
the approach is adopted in this study to model pultruded sional, bending-extension coupling, bending, and shear
structural shapes by first-order shear deformation theory stiffnesses of the ith wall are expressed as:
for thin- and moderately thick-walled laminated beams
mi ~- ( ~ I 1 A - I ) i , /~i---- (--fillA 1)i,
with open or closed cross-sections 5.
In the present model, the stiffnesses of a beam are D i = (all A 1)i, /'i = (a61)i (10)
computed by adding the contribution of the stiffnesses of
where A 7_ OZl1611 -- /3~1
the component panels, which in turn are obtained from
the effective beam moduli. The model accounts for where Ns, 3~ts and &tsz are laminate resultant force and
membrane stiffness and flexure stiffness of the walls, but moments and al6 and/3t6 are compliance elements.
shear lag warping effects are not considered, The position General expressions for the beam stiffness coefficients
of the neutral axis is defined in such a way that the are derived from the beam variational problem. Hence,
behavior of a beam-column with asymmetric material axial (Az), bending (Dx, Dy), and shear (Fx, Fy) stiffnesses
and/or cross-sectional shape is completely described by that account for the contribution of all the walls can be
axial, bending, and shear stiffness coefficients (Az, Dy, Fy) computed as
only. Furthermore, a shear correction factor is obtained
from energy equivalence. An overview of the mechanics m z = ~-] Aibi
of laminated beams (MLB) theory is presented next. i=l
The basic kinematic assumptions in MLB are: (1) The n
contour does not deform in its own plane, and (2) a plane B,, = cos 0i]b/
i=1
section originally normal to the beam axis remains plane,
but not necessarily normal to the beam axis due to shear i " 2 r
deformation. Straight FRP beams with at least one axis Dy= Ai (V/--y,,)"+l-~Sln 0i (ll)
i=l
of geometric and material symmetry are considered. The
pultruded sections are modeled as assemblies of flat
walls. The compliance matrices [a]3x3 , [3133, [~]3x3 are + 2Bi()' i - y,,) cos q)i 4- L)/cos2 q~i]bi
obtained from classical lamination theory (CLT) 17. For
each wall the position of the middle surface is defined by Fy = ~ Fibi sin 2 (5i
the function (Figure 2): i=1
The beam bending-extension coupling coefficient (Bx or
.v(si) = si sin (Pi + .i~i for - ~-bi< Si __<~bi (9) By) can be eliminated by defining the location of the
neutral axis of bending (Xn or )',1) as
where bi is the wall width, Yi is the position of the wall n
centroid, and O~ is the orientation of the i th wall. cos
By defining stress resultant assumptions in each i=1 (12)
wall compatible with beam theory without torsion )'" = Az
Y
b2
, Y3 =
X
Figure 2 Cross-section geometry and reference coordinate systems
299
Analysis and design of pultruded FRP shapes. J. F. Davalos et al.
expression for the static shear correction factor (K, Ky) 1.5 oz CSM pi~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 7/in -113 yield
beam bending and shear stiffnesses. General formulae for E ~ 3 1.5 oz CSM ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~<D ~ ~ ~; ~ 4"1711n"61 yiel
Nz My
Cz(S/'z) = Z + (y(si) - Yn) D y '
(b) BOx 10"10'%3/4"
My
"~sz(Si,Z) = sinq~i, 2z(Si,Z) = ~ C O S ( ~ i (14) Figure 4 Layup configurations of pultruded box sections
Y Y Uy
300
Analysis and design of pultruded FRP shapes: J. F. Davalos et al.
El E2 GI2 tk
Beam section Layer* (106 psi) (106 psi) (106 psi) ut2 (in)
shown in Figures 3 and 4. The 10 x 10 x 3/4" box section bars. The results are reported in Table 4, along with the
was manufactured by Morison Molded Fiber Glass analytical predictions computed from micromechanics 3
Company of Bristol, VA, and the other three sections and CLT. The differences between the predicted and aver-
were produced by Creative Pultrusions Inc. of Alum Bank, age computed values are less than 3%. Therefore, for the
PA. The experimental program included testing of coupon other three sections tested in this study, the material prop-
samples, cut from one of the box beams, and full- erties were only evaluated analytically.
member samples.
3.1.2. Member testing. The two H and two box
3.1.1. Coupon testing. The laminate stiffnesses of the sections were tested in bending under 3-point and also
walls or panels of the F R P beams used in this study can 4-point loadings. For the 3-point test, the load was
be predicted using the micro/macromechanics approach applied at the midspan of the sample, and for the 4-point
described in Section 2.1, and to validate the accuracy of test of the 10 x 10 z 3/4" box section, the concentrated
the proposed models, coupon samples were cut from the loads were applied at third points, where for the other
10 x 10 x 3/4" box section and tested in tension and tor- three sections, the loads were applied at 20" from each
sion. Samples of 2-inch widths were cut along the longi- end, with a distance between loads of 32". Both H beams
tudinal and transverse directions of the box beam (see and the 4 x 4 x 1/4" box beam were tested for a span of
Figure 5). The longitudinal samples were 18" long, and 6 ft, whereas the 10 x 10 3/4" box section was tested
the transverse samples were 8" long (limited by the 10" for five spans: 6, 8, 10, 12, and 14 feet. The samples
dimension of the box beam). Eight longitudinal and were tested in a load frame, and the load was applied
five transverse samples were tested in tension to deter- with a hydraulic jack and recorded using a load cell.
mine the extensional stiffnesses, Ex and Ey, and Poisson's For all the samples, the maximum deflections at
ratio Uxy. The shear stiffness Gxy w a s determined from midspans were recorded with linear variable differential
torsion tests of 10 longitudinal samples. Using the transducers (LVDTs), and the strains at midspan were
assumption of transverse isotropy 2 and the measured recorded with strain gages. For the two H sections and
torque and angle of twist, the shear stiffness was com- the 4 x 4 z 1/4" box section, which were tested 21, only
puted from Saint Venant's torsion solution for rectangular the maximum strains at top and bottom flanges were
301
Analysis and design of pultruded FRP shapes: J. F. Davalos et al.
Table 6 Panel stiffness coefficients of webs and flanges (given per unit width)
Flange Web
302
Analysis and design of pultruded FRP shapes."J, F. Davalos et al.
Beam section Span (fl) Exp. MLB 6MLB/6Exp. FE Exp. MLB fMLB/~:Exp. FE
H 4 4 x 1/4" 6 0.315 0.314 0.997 0.308 1232 1330 1.079 1400
Box 4 x 4 x 1/4" 6 0.327 0.344 1.052 0.331 1475 1480 1.003 1500
H 6 x 6 x 1/4" 6 0.112 0.1116 0.996 0.1102 590 578 1.021 600
Box 10 x 10 x 3/4" 14 0.06258 0.06600 1.055 0.06206 129 130 1.008 135
Beam section Span (ft) Exp. MLB ~MLB/fExp. FE Exp. MLB ~MLB/eExp FE
H4 4 x 1/4" 6 0.2401 0.2263 0.943 0.210 810 738 0.911 750
Box 4 4 1/4" 6 0.2515 0.2525 1.004 0.246 910 823 0.904 830
H6 x 6 x I/4" 6 0.0740 0.0781 1.055 0.0773 322 321 0.997 315
Box l0 x 10 x 3/4" 14 0.0504 0.0532 1.054 0.0510 77 78 1.013 75
is significantly larger than the flexural component (last ply stiffnesses proposed in this paper. For all four F R P
term of Dy in equation (11)). The total bending stiffnesses sections and a maximum load of 1000 lbs., the predicted
in Table 7 are computed by equation (11), accounting for maximum deflections and strains for the 3-point loading
the bending-extension effects (second term of Dy in case are compared to the experimental values in Table 8.
equation (1 l)) in some of the sections which exhibited Similarly, the maximum deflections and strains for the
minor lay-up asymmetries. 4-point loading case are given in Table 9. The results
To verify the prediction accuracy with the F R P B E A M indicate that the predicted values with MLB agree very
program, the test beams are also analyzed with the well with the FE and experimental values, with
commercial finite element program ANSYS 19 using maximum differences of 5.5% for displacements and
Mindlin 8-node isoparametric layered shell elements 7.9% for strains. The MLB and FE results match closely
(SHELL 99), which include shear deformation. An the experimental values over the entire range of loading,
aspect ratio of one (length-to-width) is used to define as illustrated by Figure 7 for the midspan displacement of
the mesh for each member, and the input material the 6 x 6 x 1/4" H section under 3-point loading, and by
properties used are taken from Table 5. The analytical Figure 8 for the maximum strains of the 10 x 10 x 3/4"
and experimental results are correlated next. box section under 4-point loading.
To evaluate the shear effects, the 10 x 10 x 3/4" box
3.3. Comparison and discussion of results section was tested under five different spans (6, 8, 10, 12,
and 14 feet). The MLB explicit solution permits the
As shown in Table 4, the panel or laminate stiffnesses computation of the bending and shear components of
computed from the predicted laminae properties agree deflection, and as shown in Table 10, shear deflection for
closely with experimental results obtained for the coupon the 3-point loading accounts for approximately 27% of
samples of the 10 x 10 x 3/4" box section. These results
provide confidence in the computational procedure for
1000
1000 P/2. e~ .P/2 .J"
900
900'
800
800' L_ i - .l! ~, 700
700
~, 600
600
500
500 =
400
400
5 300
300
2O0 ~, Experimental
200 /~ ta Experimental .......~... MLB
IO0
100 /,11111 ........~... MI.,B & FE (ANSYS)
~. ~ (ANSYS) 0
O= 0 1'0 2'0 3'0 4.0 50 6.0 7'0 80
0.62 0.64 0.66 0.68 011 o.12 Strain
Center deflections (in)
Figure 8 Strains comparison at midspan for the 10 10 x 3/4" box
Figure 7 Deflections comparison for the H6 6 1/4" section section
303
Analysis and design of pultruded FRP shapes."J. F. Davalos et al.
~total 6total "~shear 6totaI ratio 6iota I ~total ~shear ~total ratio
L (fl) (in/kip) (in/kip) (%) (6MLB/~Exp.) (in/kip) (in/kip) (%) ((~MLB/(~Exp.)
0.05
0.04
ExP =
/
/~
- -
~
100
50
]o
0
4-
[3
11"
[]
~
0
4"
Top
o (a)
o.o,t z -501 .,
CI 0
Bottom
6 7 8 9
i...
10 11 12 13 14
-100
0.0 2~0 ,io 6~0
Width (in)
s:0 10.0
1 0.OO
Span (ft) f
Figure 9 Deflection comparisons for various spans of the 10 10 8.00
3/4" box section
. 6.00
"
the total deflection for the 6-ft span, and it decreases to
about 6% for the 14-ft span. As with the other FRP
~4,00
(b)
sections, the ratio of experimental to MLB predictions is
close to 1.0. The deflection comparisons with FE and
2.00
experimental results are shown graphically in Figure 9.
The longitudinal experimental and analytical strains for
three spans (6, 10, and 14ft) are compared in Figure 10, 0.00
- 1o o . o o -50.00 o.oo 50.00 1o o . o o
showing close agreement. Figure lOa shows the strains
Microstrains/load (~/kip)
across the width of the top and bottom flanges, and
Figure lOb shows the strains across the depth of the two Exp: = 6-ft + 10-ft 14-ft __ MLB
apposite webs. To study the Poisson's effects, transverse
Figure 10 Longitudinal strains for the l0 l0 3/4" box section: (a)
strains were also measured on top and bottom flanges, top and bottom flanges; (b) webs
and the experimental results were within 10% of the
MLB predictions.
304
Analysis and design of pultruded FRP shapes. J. F. Davalos et al.
with A N S Y S 19. The MLB model permits the computa- for strength, fracture toughness, and environmental effects.
NASA TM-83696, USA, 1984
tion of shear and bending deflections separately, and has
7 Hashin, Z. and Rosen, B.W. The elastic modeling of fiber-rein-
the ability to analyze any cross-sectional shape with forced materials. J. Appl. Mech. 1964, 131), 223
some minor restrictions. Therefore, MLB can be used to 8 Whitney, J.M. and Riley, M.B. (September, 1966). Elastic prop-
erties of fiber reinforced composite materials. AIAA J. 1966.
conduct parametric studies, and it can be extended to 1537
optimization studies of existing and new shapes. 9 Budiansky, B. Micromechanics. Computers and Struct. 1983, 16.
In this study, distortional effects, such as shear-lag 3
10 Christensen, R.M. A critical evaluation for a class of micro-
and warping, which can be particularly significant for
mechanics models. J. Mech. Phys. Solids 1990, 38, 379
thin-walled sections, were not considered. Moreover. the lI Hull, D. "An Introduction to Composite Materials', Cambridge
analysis is limited to linear-elastic response and does University Press
12 McCullough, R.L. 'Concept of Fiber-Resin Composites', Mar-
not include failure or buckling considerations. These cel Dekker. Inc., NY, 1971
additional concerns need to be addressed in the design of 13 Makkapati, S. Compressive strength of pultruded structural
FRP beams, and the present formulation can be used as FRP shapes, Master Thesis, West Virginia University, 1994
14 Tomblin, J.S. Compressive strength models for pultruded glass
the basis for further work in this area. fiber reinforced composites. Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of
Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, West Virginia Univer-
sity, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA, 1994
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 15 Lopez-Anido, R., Davalos, J.F. and Barbero E.J. Experimental
The FRP sections tested in this study were partially evaluation of stiffness of laminated composite beam elements
under flexure. J. Reinlbreed Plastics and Composites 1995, ( 14L
contributed by Creative Pultrusions, Inc. and Morrison 349
Molded Fiber Glass Company. The authors thank 16 Whitney, J.M., Browning, C.E. and Mair, A. Analysis of the
Professor GangaRao and Mr Nagaraj for the use of flexure test for laminated composite materials. In "Composite
Materials: Testing and Design (Third Conference)', A S T M
some of the experimental results presented in this paper. STP 546, American Society for Testing and Materials, 30, 1974
17 Tsai, S.W. 'Composites Design', Dayton, OH: Think Compo-
sites, 1988
18 Lopez-Anido, R. Analysis and design of orthotropic plates
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