REPUBLIC OF CAMEROON REPUBLIQUE DU CAMEROUN

PEACE WORK FATHERLAND PAIX TRAVAIL PATRIE

Ministry of Higher Education Ministre de lenseignement Suprieur

THE UNIVERSITY OF BAMENDA UNIVERSITE DE BAMENDA

HIGHER TECHNICAL TEACHERS TRAINING COLLEGE

(H.T.T.T.C) BAMBILI BAMENDA

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND POWER ENGINEERING

OPTION: AIR CONDITIONING AND REFRIGERATION
COURSE TITLE: ACR511 HEAT TRANSFER & CHANGE OF STATE

LEVEL: 500

COOLING TOWER

WRITTEN BY:
N NAMES MATRICULE

COURSE FACILITATOR :

ACADEMIC YEAR: 2016/2017

 COOLING TOWER

CONTENTS
CONTENTS .............................................................................................................................. ii
TABLE OF TABLE .................................................................................................................. iii
TABLE OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................. iii
INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................4
I- GENERALITIES ON COOLING TOWERS .......................................................................4
I-1- Principle [1] ..................................................................................................................4
I-2- Classification of cooling tower. [2] ...............................................................................5
I-2-1- Air ow generation methods ..................................................................................5
I-2-2- Categorization by air-to-water ow ........................................................................6
II- COMPONENTS & MATERIALS OF COOLING TOWER [2] ...........................................8
II-1-1- Components of cooling tower .............................................................................8
II-1-2- Materials of cooling tower [4] .......................................................................... 10
III- DESIGN AND SIZING OF COOLING TOWER [5] ...................................................... 11
III-1- Heat Balance ........................................................................................................... 11
III-2- Pressure Drops in Cooling Tower ............................................................................ 12
III-3- Motor Power Sizing ................................................................................................. 13
III-4- Fan Components & Sizing ....................................................................................... 14
III-4-1- Fan Coverage ................................................................................................... 14
III-4-2- Fan Sizing ........................................................................................................ 14
III-5- Air-Water Distribution System Design .................................................................... 14
III-5-1- Recirculation of Exit Air .................................................................................. 14
III-5-2- Evaporation ...................................................................................................... 14
III-5-3- Cycles of concentration [1] ............................................................................... 15
IV- MAINTENANCE [4] ..................................................................................................... 15
IV-1- System Concerns ..................................................................................................... 15
IV-1-1- Corrosion: ........................................................................................................ 15
IV-1-2- Scaling: ............................................................................................................ 15
IV-1-3- Biological Activity ........................................................................................... 16
IV-2- Typical problems and troubleshooting for cooling towers ........................................ 17
CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................................... 18
REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................... 19

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TABLE OF TABLE
Table 1: Advantages and disadvantages of cooling tower ............................................................7
Table 2: Troubleshooting for cooling tower ............................................................................... 17

TABLE OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Illustration of Water Flow Across a Cooling Tower. .....................................................4

Figure 2: Cross flow natural draft cooling tower ..........................................................................5
Figure 3: Mechanical draft cooling tower ....................................................................................6
Figure 4: A crossflow cooling tower............................................................................................6
Figure 5: A counter flow cooling tower .......................................................................................7
Figure 6: Illustration of different parts of cooling tower ..............................................................8
Figure 7: Heat balance............................................................................................................... 11
Figure 8: Illustration of fan power energy supply ...................................................................... 13
Figure 9: illustration of effect of corrosion ................................................................................ 15
Figure 10: illustration of effect of scaling .................................................................................. 16
Figure 11: Illustration of microbiological activity ...................................................................... 16

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 COOLING TOWER

INTRODUCTION
Cooling towers are an integral component of many refrigeration systems, providing
comfort or process cooling across a broad range of applications. They are the point in the system
where heat is dissipated to the atmosphere through the evaporative process, and are common in
industries such as oil refining, chemical process-ing, power plants, steel mills, and many different
manufacturing processes where process cooling is required. They are also commonly used to
provide comfort cooling for large commercial buildings including airports, office buildings.

I- GENERALITIES ON COOLING TOWERS

I-1- Principle [1]
In the adjacent diagram, water pumped from
the tower basin is the cooling water routed through
the process coolers and condensers in an industrial
facility. The cool water absorbs heat from the hot
process streams which need to be cooled or
condensed, and the absorbed heat warms the
circulating water (C). The warm water returns to the
top of the cooling tower and trickles downward over
the ll material inside the tower. As it trickles down,
it contacts ambient air rising up through the tower
either by natural draft or by forced draft using large
fans in the tower. That contact causes a small amount
of the water to be lost as windage/drift (W) and some
of the water (E) to evaporate. The heat required to
evaporate the water is derived from the water itself,
Figure 1: Illustration of Water Flow
which cools the water back to the original basin
Across a Cooling Tower.
water temperature and the water is then ready to
recirculate. The evaporated water leaves its dissolved salts behind in the bulk of the water which
has not been evaporated, thus raising the salt concentration in the circulating cooling water. To
prevent the salt concentration of the water from becoming too high, a portion of the water is drawn

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o/blowndown (D) for disposal. Fresh water make-up (M) is supplied to the tower basin to
compensate for the loss of evaporated water, the windage loss water and the draw-o water.

I-2- Classification of cooling tower. [2]

I-2-1- Air ow generation methods
a) Natural draft cooling tower
The natural draft or hyperbolic cooling tower makes use of the difference in temperature
between the ambient air and the hotter air inside the tower. As hot air moves upwards through the
tower (because hot air rises), fresh cool air is drawn into the tower through an air inlet at the
bottom. Due to the layout of the tower, no fan is required and there is almost no circulation of hot
air that could affect the performance. Concrete is used for the tower shell with a height of up to
200 m. These cooling towers are mostly only for large heat duties because large concrete structures
are expensive.

Figure 2: Cross flow natural draft cooling tower

b) Mechanical draft cooling tower

Mechanical draft towers have large fans to force or draw air through circulated water. The
water falls downwards over fill surfaces, which help increase the contact time between the water
and the air - this helps maximize heat transfer between the two.

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 COOLING TOWER

Figure 3: Mechanical draft cooling tower

I-2-2- Categorization by air-to-water ow

a) Crossow
Crossow is a design in which the air ow is directed perpendicular to the water ow. Air
ow enters one or more vertical faces of the cooling tower to meet the ll material. Water ows
(perpendicular to the air) through the ll by gravity. The air continues through the ll and thus past
the water ow into an open plenum volume. Lastly, a fan forces the air out into the atmosphere.

A distribution or hot water basin consisting of a deep pan with holes or nozzles in its bottom
is located near the top of a crossow tower. Gravity distributes the water through the nozzles
uniformly across the ll material.

Figure 4: A crossflow cooling tower

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b) Counter ow
In a counter ow design, the air ow is directly opposite to the water ow (see diagram at
left). Air ow rst enters an open area beneath the ll media, and is then drawn up vertically. The
water is sprayed through pressurized nozzles near the top of the tower, and then ows downward
through the ll, opposite to the air ow.

Figure 5: A counter flow cooling tower

c) Advantages and disadvantages [3]

Table 1: Advantages and disadvantages of cooling tower
Type of cooling tower Advantages Disadvantages
Spray water distribution Typically, higher initial and
makes the tower more long-term cost, primarily
freeze-resistant. due to pump requirements.
Breakup of water in spray Dicult to use variable
makes heat transfer more water ow, as spray
Counterow ecient. characteristics may be
negatively aected.
Typically, noisier, due to
the greater water fall height
from the bottom of the ll
into the cold water basin

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 COOLING TOWER

Gravity water distribution More prone to freezing than

allows smaller pumps and counterow designs.
maintenance while in use. Variable ow is useless in
Non-pressurized spray some conditions.
Crossow simplies variable ow. More prone to dirt buildup in
Typically, lower initial and the ll than counter-ow
long-term cost, mostly designs, especially in dusty
due to pump requirements or sandy areas.

II- COMPONENTS & MATERIALS OF COOLING TOWER [2]

II-1-1- Components of cooling tower

Figure 6: Illustration of different parts of cooling tower

The basic components of a cooling tower include the frame and casing, fill, cold-water
basin, drift eliminators, air inlet, louvers, nozzles and fans. These are described below.

Frame and casing. Most towers have structural frames that support the exterior
enclosures (casings), motors, fans, and other components. With some smaller designs, such as
some glass fiber units, the casing may essentially be the frame.

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Fill. Most towers employ fills (made of plastic or wood) to facilitate heat transfer by
maximizing water and air contact. There are two types of fill:
Splash fill: water falls over successive layers of horizontal splash bars, continuously
breaking into smaller droplets, while also wetting the fill surface. Plastic splash fills promote better
heat transfer than wood splash fills.
Film fill: consists of thin, closely spaced plastic surfaces over which the water
spreads, forming a thin film in contact with the air. These surfaces may be flat, corrugated,
honeycombed, or other patterns. The film type of fill is the more efficient and provides

same heat transfers in a smaller volume than the splash fill.

Cold-water basin. The cold-water basin is located at or near the bottom of the tower,
and it receives the cooled water that flows down through the tower and fill. The basin usually has
a sump or low point for the cold-water discharge connection. In many tower designs, the cold
water basin is beneath the entire fill. In some forced draft counter flow design, however, the water
at the bottom of the fill is channeled to a perimeter trough that functions as the cold-water basin.
Propeller fans are mounted beneath the fill to blow the air up through the tower. With this design,
the tower is mounted on legs, providing easy access to the fans and their motors.
Drift eliminators. These capture water droplets entrapped in the air stream that
otherwise would be lost to the atmosphere.
Air inlet. This is the point of entry for the air entering a tower. The inlet may take up
an entire side of a tower (cross-flow design) or be located low on the side or the bottom of the
tower (counter-flow design).
Louvers. Generally, cross-flow towers have inlet louvers. The purpose of louvers is to
equalize air flow into the fill and retain the water within the tower. Many counter flow tower
designs do not require louvers.
Nozzles. These spray water to wet the fill. Uniform water distribution at the top of the
fill is essential to achieve proper wetting of the entire fill surface. Nozzles can either be fixed and
spray in a round or square patterns, or they can be part of a rotating assembly as found in some
circular cross-section towers.
Fans. Both axial (propeller type) and centrifugal fans are used in towers. Generally,
propeller fans are used in induced draft towers and both propeller and centrifugal fans are found

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in forced draft towers. Depending upon their size, the type of propeller fans used is either fixed or
variable pitch. A fan with non-automatic adjustable pitch blades can be used over a wide kW range
because the fan can be adjusted to deliver the desired air flow at the lowest power consumption.
Automatic variable pitch blades can vary air flow in response to changing load conditions.

II-1-2- Materials of cooling tower [4]

Originally, cooling towers were constructed primarily with wood, including the frame,
casing, louvers, fill and cold-water basin. Sometimes the cold-water basin was made of concrete.
Today, manufacturers use a variety of materials to construct cooling towers. Materials are chosen
to enhance corrosion resistance, reduce maintenance, and promote reliability and long service life.
Galvanized steel, various grades of stainless steel, glass fiber, and concrete are widely used in
tower construction, as well as aluminum and plastics for some components.

Frame and casing. Wooden towers are still available, but many components are made
of different materials, such as the casing around the wooden framework of glass fiber, the inlet air
louvers of glass fiber, the fill of plastic and the cold-water basin of steel. Many towers (casings
and basins) are constructed of galvanized steel or, where a corrosive atmosphere is a problem, the
tower and/or the basis are made of stainless steel. Larger towers sometimes are made of concrete.
Glass fiber is also widely used for cooling tower casings and basins, because they extend the life
of the cooling tower and provide protection against harmful chemicals.
Fill. Plastics are widely used for fill, including PVC, polypropylene, and other polymers.
When water conditions require the use of splash fill, treated wood splash fill is still used in wooden
towers, but plastic splash fill is also widely used. Because of greater heat transfer efficiency, film
fill is chosen for applications where the circulating water is generally free of debris that could
block the fill passageways.
Nozzles. Plastics are also widely used for nozzles. Many nozzles are made of PVC,
ABS, polypropylene, and glass-filled nylon.
Fans. Aluminum, glass fiber and hot-dipped galvanized steel are commonly used fan
materials. Centrifugal fans are often fabricated from galvanized steel. Propeller fans are made from
galvanized steel, aluminum, or molded glass fiber reinforced plastic.

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III- DESIGN AND SIZING OF COOLING TOWER [5]

III-1- Heat Balance

Figure 7: Heat balance

The energy conservation can be written:

HEATin = HEATout

WATER HEATin + AIR HEATin = WATER HEATout + AIR HEATout

Cw L2 t w2 + Gha1 = Cw L1 t w1 + Gha2 Eq. III-1

The difference between L2 (entering water flow rate) and L1 (leaving water flow rate) is a
loss of water due to the evaporation in the direct contact of water and air.

This evaporation loss is a result of difference in the water vapor content between the inlet
air and exit air of cooling tower. Evaporation Loss is expressed in G x (w2 -w1) and is equal to
L2- L1. Therefore, L1 = L2 - G x (w2 -w1) is established.

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Let's replace the term of L1 in the right side of Eq. III-1 with the equation of L1 = L2 - G x
(w2 -w1) and rewrite. Then, Cw L2 tw2 + G ha1 = Cw [L2 - G x (w2 - w1)] x tw1 + Gha2 is
obtained. This equation could be rewritten in Cw x L2 x (tw2 - tw1) = G x (ha2 - ha1) - Cw x tw1
x G x (w2 - w1). In general, the 2nd term of right side is ignored to simplify the calculation under
the assumption of G x (w2 - w1) = 0.

Finally, the relationship of Cw x L2 x (tw2 - tw1) = G x (ha2 - ha1) is established and this
can be expressed to Cw x L x (tw2 - tw1) = G x (ha2 - ha1) again. Therefore, the enthalpy of exit
air, ha2 = ha1 + Cw x L / G x (tw2 - tw1) is obtained. The value of specific heat of water is Eq.
III-1.

The term of tw2 (entering water temperature) - tw1 (leaving water temperature) is
called the cooling range. And the term L/G is Liquid to Gas ratio. Simply,

ha2 = ha1 + LG Range Eq. III-2

Consequently, the enthalpy of exit air is a summation of the enthalpy of entering air and
the addition of enthalpy from water to air (this is a value of L/G x Range).

III-2- Pressure Drops in Cooling Tower

The air pressures are always dropped in the area where the direction of air flow is changed or
the velocity of air flow is decreased suddenly. Representative areas where the pressure losses of
air are occurring in the induced draft counter flow cooling tower are as follows;

Air Inlet (Entrance Loss);

Fill;
Water Distribution Piping;
Drift Eliminator;
Fan Inlet (Sometimes called plenum losses).

Most of air pressure drops at all the areas excepting fill section can be easily calculated as
per the well-known formula of:

=

= { =

=

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In cooling tower, these pressure losses are called "Static Pressure Loss", just "Static
Pressure", or "System Resistance.

Total Static Pressure = PD @Air Inlet + PD @Fill + PD @Drift Eliminator + PD @Fan Inlet

Total Pressure = Total Static Pressure + Velocity Pressure - Velocity Recovery

III-3- Motor Power Sizing

Figure 8: Illustration of fan power energy supply

The fan BHP shown on the fan rating sheet is the net fan brake horsepower based on the
ideal conditions of fan test. The actual operating conditions of cooling tower is quite different from
the test conditions of fan maker and the actual fan efficiency will be different from the
environmental factor like the inlet and exit air flow conditions, tip clearance, obstructions to air
flow, plenum geometry, etc. Therefore, a proper environmental correction factor should be
considered to both total pressure and horsepower.

Fan BHP = Air Volume at Fan in ACFM x Total Pressure in inch Aq. / (Fan Total
Efficiency x 6356), or = Air Volume at Fan in ACFM x Static Pressure in inch Aq. / (Fan
Static Efficiency x 6356)

Actual Fan BHP = Net Fan BHP / System Environmental Correction Factor

Motor Shaft BHP = Actual Fan BHP / Efficiency of Power Transmission of Gear
Reducer

Motor Input Power = Motor Shaft BHP / Motor Efficiency

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III-4- Fan Components & Sizing

III-4-1- Fan Coverage
For an even air suction from the drift eliminator section and to have a smooth entrance of
air into the fan, the fan coverage must not be smaller than 30% of the cross sectional area of cell.
Less fan coverage than 30% will returned to a poor intake from the entire drift eliminator section.

III-4-2- Fan Sizing

The major factors in deciding the number of fan blades are as below:

(1) Blade Strength;

(2) Material Constructions of Tower Structure and Fan Stack

III-5- Air-Water Distribution System Design

III-5-1- Recirculation of Exit Air
The recirculation in the cooling towers is defined as an adulteration of the atmosphere
entering the tower by a portion of the atmosphere leaving the tower.

From the mathematical standpoint recirculation can be expressed as the percent of the
exhaust air which reenters the tower at the air inlets. Thus, considering a heat balance on the air
around the tower:

Heat (Q) = G h1 = G (1 - Rc/100) ha + G (Rc /100) h2

This equation could be written as below:

G h1 = G ha - G Rc ha / 100 + G Rc h2 / 100 G (h1 - ha) = G Rc /100 (h2 - ha)

Solving for Rc,

Rc = (h1 - ha) / (h2 - ha) x 100

III-5-2- Evaporation
When water is cooled in a direct contact cooling tower of air and water, some of the heat
is removed by the sensible heat of air in contact with the water. Most of the heat is removed by
evaporation of a portion of the circulating water.

Evaporation Loss Rate = (Absolute Humidity @ Tower Exit - Absolute Humidity @ Tower

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Inlet) x 1/(L/G) x 100

III-5-3- Cycles of concentration [1]

Consider the figure 1, In doing the water balance around the entire system is then:

M=E+D+W

Since the evaporated water (E) has no salts, a chloride balance around the system is:

M XM = D XC + W XC = XC ( D + W ) and, therefore:

XC M M E
= concentration of Cycles = = =1+
XM ( D + W) ( M E ) (D + V)

IV- MAINTENANCE [4]

IV-1- System Concerns
IV-1-1- Corrosion:
Corrosion can be defined as the wastage or loss of base metal in a system. Water in an open
recirculating cooling system is corrosive because it is saturated with oxygen. Systems in urban
areas often pick up acidic gases from the air which depress the pH and increase the corrosion
potential. Corrosion can be monitored using preweighed corrosion coupons.

Figure 9: illustration of effect of corrosion

IV-1-2- Scaling:
Scaling is the precipitation of dissolved minerals components that have become saturated
in solution. Scale formation reduces the heat exchange ability of the system because of the
insulating properties of scale, making the entire system work harder to meet the cooling demand.

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 COOLING TOWER

Figure 10: illustration of effect of scaling

IV-1-3- Biological Activity

Biological concerns can be categorized as either microbiological or macrobiological.
These manifest as algae, bacteria, fungus, mold and higher life forms such as nematodes and
protozoa. Cooling towers create a very favorable habitat for the growth of microorganisms. Warm
water temperatures, nutrients, dissolved oxygen and sunlight produce an environment for the
exponential growth of these organisms.

Figure 11: Illustration of microbiological activity

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IV-2- Typical problems and troubleshooting for cooling towers

Table 2: Troubleshooting for cooling tower
Problem / Difficulty Possible Causes Remedies/Rectifying Action
1. Voltage Reduction Check the voltage
2a. Incorrect angle of
Adjust the blade angle
axial fan blades
2b. Loose belts on
centrifugal fans (or speed Check belt tightness
reducers)
3. Overloading owing to
Excessive absorbed
excessive air flow-fill has
current/ electrical load
minimum water of the Regulate the water flow by means
valve water of the valve
loading per m2 of tower
section
The motor is cooled proportionately
4. Low ambient air
and hence delivers more than name
temperature
plate power
1. Uneven operation of Adjust the nozzle orientation and
spray nozzles water eliminate any dirt
2. Blockage of the fill
Eliminate any dirt in the top of the fill
pack
3. Defective or displaced
Drift/carry-over of water Replace or realign the eliminators
droplet eliminators
outside the unit
4. Excessive circulating
water flow (possibly
Adjust the water flow-rate by Check
owing to too high means
for absence of damage to the fill
of the regulating valves.
pumping head)

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1. Float-valve not at
Adjust the make-up valve
Loss of water from correct level
basins/pans 2. Lack of equalising Equalise the basins of towers
connections operating in parallel
1. Water flow below the Regulated the flow by means in of
design valve the valves
Check the direction of rotation of the
2. Irregular airflow or
fans and/or belt tension (broken belt
lack of air
possible)
3a. Recycling of humid
Check the air descent velocity
Lack of cooling and discharge air
hence increase in 3b. Intake of hot air from
Install deflectors
temperatures owing to other sources
increased temperature 4a. Blocked spray nozzles
range (or even blocked spray Clean the nozzles and/or the tubes
tubes)
4b. Scaling of joints Wash or replace the item
Clean or replace the material
(washing with inhibited aqueous
5. Scaling of the fill pack
sulphuric acid is possible but long,
complex and expensive)

CONCLUSION
A cooling tower is a heat rejection device which rejects waste heat to the atmosphere
through the cooling of a water stream to a lower temperature. Cooling towers may either use the
evaporation of water to remove process heat and cool the working uid to near the wet-bulb air
temperature. The classication is based on the type of air induction into the tower: the main types
of cooling towers are natural draft and induced draft cooling towers.

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REFERENCES

[1] "Cooling Tower Efficiency Guide Property Managers," March 2013.

[2] Edward, Kku, Ronz and Bogdangiusca, "Cooling tower," 21 09 2016. [Online]. Available:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooling_tower?oldid=738863870.

[3] D. A. C. Ltd., "Cooling Tower Thermal Design Manual," 10 05 2004. [Online]. Available:
http://myhome.hanafos.com/~criok/english/publication/thermal/thermallisteng.html.

[4] UNEP, "Electrical Energy Equipment: Cooling Towers," 23 09 2016. [Online]. Available:
www.energyefficiencyasia.org .

[5] P. Johnston-Knight, "Cooling Towers:Understanding Key Components of Cooling Towers

and How to Improve Water Efficiency," Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) on
behalf of the U.S. DOE-Federal Energy Management Program, February 2011.

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