STONE COLUMN: THEORY

& APPLICATIONS

PREPARED BY:
Saraswati Pathariya (MG007)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF TECHNOLOGY, DDU (NADIAD)
 LIST OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION
TECHNIQUES FOR SOIL IMPROVEMENT
- Vibroflotation
- Dynamic Compaction
- Stone Column
- Compaction Piles
- Compaction Grouting
STONE COLUMN
- Applicable soil types
- Construction techniques
- Basic design parameters
- Load carrying capacity of stone column
- Failure mechanism
- Field loading tests
ADVANTAGES OF STONE COLUMN
APPLICATIONS OF STONE COLUMN
REFERENCE

2
INTRODUCTION:

Soils are deposited or formed by nature under different environmental conditions.

Man does not have any control on the process of soil formation. As such the soil
strata at a site are to be accepted as they are and any construction has to be adapted
to suite the sub soil condition. The soil at a construction site may not always be
totally suitable for supporting structures such as buildings, dams, highways,
bridges and other important structures. For example, in granular soil deposits, the
in situ soil may be very loose and indicate a large immediate settlement. In such
a case, the soil needs to be densified to increase its unit weight and thus its shear
strength.

Soft saturated clay layers are often encountered at shallow depths below
foundations. Depending on the structural load and the depth of the layers,
unusually large consolidation settlement may occur. Although pile foundation
may be adopted in some situations, they often become too expensive for low to
medium-rise buildings. In such cases, the properties of the soil within the zone of
influence have to be improved in order to make them suitable to support the given
load.

Soil improvement techniques are normally preferred for economic

considerations. This soil improvement technique has been successfully used to
increase bearing capacity and reduce the settlement of constructions such as
storage tanks, earthen embankments, raft foundations, etc. their main advantage
lies in improving the soil properties below a structure and following the reduction
of an irregular settlement.

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TECHNIQUES FOR SOIL IMPROVEMENT:

Vibroflotation
Vibroflotation involves the use of a vibrating probe that can penetrate granular
soil to depths of over 100 feet. The vibrations of the probe cause the grain
structure to collapse thereby densifying the soil surrounding the probe. To treat
an area of potentially liquefiable soil, the vibroflot is raised and lowered in a grid
pattern. Vibro Replacement is a combination of vibroflotation with a gravel
backfill resulting in stone columns, which not only increases the amount of
densification, but provides a degree of reinforcement and a potentially effective
means of drainage.

Vibroflotation
Source: - http://www.geoengineer.org/images/VF_construction_sequence.JPG

Dynamic Compaction
Densification by dynamic compaction is performed by dropping a heavy weight
of steel or concrete in a grid pattern from heights of 30 to 100 ft. It provides an
4
economical way of improving soil for mitigation of liquefaction hazards. Local
liquefaction can be initiated beneath the drop point making it easier for the sand
grains to densify. When the excess pore water pressure from the dynamic loading
dissipates, additional densification occurs. As illustrated in the photograph,
however, the process is somewhat invasive; the surface of the soil may require
shallow compaction with possible addition of granular fill following dynamic
compaction.

Dynamic Compaction
Source: - http://www.gci2000.com/images/projects/arial-view-of-ddc.jpg

Stone Column

As described above, stone columns are columns of gravel constructed in the

ground. Stone columns can be constructed by the vibroflotation method. They
can also be installed in other ways, for example, with help of a steel casing and a
drop hammer as in the Franki Method. In this approach the steel casing is driven
in to the soil and gravel is filled in from the top and tamped with a drop hammer
as the steel casing is successively withdrawn.

5
 Stone column
Source: -
http://www.penninevibropiling.com/Library/Diagrams/Wet_Top_Feed_Stone_Column.jpg

Compaction Piles
Installing compaction piles is a very effective way of improving soil. Compaction
piles are usually made of prestressed concrete or timber. Installation of
compaction piles both densifies and reinforces the soil. The piles are generally
installed in a grid pattern and are generally driven to depth of up to 60 ft.

Compaction Grouting
Compaction grouting is a technique whereby a slow-flowing water/sand/cement
mix is injected under pressure into a granular soil. The grout forms a bulb that
displaces and hence densifies, the surrounding soil. Compaction grouting is a
good option if the foundation of an existing building requires improvement, since
it is possible to inject the grout from the side or at an inclined angle to reach
beneath the building.

6
 Compaction Grouting
Source: - http://www.sparksconcretelifting.com

7
STONE COLUMN:
A suitable technique of ground improvement for foundations on soft clay is to
install vertical stone columns in the ground. Stone columns are essentially a
method of soil reinforcement in which soft cohesive soil is replaced at discrete
points by gravel or crushed rock in pre-bored vertical holes to form columns or
piles within the soil. The gravel used for the stone column has a size range of 6
to 40 mm. The stone columns serve two basic functions, namely

(a) Providing strength reinforcement to the soil and

(b) Acting as vertical drains to allow subsoil consolidation to occur quickly under
any given loading.

Greater stiffness of stone columns compare to that of the surrounding soil causes
a large portion of the vertical load to be transferred to the columns. The entire soil
below a foundation, therefore, acts as a reinforced soil with higher load carrying
capacity than the virgin ground. Further, pore-pressure dissipation by radial flow
accelerates the consolidation of the subsoil. Engelhardt et al (1974) demonstrated
the beneficial effects of stone columns by carrying out load tests in soft clay with
and without stone column reinforcement. Fig. is a graphical representation of the
same.

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 Effectiveness of stone columns
Source: - Theory & Practice of Foundation Design

APPLICABLE SOIL TYPES:

Soft, Non-compactible, Weak soil
Granular with high fines content
Organic soils
Marine/ Alluvial clays
Liquefiable soils
Cohesive soils

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CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES:

Installation of stone columns in soft clay may be done in two ways:

a) Vibratory technique using vibroflot and

b) Rammed stone column technique.

Vibroflotation

The basic tool used in these technique is a poker vibrator or vibroflot, as shown
in fig, which is 2 to 3m long with a diameter varying between 300 mm to 500mm.
extension tubes are attached to the vibroflot whenever greater depth of treatment
is needed. The vibroflot is a hollow steel tube containing an eccentric weight
mounted at the bottom of a vertical shaft; the energy is imparted by rotational
motion through the shaft while the eccentric weight imparts vibration in a
horizontal plane. Vibration frequencies are fixed at 30 Hz or 50 Hz to suit electric
power cycles.

Vibroflot
Source: - Theory & Practice of foundation Design

10
 Extension Tube

Coupling

Air or
Water
Supply

Motor

Excentric
Weight

Tip

Mechanism of Vibrator

The free fall amplitude varies between 5-10 mm the machine is suspended from
a vibration damping connector by follower tubes through which power lines and
water pipes pass. These allow simultaneous release of water jets to remove the
soil around the vibroflot as the latter makes its way into the hole under vertical
pressure from the top. When the vibroflot reaches the desire depth, the water jet
at the lower end is cut off and granular backfill is poured through the annular
space between the hole and the vertical pipe by head load or conveyor as the
vibratory poker is withdrawn. Well graded stone backfill of size 75 mm to 2mm
is used and compaction, the stones are pushed sideways into the soft soil to
produce a stone column of diameter larger than the diameter of the borehole.
Normally, 600-900 mm diameter stone column can be obtained for 300-500 mm
diameter vibroflot.

11
 Stone column installation by vibroflotation
Source: - http://www.polbud-pomorze.ru/zdjecia/wibrowymiana/wibrowymiana+beton.jpg

Rammed stone column

This installation technique was proposed by Datye and Nagaraju (1977) and
developed further by Nayak (1983). In this technique, the granular fill is
introduced into a pre-bored hole and compacted by operating a heavy rammer
through the borehole. The hole is made by using normal bored piling rig with
winch, bailer and casing. The method of installation is illustrated in fig. To
facilitate charging of granular aggregate into the borehole, windows with hinged
flap valve opening outside are provided to the casing at interval of 2m or so.
These windows are kept in closed position during driving or withdrawal of casing
by screwing nuts to prevent ingress of soil into the granular backfill. For installing
stone columns to greater depths, more than one piece of casing is used with the
help of special quick release couplings. The casing maintains the stability of
borehole. The stone columns are required to function as drain wells and it is
advice not to use bentonite slurry for maintain the stability of the borehole.
Backfill material should be such that it gives high angle of internal friction under
given energy of compaction. Sometimes the mixtures of stone aggregate and
sand, generally in proportion of 2:1 are used as backfill material. It is observed
that sand is utilized mainly in filling the voids in gravel skeleton. Gravel backfill

12
of aggregate size 75mm to 2 mm is generally recommended. The gravel should
be well graded and preferably angular shaped for good interlock. The main
purpose of compaction is to rearrange the stone particles so that very good
interlocking between particles is obtained to give high angle of internal friction.
Too much ramming may crush the aggregates.

Rammed stone column

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BASIC DESIGN PARAMETERS:

1. Stone column diameter, D

2. Depth of stone column
3. Pattern
4. Spacing
5. Equivalent diameter
6. Replacement ratio, as
7. Stress concentration factor, n

Stone column diameter (D):

Installation of stone columns in soft cohesive soils is basically a self-
compensating process that is softer the soil, bigger is the diameter of the stone
column formed. Due to lateral displacement of stones during vibrations/ramming,
the completed diameter of the hole is always greater than the initial diameter of
the probe or the casing depending upon the soil type, its undrained shear strength,
stone size, characteristics of the vibrating probe/rammer used and the
construction method.
Approximate diameter of the stone column in the field may be determined from
the known compacted volume of material required to fill the hole of known length
and maximum and minimum densities of the stone.
Nayak has given a chart to correlate the diameter of stone column and the
undrained shear strength of soil, as in fig. The diameter obtained from fig. is the
nominal diameter to be consider in design.

14
 Shear strength of soil versus diameter of stone column
Source: Theory and practice of foundation design by N.N Som, S.C Das

Depth of stone column:

The stone column is installed below a foundation up to the depth of soft
compressible strata within the zone of influence in the subsoil.in addition to
carrying vertical load, stone columns function as drainage path to dissipate excess
pore water pressure and hence, accelerate the rate of consolidation. This requires
the stone columns to be taken down to the depth of major compressible strata
which makes significant contribution to the settlement of the foundation.
This point can best be understood by determining the contribution of each layer
of soil towards the settlement of the foundation. However, in some stratified
deposits, the nature of stratification more or less determines the depth of stone
column.

15
Pattern:
Stone columns should be installed preferably in an equilateral triangular pattern
which gives the densest packing although a square pattern may also be used. A
typical layout in an equilateral triangular pattern is shown in below figure.

Spacing:
The design of stone columns should be site specific and no precise guidelines can
be given on the maximum and the minimum column spacing. However, the
column spacing may broadly range from 2 to 3 depending upon the site
conditions, loading pattern, column factors, the installation technique, settlement
tolerances, etc.
For large projects, it is desirable to carry out field trials to determine the most
optimum spacing of stone columns taking into consideration the required bearing
capacity of the soil and permissible settlement of the foundation.

Triangular arrangement of stone columns

Source: IS- 15284 (part 1): 2003

16
 Square arrangement of stone columns
Source: IS- 15284 (part 1): 2003

Mitchell and Katti have suggested typical pile spacing for rectangular and square
grid depicted in fig.

Effect of stone column on anticipated settlement

Source: Theory and practice of foundation design by N.N Som, S.C Das

17
Equivalent diameter:
The tributory area of the soil surrounding each stone column forms regular
hexagon around the column. It may be closely approximated by an equivalent
circular area having the same total area, see the above fig.
The equivalent circle has an effective diameter (De) which is given by following
equation:

De = 1.05 S for an equilateral triangular pattern, and

= 1.13 S for a square pattern
Where,
S = spacing of the stone columns.

The resulting equivalent cylinder of composite ground with diameter (De)

enclosing the tributory soil and one stone column is known as the unit cell.

Replacement ratio (as):

For purpose of settlement and stability analysis, the composite ground
representing an infinitely wide loaded area may be modeled as a unit cell
comprising the stone column and the surrounding tributory soil. To quantify the
amount of soil replaced by the stone, the term replacement ratio, as is used.
Replacement ratio (as) is given by:
as = As / A = As / (As + Ag)
Where,
As = area of the stone column,
Ag = area of ground surrounding the column, and
A = total area within the unit cell.
The area replacement ratio may also be expressed as follows:
as = 0.907 (D/S)2

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Where, the constant 0.907 is a function of the pattern used which, in this case, is
the commonly employed equilateral triangular pattern.

Stress Concentration factor (n):

Stress concentration occurs on the stone column because it is considerably stiffer
than the surrounding soil. From equilibrium considerations, the stress in the stiffer
stone columns should be greater than the stress in the surrounding soil.
The stress concentration factor, n, due to externally applied load ,is defined as
the ratio of average stress in the stone column, s to, the stress, g ,in the soil
within the unit cell,
n = s/ g
The value of n generally lie between 2.5 and 5 at the ground surface. The stress
concentration factor (n) increases with time of consolidation and decreases along
the length of the stone column. Higher n value at ground surface may result if
load is applied to the composite ground through a rigid foundation as compared
to the flexible foundation.

The stress concentration factor, n, may be predicted using elastic theory as a

function of the modular ratio of the stone and the clay assuming equal vertical
displacements. However, as the modular ratio can vary within wide limits, it
should be selected from the above formula.

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LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY OF STONE COLUMN:
There is no theoretical procedure for predicting the combined improvement
obtained, so it is usual to assume that the foundation loads are carried only by the
several stone columns with no contribution from the intermediate ground. The
stone columns are more than about 10 times as stiff as the surrounding soil. Also
a compacted layer of granular material should be placed over the site prior to
placing the footings.
An approximate formula for the allowable bearing pressure qa of stone columns
is given by Hughes et al. (1975)

qa= Kp (4c + `r) / (SF)

Where, Kp = tan2 (45 + /2)

` = drained angle of internal friction of stone

c = either drained cohesion (suggested for small column

spacings) or the undrained shear strength su when the column spacing
is over about 2 m

`r = effective radial stress as measured by a pressuremeter (but may use

2c if pressuremeter data are not available)

SF = safety factoruse about 1.5 to 2

The allowable load Pa on the stone column of average cross-sectional area,

Ac =0.7854D2col is

Pa = qa * Ac

We can also write the general case of the allowable column load Pa as

Pa = (cs As + Ac cp Nc)* 1/ SF

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Where, cs = side cohesion in claygenerally use a "drained" value if available;
cs is the side resistance ( z K tan ) in sand

cp = soil cohesion at base or point of stone column

As = average stone column perimeter area

To compute As, use the in-place volume of stone Vc and initial column depth Lc
as follows:

Ac Lc = 0.7854D2col Lc = Vc and

As = D Col Lc

Observe that, by using the volume of stone Vc, the diameter Dcol computed here
is the nominal value.

Nc = bearing capacity factor, but use 9 for clay soils if

Lc /Dcol 3 (value between 5.14 and 9 for smaller L/D)

The allowable total foundation load is the sum of the several stone column
contributions beneath the foundation area (perhaps 1, 2, 4, 5, etc.).

Stone columns should extend through soft clay to firm strata to control
settlements. If the end-bearing term is included when the column base is on firm
strata, a lateral bulging failure along the shaft may result. The bulge failure can
develop from using a column load that is too large unless the confinement
pressure from the soil surrounding the column is adequate. The failure is avoided
by load testing a stone column to failure to obtain as Pult from which the design
load is obtained as Pult /SF

Taking this factor into consideration gives a limiting column length Lc (in
clay based on ultimate resistance) of

Pult Dcol Lc cs + 9 cp Ac Ac = 0.7854 D2col

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Solving for Lc, we obtain

Lc ( Pult 7.07 dp D2col ) / Dcol cs

Where all terms have been previously identified.

FAILURE MECHANISMS:

Failure Mechanisms of a Single Stone Column in Homogenous Soft Layer:

Failure mechanism of a single stone column loaded over its area significantly
depends upon the length of the column. For columns having length greater than
its critical length (that is about 4 times the column diameter) and irrespective
whether it is end bearing or floating, it fails by bulging (fig. a).

(a) Long stone column with firm or floating support- Bulging failure
Source: IS- 15284 (part 1): 2003

22
However, column shorter than the critical length are likely to fail in general shear
if it is end bearing on a rigid base (fig. b).

(a) Short column with rigid base- shear failure

Source: IS- 15284 (part 1): 2003

In end bearing if it is a floating column as shown in fig. c

(c) Short floating column- punching failure

Source: IS- 15284 (part 1): 2003

Different type of loading applied to stone column:

A stone column is usually loaded over an area greater than its own (fig. d) in
which case it experiences significantly less bulging leading to greater ultimate

23
load capacity and reduced settlements since the load is carried by both the stone
column and the surrounding soil.

(d) Loading applied to stone column

Source: IS- 15284 (part 1): 2003

Stone Column Failure Mechanisms in Non-Homogeneous Cohesive Soil:

Wherever interlayering of sand and clay occurs, and if the sand layer is thick
enough as compared to the size of the loaded area, the general compaction
achieved by the action of the installation of the stone columns may provide
adequate rigidity to effectively disperse the applied stresses thereby controlling
the settlement of the weak layer. However, effective reduction in settlement may
be brought about by carrying out the treatment of stone columns through the
compressible layer. When clay is present in the form of lenses and if the ratio of
the thickness of the lense to the stone column diameter is less than or equal to 1,
the settlement due to presence of lenses maybe insignificant.

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In mixed soils, the failure of stone columns should be checked both for
predominently sandy soils as well as the clayey soil, the governing value being
lower of the two calculated values.

By assuming a triaxial state of stress in the stone column and both the column
and the surrounding soil at failure, the ultimate vertical stress, 1, which the stone
column can take, may be determined from the following equation:

1 / 3 = (1+ sin s) / (1- sin s)

Where,

1 = lateral confining stress mobilized by the surrounding soil to resist the

bulging of the stone column;

3 = angle of internal friction of the stone column;

1 / 3 = coefficient of passive earth pressure kp of the stone column.

This approach assumes a plane strain loading condition (such as passive

resistance mobilized behind a long retaining wall) and hence does not realistically
consider the three dimensional geometry of a single stone column.

The bearing capacity of an isolated stone column or that located within a group
maybe computed using the other established theories also. Besides the passive
resistance mobilized by the soil, the increase in capacity of the column due to
surcharge should be taken into consideration, In addition, capacity increase due
to soil bearing should also be taken into account.

Particular attention should be paid to the presence of very weak organic clay
layers of limited thickness where local bulging failure may take place (fig. e).
Therefore, capacity of column in such weak clays should also be checked even if
they are below the critical depth.

25
(e) Failure mechanisms in non-homogenous cohesive soil
Source: IS- 15284 (part 1): 2003

26
FIELD LOADING TESTS:

Irrespective of the method used to construct the stone columns, the

initial load tests should be performed at a trial test site to evaluate the
load settlement behaviour of the soil-stone column system. The tests
should be conducted on a single and also on a group of minimum three
columns.

For the initial load tests, in order to simulate the field conditions of
compaction of the intervening soil, a minimum of seven columns for a
single column test and twelve columns for three column group test may
be constructed for triangular pattern as shown in fig. f.

27
 (f) Arrangement of columns
Source: IS- 15284 (part 1): 2003

The diameter of the circular concrete footing or equivalent steel plate

of adequate thickness and rigidity may be based on the effective
tributory soil area of stone column for a single column test and three
times the effective area of single column for a three column group test.
In each case, the footing may cover the equivalent circular effective
area centrally.

The initial and final soil conditions at the trial site should be
investigated by drilling at least one borehole and one static cone test /
pressure meter test / dynamic cone test prior and subsequent to the

28
installation of columns. All these tests including the standard
penetration test, field vane shear tests and collection of
undisturbed/disturbed samples and laboratory testing on the samples
should be as per relevant Indian Standards.

A granular blanket of medium to coarse sand having thickness not less

than 300 mm should be laid over the test column(s). Over the blanket,
a properly designed footing should be laid. The footing may be cast
away from the test site and transported to the test location so as to fix
it properly over the sand blanket.

In case high water table conditions exist at site, the water level during
the tests should be maintained at the footing base level by dewatering.

Following procedure should be followed for application of load:

a) The load should be applied to the footing by a suitable kentledge

(fig. g), taking care to avoid impact, fluctuations or eccentricity.
The kentledge should be minimum 1.30 times the maximum test
load.

29
 (g) Section showing loading arrangement for a single column test
Source: IS- 15284 (part 1): 2003

b) Load settlement observations should be taken to 1.5 times the

design load for a single column and three column group test
respectively.
c) The settlements should be recorded by four dial gauges
(sensitivity less than or equal to 0.02 mm) fixed at diametrically
opposite ends of the footing.
d) Each stage of loading should be near about 1/5 of the design load
and should be maintained till the rate of settlement is less than
0.05 mm/h at which instant the next stage of loading should be
applied.

30
e) The design as well as the maximum test load should be
maintained for a minimum period of 12 h after stabilization of
settlement to the rate as given in (d).
f) Load settlement and time settlement relationships should be
plotted from the settlements observed for each increment of load
at intervals of 1 min, 2 min, 4 min, 8 min,16 min, h, l h, 1 h,
2 h,3 h,4 h, and so on till the desired rate of settlement has been
achieved. The time intervals may be suitably modified if so
desired.
g) The test load should be unloaded in five stages. At each stage
enough time should be allowed for settlements to stabilize.
h) The load test should be considered acceptable if it meets the
following settlement criteria:
- 10 to 12 mm settlement at design load for a single column test,
and
- 25 to 30 mm settlement at the design load for a three column
group test.

i) For routine load test few job columns (say 1 test for 625m2 area)
maybe tested up to 1.1 times the design load intensity with minimum
kentledge of 1.3 times the design load.

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ADVANTAGES OF STONE COLUMN:

Increase the bearing capacity of in-situ soils

To reduced total and differential settlements
Expedites consolidation settlement.
Mitigates the risk of liquefaction.

APLLICATIONS OF STONE COLUMN:

TANK FOUNDATION FOOTINGS (RAFT/ ISOLATED)

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 REINFORCED EARTH WALLS

RAILWAY EMBANKMENT

33
HIGHWAY EMBANKMENT

PORTS

34
REFERENCES:

IS 15284 (part- I) : 2003, Design & Construction for ground improvement

- Guidelines.

Theory & Practice of foundation design by N.N. Som & S.C. Das.

Foundation analysis and design (5th edition) by Joseph E. Bowles.

Foundation design principles and practices by Donald P. Coduto.

35