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DidthePressUncoverWatergate?

COMMENTARY
July1974

byEdwardJayEpstein

Asustainingmythofjournalismholdsthateverygreatgovernmentscandalisrevealedthroughtheworkof
enterprisingreporterswhobyonemeansoranotherpiercetheofficialveilofsecrecy.Therolethatgovernment
institutionsthemselvesplayinexposingofficialmisconductandcorruptionthereforetendstobeseriously
neglected,ifnotwhollyignored,inthepress.Thisviewofjournalisticrevelationispropagatedbythepresseven
incaseswherejournalistshavehadpalpablylittletodowiththediscoveryofcorruption.PulitzerPrizeswerethus
awardedthisyeartotheWallStreetjournalfor"revealing"thescandalwhichforcedVicePresidentAgnewto
resignandtotheWashingtonStar/Newsfor"revealing"thecampaigncontributionthatledtotheindictmentsof
formercabinetofficersMauriceStartsandJohnN.Mitchell(whoweresubsequentlyacquitted),althoughreporters
atneithernewspaperinactualfacthadanythingtodowithuncoveringthescandals.Intheformercase,theU.S.
AttorneyinMarylandhadthroughdoggedpleabargainingandgrantsofimmunityinducedwitnessestoimplicate
theVicePresidentandinthelattercase,theSecuritiesandExchangeCommissionandagrandjuryhad
conductedtheinvestigationthatunearthedtheillegalcontributionwhichledtotheindictmentofthecabinet
officers.Inbothinstances,evenwithout"leaks"tothenewspapers,thescandalsuncoveredbygovernment
institutionswouldhavecometothepublic'sattentionwhenthecasescametotrial.Yettoperpetuatethemyth
thatthemembersofthepressweretheprimemoversinsuchgreateventsastheconvictionofaVicePresident
andtheindictmentoftwoformercabinetofficers,thePulitzerPrizecommitteesimplychosethenewsstories
nearesttotheseeventsandawardedthemitshonors.

Thenaturaltendencyofjournaliststomagnifytheroleofthepressingreatscandalsisperhapsbestillustratedby
CarlBernsteinandBobWoodward'sautobiographicalaccountofhowthey"revealed"theWatergatescandals.The
dustjacketandnationaladvertisements,verymuchinthebravadospiritofthebookitself,declare:"AllAmerica
knowsaboutWatergate.Here,forthefirsttime,isthestoryofhowweknow....Inwhatmustbethemost
devastatingpoliticaldetectivestoryofthecentury,thetwoyoungWashingtonPostreporterswhosebrilliant
investigativejournalismsmashedtheWatergatescandalwideopentellthewholebehindthescenesdramathe
wayithappened."Inkeepingwiththemythicviewofjournalism,however,thebookneverdescribesthe"behind
thescenes"investigationswhichactually"smashedtheWatergatescandalwideopen"namelytheinvestigations
conductedbytheFBI,thefederalprosecutors,thegrandjury,andtheCongressionalcommittees.Theworkof
almostallthoseinstitutions,whichunearthedanddevelopedalltheactualevidenceanddisclosuresofWatergate,
issystematicallyignoredorminimizedbyBernsteinandWoodward.Instead,theysimplyfocusonthosepartsof
theprosecutors'case,thegrandjuryinvestigation,andtheFBIreportsthatwereleakedtothem.

Theresultisthatnooneinterestedin"howweknow"aboutWatergatewillfindoutfromtheirbook,oranyofthe
otherwidelycirculatedmythopoeicsaboutWatergate.YetthenonjournalisticversionofhowWatergatewas
uncoveredisnotexactlyasecret,thegovernmentprosecutors(EarlSilbert,SeymourGlanzer,andDonaldE.
Campbell)aremorethanwillingtogiveadocumentedaccountoftheinvestigationtoanyonewhodesiresit.
Accordingtooneoftheprosecutors,however,"Noonereallywantstoknow."Thusthegovernment'sinvestigation
ofitselfhasbecomeamissinglinkinthestoryoftheWatergatescandal,andtheactualrolethatjournalists
playedremainsillunderstood.

AFTERfiveburglars,includingJamesMcCord,whowasanemployeeoftheCommitteefortheReelectionofthe
President(CRP),werearrestedintheheadquartersoftheDemocraticNationalCommitteeintheWatergate
complexonJune17,1972,theFBIimmediatelylocatedthreeimportantchainsofevidence.First,withinaweekof
thebreakin,hundreddollarbillsfoundontheburglarswereeasilytracedbytheirserialnumbersthroughthe
FederalReserveBankatAtlantatotheMiamibankaccountofBernardBarker,oneoftheburglarsarrestedinthe
Watergate.ByJune22,theprosecutorshadsubpoenaedBarker'sbanktransactions,andhadestablishedthatthe
hundreddollarbillsfoundintheburglaryhadoriginallycomefromcontributionstotheCommitteefortheRe
electionofthePresidentandspecificallyfromchecksdepositedbyKennethDahlberg,aCRPregionalfinance
chairman,andothers.(CopiesofthesecheckswereleakedtoWoodwardandBernsteinbyaninvestigatorforthe
Floridastate'sattorneyonemonthlater,wellafterthegrandjurywaspresentedwiththisinformationandthey
"revealed"itintheWashingtonPostonAugust1.)AndinearlyJune,thetreasureroftheRepublicanNational
Committee,HughW.Sloan,Jr.,confirmedtotheprosecutorsthatcampaigncontributionsweregiventoG.Gordon
Liddy,whobythenwassuspectedofbeingtheringleaderoftheconspiracy.
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Secondly,theFBI,insearchingthepremisesoftheburglars,found,withintwentyfourhoursaftertheirarrest,
receipts,addressbooks,andchecksthatlinkedE.HowardHunt,WhiteHouseconsultant,totheconspiracy.(This
informationwasleakedafewdayslaterbytheWashingtonpolicetoEugeneBachinski,aWashingtonPost
reporter,andsubsequentlypublishedinthatnewspaper.)TheinvestigationintoHuntledtheprosecutorstohis
secretary,KathleenChenow,whowasflownbackfromEngland,and,inearlyJuly,confirmedthatHuntandLiddy
wereworkingonclandestineprojectstogether,andhadhadtelephonecallsfromBernardBarkerjustbefore
BarkerwasarrestedinWatergate.(Monthslater,inSeptember,defenseattorneyswhohadbeengiventhelistof
prosecutionwitnessesleakedMissChenow'snametoWoodwardandBernstein,whothenaftercallingher
"revealed"thisinformationtothepublic.)Thus,inearlyJuly,theprosecutorshadpresentedevidencetothegrand
jurytyingHuntandLiddytotheburglars(aswellasLiddytothemoney).

Themostimportantchainofevidenceinvolvedaneyewitnesstotheentireconspiracy.Thedayoftheburglary,
theFBIdiscoveredalisteningpostattheHowardJohnsonMotorHotel,acrossthestreetfromtheWatergate,from
whichconspiratorssentradiosignalstotheburglarsinsideWatergate(andreceivedtransmissionsfromelectronic
eavesdroppingdevices).Bycheckingthroughtherecordsofphonecallsmadefromthislisteningpost,theFBI
easilylocatedAlfredBaldwin,aformerFBIagent,whohadkeptlogsofwiretapsfortheconspiratorsandactedas
alookout.ByJune25,aftertheprosecutorsofferedBaldwin'sattorneyadealbywhichBaldwincouldescape
prison,Baldwinagreedtocooperatewiththegovernment.

ThemaininstrumentforextractinginformationfromreluctantwitnesseslikeBaldwinwastheprosecutors'skillin
threatening,badgering,andnegotiating.ByJuly5,lessthanthreeweeksaftertheburglarswereapprehended,
Baldwinsketchedouttheoutlinesoftheconspiracy.HeidentifiedHuntandLiddyasbeingatthesceneand
directingtheburglaryhedescribedpriorbreakinattempts,theinstallationofeavesdroppingdevices,the
monitoringoflogsoftheeavesdropping,andthedeliveryofthefruitsoftheconspiracytoCRP.Allthisevidence
wasofcoursepresentedtothegrandjuryinmidJuly.(Liddy'snamewasonlymentionedinpassinginthepress
onJuly22,whenheresignedfromCRP,anditwasnotuntilthefollowingOctoberthatJackNelsonoftheLos
AngelesTimeslocatedandpublishedaninterviewwithBaldwin.To"top"theL.A.Times'sinterview,Woodward
andBernsteinerroneouslyreportedthatBaldwinhaddeliveredthelogstothreeexecutivesatCRP,RobertC.
Odle,Jr.,GlennJ.Sedam,Jr.,andWilliamE.Timmons.Infact,BaldwindeliveredthelogstoLiddy.Inanycase,
thepresswasthreemonthsbehindtheprosecutorsindisclosingBaldwin'svitalaccount.)Theprosecutorsneeded,
however,awitnesstocorroborateBaldwin,sincetheyrealizedthatanysinglewitnesscouldbediscreditedby
fiercecrossexamination.ThelocatingofThomasJ.Gregory,astudentworkingasaminorspyforCRP,was
criticalfortheprosecutors'casesincehewasabletocorroborateimportantelementsinBaldwin'saccount.
(Gregory'sexistencewasnevermentionedbythepressuntilthetrial.)

TheprosecutorsandthegrandjurythusdevelopedanairtightcaseagainstLiddy,Hunt,andthefiveburglarswell
inadvanceof,andwithoutanyassistancefrom,Woodward,Bernstein,oranyotherreporters.Thecasewas
presentedtothegrandjuryandwouldcertainlyhavebeenmadepublicinthetrial.Atbest,reporters,including
WoodwardandBernstein,onlyleakedelementsoftheprosecutors'casetothepublicinadvanceofthetrial.BY
LEAKINGfragmentsoftheprosecutors'case,WoodwardandBernstein,aswellasotherjournalists,didofcourse
addfueltothefire.Butevenhere,theywerenottheonlyonespublicizingthecase.Immediatelyafterthearrest
oftheWatergateburglarsandthroughoutthecampaign,SenatorGeorgeMcGoverndenouncedWatergateinmost
ofhisspeechesandsuggestedinnouncertaintermsthattheWhiteHousewasbehindtheburglary.Indeed,his
campaignstaffhiredWalterSheridan,aformerFBIagentonRobertKennedy'sstaff,tohelp"getout"thestory.
OnJune20,threedaysaftertheburglary,theDemocraticNationalCommitteecommencedacivilsuitagainstthe
CommitteefortheReelectionofthePresidentthatcompelledtheresponsibleofficialsinCRPtogivestatements
underoath.TheGeneralAccountingOffice,anarmofCongress,andCommonCause,aquasipublicfoundation,
meanwhileforcedRepublicanofficialstodiscloseinformationaboutcampaigncontributionswhichindirectlyadded
tothepublicityaboutWatergate.Preliminarylegalactionstakenbytheprosecutors(aswellastheFloridastate's
attorney)alsodivulgedimportantelementsofthecase.Forexample,inmotionsopposingbailforthedefendants,
theprosecutorsdisclosedinabrieffiledJune23,1972thatMexicanchecksweredepositedinBarker'saccount
(althoughthepress,untilamonthlater,whenthecheckswereliterallyhandedtoreporters,failedtopursuethe
"moneytree"exposedinthebailmotions).Inshort,eveninpublicizingWatergate,thepresswasonlyoneamong
anumberofinstitutionsatwork.

ButwhataboutHuntandLiddy'ssuperiorsJebStuartMagruderandJohnMitchell?Theprosecutorswereunableto
developacaseagainstthem,sinceaspartofacoverup,coordinatedbytheWhiteHousecounselJohnDean,
MagrudersworethathehadgivenLiddythecontributionsforadifferentpurposetosetupasystemof
informantsandthisperjurywascorroboratedbyMitchell,byHerbertL.Porter,Magruder'sassistant,andbySally
Harmony,oneofLiddy'ssecretaries.ButneitherdidWoodwardandBernsteinnoranyotherreportersrevealthe
existenceofthecoverup.Theoffersofexecutiveclemency,theparticipationofDeaninthecoverup,thehush
money,andtheperjurydidnotemergeinthepressinanyseriousformuntilafterthetrialoftheWatergate
burglars.Intheend,itwasnotbecauseofthereportingofWoodwardandBernstein,butbecauseofthepressures
putontheconspiratorsbyjudgeJohnSirica,thegrandjury,andCongressionalcommitteesthatthecoverupwas
unraveled.AftertheWatergateconspiratorswereconvicted,judgeSiricamadeitabundantlyclearthattheycould
expectlongprisonsentencesunlesstheycooperatedwiththeinvestigationoftheSenateSelectCommitteeon
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PresidentialCampaignActivities(theErvincommittee).Oneoftheconvictedburglars,JamesMcCord,clearlynot
contentwithacceptingsuchaprisonsentence,wroteSiricathatperjuryhadbeencommittedatthetrialandthe
defendantshadbeeninducedby"higherups"toremainsilent.Subsequently,McCordsuggestedthatMagruder,
Mitchell,andDeanallwereinvolvedintheplanningoftheburglaryandcoverup.

WhileMcCord'sassertionturnedouttobeonlyhearsayevidence,obtainedfromLiddy,thegrandjurywas
reconvened,theprosecutorssubpoenaedDean,andtheErvincommitteebeganfocusingontherolesofDeanand
Magruder.TointensifythepressureonDean,theprosecutorsheldlongsecretsessionswithLiddy,andthough
Liddysteadfastlyrefusedtodiscussthecaseinthesewellpublicizedsessions,theprosecutorsintentionally
promotedthestorythatLiddywastalkingandimplicatingDeanandMagruder.AsPresidentNixon'stranscripts
confirm,therusesucceeded:DeanbelievedthatLiddy,whohadattendedmeetingswithhimandMitchellwhich
eventuallyledtoWatergate,waspleabargainingwiththeprosecutors.Moreover,DeanbelievedthatMagruder,
whocouldalsoimplicatehiminboththeplanningoftheburglaryandthecoverup,wasabouttobargainwiththe
prosecutors.AndFBIDirectorL.PatrickGray,inconfirmationhearingsbeforetheSenatejudiciaryCommittee,
waspubliclysuggestingthatDeanhadinterferedintheinvestigationandliedtotheFBI.

DeanrealizedthathecouldnottestifybeforetheErvincommitteeorthegrandjurywithoutfatallyperjuring
himself.SincePresidentNixonwasnotabletoofferhimanysafewayoutofhispredicament,andhefearedthat
thePresident'sassistantswouldeventuallysacrificehim,DeanbegannegotiatingwiththeprosecutorsonMarch
31forimmunity,andbitbybit,theyforcedhimtodisclosetheentirecoverupincludingthepaymentsofhush
money,blackmailthreats,offersofexecutiveclemency,thesuborningofperjury,etc.InApriltheprosecutors
finallyelicitedevidencefromDeanoftheburglaryofDanielEllsberg'spsychiatrist'sofficeandtheother"horror
stories."FourdaysafterheheardDeanwasbargainingwiththeprosecutors,Magruderalsodecidedtoplea
bargain,andcorroboratedDean'sstory.

AfinalcoherentpictureoftheplanningandexecutionofWatergate,ofthecoverup,andoftheother"horror
stories"wasdevelopedbytheErvincommitteeontelevision.TheAmericanpublicthusfoundoutaboutWatergate
inhundredsofhoursoftestimonyelicitedinpleabargainingandnegotiationsforimmunitybytheprosecutorsand
thenpresentedandtestedincrossexaminationbymembersoftheErvincommittee.

Whatwastheroleofthepressinallthis?Atbest,duringtheunravelingofthecoverup,thepresswasableto
leakthescheduledtestimonyafewdaysinadvanceofitsappearanceontelevision.IFBernsteinandWoodward
didnotinfactexposetheWatergateconspiracyorthecoverup,whatdidtheyexpose?Theansweristhatinlate
SeptembertheyweredivertedtothetrailofDonaldH.Segretti,ayounglawyerwhohadbeenplaying"dirty
tricks"onvariousDemocratsintheprimaries.ThequestforSegrettidominatesboththelargestsectionoftheir
book(almostonethird)andmostoftheir"exclusive"reportsinthePostuntilthecoverupcollapsedlaterthat
March.UnidentifiedsourceswithinthegovernmentgaveBernsteinandWoodwardFBI"302"reports(which
contain"raw"i.e.,unevaluatedinterviews),phonecallrecords,andcreditcardrecords,allofwhichelaborated
Segretti'strail.Through~theFBIreportsandphonerecords,theylocatedanumberofpersonswhomSegretti
hadtriedtorecruitforhis"dirtytricks"campaign.Thereportersassumedthatthiswasallanintegralpartof
Watergate,andwrotethat11theWatergatebuggingincidentstemmedfromamassivecampaignofpolitical
spyingandsabotage....Theactivities,accordingtoinformationinFBIandDepartmentofjusticefiles,wereaimed
atallthemajorDemocraticPresidentialcontenders."TheyfurtherpostulatedthattherewerefiftyotherSegretti
typeagents,allreceivinginformationfromWatergatetypebuggingoperations.

Asitturnedout,thiswasadetour,ifnotafalsetrail.Segretti(whoservedabriefprisonsentenceforsuch"dirty
tricks"assendingtwohundredcopiesofadefamatorylettertoDemocrats)hasnotinfactbeenconnectedtothe
Water,gateconspiracyatall.AlmostallhisworktookplaceintheprimariesbeforeanyoftheWatergatebreakins
inJune1972hewashiredbyDwightChapinintheWhiteHouseandpaidbyHerbertKalmbach,alaw\erfor
PresidentNixon,whereastheWatergategroupwasworkingfortheCommitteefortheReelectionofthePresident
andreceiveditsfundsfromthefinancecommittee.Noevidencehasbeenofferedbyanyone,includingWoodward
andBernstein,thatSegrettireceivedanyinformationfromtheWatergategroup,andtheputativefiftyother
DonaldSegrettishaveneverbeenfound,letalonelinkedtoWatergate.Inshort,neithertheprosecutors,the
grandjury,northeWatergateCommitteehasfoundanyevidencetosupporttheBernsteinWoodwardthesisthat
WatergatewaspartoftheSegrettioperation.ThebehavioroftheofficialswhosteeredBernsteinandWoodward
ontothiscircuitouscoursemakesinitselfarevealingcasestudy.BernsteinandWoodwardidentifytheirmain
sourceonlyunderthetitillatingcodenameof"DeepThroat,"andindicatethat"DeepThroat"confirmedtheir
suspicionthatSegrettiandpoliticalspyingwereattherootoftheWatergateconspiracy.Butwhowas"Deep
Throat"andwhatwashismotivationfordisclosinginformationtoWoodwardandBernstein?WhetherDeepThroat
isrealorfictive,itisclearthatthearduousandtimeconsuminginvestigationbyWoodwardandBernsteinof
SegrettiwasheavilybasedonFBI"302"reports,whichmustuItirnatelyhavebeenmadeavailablebysomeonein
theFBI.TheprosecutorssuggestthattherewasaveritablerevoltagainstthedirectorshipofL.PatrickGray,
becausehewas"tooliberal."Specifically,hewasallowingagentstowearcoloredshirts,growtheirhairlong,and
wasevenrecruitingwomen.Moreimportant,hehadpubliclyreprimandedanFBIexecutive.Accordingtothis
theory,certainFBIexecutivesreleasedthe"302"files,nottoexposetheWatergateconspiracyordrivePresident

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Nixonfromoffice,butsimplytodemonstratetothePresidentthatGraycouldnotcontroltheFBI,andtherefore
wouldproveasevereembarrassmenttohisadministration.Inotherwords,theintentionwastogetridofGray.

Suchatheorywouldbeperfectlyconsistentwiththeinformationdisclosingactivitiesofthesourcethatled
BernsteinandWoodwardastray.Ironically,evenonthewrongtrail,thestalwartBernsteinandWoodward
generatedenoughdamagingpublicityabout"Watergate"tocausetheWhiteHousetovilifythemandthe
WashingtonPost,andthuselevatethemtothestatusofjournalisticmartyrheroes.Ifinsteadofchastisingthe
press,PresidentNixonandhisstaffhadcorrectlyidentifiedthe"signals"fromtheFBI,andhadreplacedGraywith
anFBIexecutive,thingsmighthaveturnedoutdifferently.(ButGray,asithappened,hadacquireddamagingfiles
fromHunt'ssafe,andcouldengageinhisowninformationrelcasinggame,ifthreatened.)

PerhapsthemostperplexingmysteryinBernsteinandWoodward'sbookiswhytheyfailtounderstandtheroleof
theinstitutionsandinvestigatorswhoweresupplyingthemandotherreporterswithleaks.Thisblindspot,
endemictojournalists,proceedsfromanunwillingnesstoseethecomplexityofbureaucraticinfightingandof
politicswithinthegovernmentitself.Ifthegovernmentisconsideredmonolithic,journalistscanreportits
activities,insimplycomprehendedandcoherentterms,asanadversaryoutoftouchwithpopularsentiments.On
theotherhand,ifgovernmentalactivityisviewedastheproductofdiverseandcompetingagencies,allwith
differentbasesofpowerandinterests,journalismbecomesamuchmoredifficultaffair.

Inamevent.thefactremainsthatitwasnotthepress,whichexposedWatergateitwasagenciesofgovernment
itself.Solongasjournalistsmaintaintheirblindspottowardtheinnerconflictsandworkingsoftheinstitution,of
government,theywillnodoubtcontinuetopeakofWatergateintermsoftheDavidandGoliathmyth,with
BernsteinandWoodwardasDavidandthegovernmentasGoliath.

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