Vijay Kumar: IBPS (SO) I.T.O Cer: Operating System Study Notes

6/1/2017 IBPS(SO)I.T.
Officer:OperatingSystemStudyNotes
Bank & Insurance > IBPS-SO :: IT Ocer > Computer
Vijay Kumar
Jan 18 Bank & Insurance
IBPS (SO) I.T.Ocer : Operating System Study Notes

Hi,
Today we are covering the study material on operating system, that will help you
succeed in the upcoming IBPS(SO) Exam 2017.
An operating system acts as an intermediary between the user of a computer and
the computer hardware. An Operating System (OS) is a software that manages the
computer hardware.
Hardware: It provides the basic computing resources for the system. It

consists of CPU, memory and the input/output (I/O) devices.
Application Programs: Dene the ways in which these resources are used to
solve user's computing problems. e.g., word processors, spreadsheets,
compilers and web browsers.
Components of a Computer System
Process Management: The operating system manages many kinds of

activities ranging from user programs to system programs like printer spooler,
name servers, le server etc.
Main-Memory Management: Primary-Memory or Main-Memory is a large array
of words or bytes. Each word or byte has its own address. Main-memory
provides storage that can be access directly by the CPU. That is to say for a
program to be executed, it must in the main memory.
File Management: A le is a collected of related information dened by its

creator. Computer can store les on the disk (secondary storage), which
provide long term storage. Some examples of storage media are magnetic
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6/1/2017 IBPS(SO)I.T.Officer:OperatingSystemStudyNotes
provide long term storage. Some examples of storage media are magnetic
tape, magnetic disk and optical disk. Each of these media has its own
properties like speed, capacity, data transfer rate and access methods.
I/O System Management: I/O subsystem hides the peculiarities of specic
hardware devices from the user. Only the device driver knows the peculiarities
of the specic device to whom it is assigned.
Secondary-Storage Management: Secondary storage consists of tapes, disks,
and other media designed to hold information that will eventually be accessed
in primary storage (primary, secondary, cache) is ordinarily divided into bytes
or words consisting of a xed number of bytes. Each location in storage has
an address; the set of all addresses available to a program is called an
address space.
Protection System: Protection refers to mechanism for controlling the access
of programs, processes, or users to the resources dened by a computer
systems.
Networking: generalizes network access
Command-Interpreter System: interface between the user and the OS.
Functions of Operating System

Memory Management
Processor Management
Device Management
Storage Management
Application Interface
User Interface
Security
Operating System Services
Many services are provided by OS to the user's programs.
Program Execution:The operating system helps to load a program into

memory and run it.
I/O Operations:Each running program may request for I/O operation and for
eciency and protection the users cannot control I/O devices directly. Thus,
the operating system must provide some means to do I/O operations.
File System Manipulation:Files are the most important part which is needed
by programs to read and write the les and les may also be created and
deleted by names or by the programs. The operating system is responsible for
the le management.
Communications :Many times, one process needs to exchange information
with another process, this exchange of information can takes place between
the processes executing on the same computer or the exchange of
information may occur between the process executing on the different
computer systems, tied together by a computer network. All these things are
taken care by operating system.
Error Detection:It is necessary that the operating system must be aware of

possible errors and should take the appropriate action to ensure correct and
consistent computing.
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consistent computing.IBPS(SO)I.T.Officer:OperatingSystemStudyNotes
Some important tasks that Operating System handles are:

The Operating system can perform a Single Operation and also Multiple Operations
at a Time. So there are many types of Operating systems those are organized by
using their Working Techniques.
1. Serial Processing: The Serial Processing Operating Systems are those which
Performs all the instructions into a Sequence Manner or the Instructions those are
given by the user will be executed by using the FIFO Manner means First in First
Out. Mainly the Punch Cards are used for this. In this all the Jobs are rstly
Prepared and Stored on the Card and after that card will be entered in the System
and after that all the Instructions will be executed one by One. But the Main
Problem is that a user doesnt interact with the System while he is working on the
System, means the user can not be able to enter the data for Execution.
2. Batch Processing: The Batch Processing is same as the Serial Processing
Technique. But in the Batch Processing Similar Types of jobs are Firstly Prepared
and they are Stored on the Card and that card will be Submit to the System for the
Processing. The Main Problem is that the Jobs those are prepared for Execution
must be the Same Type and if a job requires for any type of Input then this will not
be Possible for the user. The Batch Contains the Jobs and all those jobs will be
executed without the user Intervention.
3. Multi-Programming:Execute Multiple Programs on the System at a Time and in

the Multi-programming the CPU will never get idle, because with the help of Multi-
Programming we can Execute Many Programs on the System and When we are
Working with the Program then we can also Submit the Second or Another Program
for Running and the CPU will then Execute the Second Program after the
completion of the First Program. And in this we can also specify our Input means a
user can also interact with the System.
4. Real Time System: In this Response Time is already xed. Means time to Display
the Results after Possessing has xed by the Processor or CPU. Real Time System
is used at those Places in which we Requires higher and Timely Response.
Hard Real Time System: In the Hard Real Time System, Time is xed and we
cant Change any Moments of the Time of Processing. Means CPU will
Process the data as we Enters the Data.
Soft Real Time System: In the Soft Real Time System, some Moments can be
Change. Means after giving the Command to the CPU, CPU Performs the
Operation after a Microsecond.
5. Distributed Operating System: Distributed Means Data is Stored and Processed

on Multiple Locations. When a Data is stored on to the Multiple Computers, those
are placed in Different Locations. Distributed means In the Network, Network
Collections of Computers are connected with Each other. Then if we want to Take
Some Data From other Computer, Then we uses the Distributed Processing System.
And we can also Insert and Remove the Data from out Location to another
Location. In this Data is shared between many users. And we can also Access all
the Input and Output Devices are also accessed by Multiple Users.
6. Multiprocessing: In the Multi Processing there are two or More CPU in a Single
Operating System if one CPU will fail, then other CPU is used for providing backup
to the rst CPU. With the help of Multi-processing, we can Execute Many Jobs at a
Time. All the Operations are divided into the Number of CPUs. if rst CPU
Completed his Work before the Second CPU, then the Work of Second CPU will be
divided into the First and Second.
7. Parallel operating systems: These are used to interface multiple networked
computers to complete tasks in parallel. Parallel operating systems are able to use
software to manage all of the different resources of the computers running in
parallel, such as memory, caches, storage space, and processing power. A parallel
operating system works by dividing sets of calculations into smaller parts and
distributing them between the machines on a network.
Process:
A process can be dened in any of the following ways
A process is a program in execution.

It is an asynchronous activity.
It is an asynchronous activity.
It is the entity to which processors are assigned.
It is the dispatchable unit.
It is the unit of work in a system.
A process is more than the program code. It also includes the current activity as
represented by following:
Current value of Program Counter (PC)

Contents of the processors registers
Value of the variables
The process stack which contains temporary data such as subroutine
parameter, return address, and temporary variables.
A data section that contains global variables.
Process in Memory:
Each process is represented in the as by a Process Control Block (PCB) also called
a task control block.
PCB: A process in an operating system is represented by a data structure known as
a process control block (PCB) or process descriptor.
The PCB contains important information about the specic process including
The current state of the process i.e., whether it is ready, running, waiting, or
whatever.
Unique identication of the process in order to track "which is which"
information.
A pointer to parent process.
Similarly, a pointer to child process (if it exists).
The priority of process (a part of CPU scheduling information).
Pointers to locate memory of processes.
A register save area.
The processor it is running on.
Process State Model
Process state:The process state consist of everything necessary to resume the

process execution if it is somehow put aside temporarily.
The process state consists of at least following:
Code for the program.

Program's static data.
Program's dynamic data.
Program's procedure call stack.
Contents of general purpose registers.
Contents of program counter (PC)
Contents of program status word (PSW).
Operating Systems resource in use.
A process goes through a series of discrete process states.
New State: The process being created.

Running State: A process is said to be running if it has the CPU, that is,
process actually using the CPU at that particular instant.
Blocked (or waiting) State: A process is said to be blocked if it is waiting for
some event to happen such that as an I/O completion before it can proceed.
Note that a process is unable to run until some external event happens.
Ready State: A process is said to be ready if it use a CPU if one were
available. A ready state process is runable but temporarily stopped running to
let another process run.
Terminated state: The process has nished execution.
Dispatcher:
It is the module that gives control of the CPU to the process selected by the
short term scheduler.
Functions of Dispatcher: Switching context,Switching to user mode, and
Jumping to the proper location in the user program to restart that program.
Thread:
A thread is a single sequence stream within in a process. Because threads have
some of the properties of processes, they are sometimes called lightweight
processes.An operating system that has thread facility, the basic unit of CPU
utilization is a thread.
A thread can be in any of several states (Running, Blocked, Ready or

Terminated).
Each thread has its own stack.

A thread has or consists of a program counter (PC), a register set, and a stack
space. Threads are not independent of one other like processes as a result
6/1/2017
space. Threads are notIBPS(SO)I.T.Officer:OperatingSystemStudyNotes
independent of one other like processes as a result
threads shares with other threads their code section, data section, OS
resources also known as task, such as open les and signals.
Multi threading:
An application typically is implemented as a separate process with several threads
of control.
There are two types of threads.
1. User threads:They are above the kernel and they are managed without kernel
support. User-level threads implement in user-level libraries, rather than via
systems calls, so thread switching does not need to call operating system and
to cause interrupt to the kernel. In fact, the kernel knows nothing about user-
level threads and manages them as if they were single-threaded processes.
2. Kernel threads:Kernel threads are supported and managed directly by the
operating system. Instead of thread table in each process, the kernel has a
thread table that keeps track of all threads in the system.
Advantages of Thread
Thread minimizes context switching time.

Use of threads provides concurrency within a process.
Ecient communication.
Economy- It is more economical to create and context switch threads.
Utilization of multiprocessor architectures to a greater scale and eciency.
Difference between Process and Thread:
Inter-Process Communication:
Processes executing concurrently in the operating system may be either

independent or cooperating processes.
A process is independent, if it cant affect or be affected by the other
A process is independent, if it cant affect or be affected by the other
processes executing in the system.
Any process that shares data with other processes is a cooperating process.
There are two fundamental models of IPC:
Shared memory:In the shared memory model, a region of memory that is

shared by cooperating process is established. Process can then exchange
information by reading and writing data to the shared region.
Message passing:In the message passing model, communication takes place
by means of messages exchanged between the cooperating processes.
CPU Scheduling:
CPU Scheduling is the process by which an Operating System decides which
programs get to use the CPU. CPU scheduling is the basis of MULTIPROGRAMMED
operating systems. By switching the CPU among processes, the operating system
can make the computer more productive.
CPU Schedulers: Schedulers are special system softwares which handles process
scheduling in various ways. Their main task is to select the jobs to be submitted
into the system and to decide which process to run.
CPU Scheduling algorithms:
1. First Come First Serve (FCFS)
Jobs are executed on rst come, rst serve basis.

Easy to understand and implement.
Poor in performance as average wait time is high.
2. Shortest Job First (SJF)
Best approach to minimize waiting time.

Impossible to implement
Processer should know in advance how much time process will take.
3. Priority Based Scheduling
Each process is assigned a priority. Process with highest priority is to be

executed rst and so on.
Processes with same priority are executed on rst come rst serve basis.
Priority can be decided based on memory requirements, time requirements or
any other resource requirement.
4. Round Robin Scheduling
Each process is provided a x time to execute called quantum.

Once a process is executed for given time period. Process is preempted and
other process executes for given time period.
Context switching is used to save states of preempted processes.
5. Multi-Queue Scheduling
Multiple queues are maintained for processes.

Each queue can have its own scheduling algorithms.
Each queue can have its own scheduling algorithms.
Priorities are assigned to each queue.
Synchronization:
Currency arises in three different contexts:

Multiple applications Multiple programs are allowed to dynamically
share processing time.
Structured applications Some applications can be effectively
programmed as a set of concurrent processes.
Operating system structure The OS themselves are implemented as
set of processes.
Concurrent processes (or threads) often need access to shared data and
shared resources.
Processes use and update shared data such as shared variables, les,
and data bases.
Writing must be mutually exclusive to prevent a condition leading to
inconsistent data views.
Maintaining data consistency requires mechanisms to ensure the orderly
execution of cooperating processes.
Race Condition
The race condition is a situation where several processes access (read/write)

shared data concurrently and the nal value of the shared data depends upon
which process nishes last
The actions performed by concurrent processes will then depend on the
order in which their execution is interleaved.
To prevent race conditions, concurrent processes must be coordinated or
synchronized.
It means that neither process will proceed beyond a certain point in the
computation until both have reached their respective synchronization
point.
Critical Section/Region
1. Consider a system consisting of n processes all competing to use some

shared data.
2. Each process has a code segment, called critical section, in which the shared
data is accessed.
The Critical-Section Problem
1. The critical-section problem is to design a protocol that the processes can

cooperate. The protocol must ensure that when one process is executing in its
critical section, no other process is allowed to execute in its critical section.
2. The critical section problem is to design a protocol that the processes can
use so that their action will not depend on the order in which their execution is
interleaved (possibly on many processors).
interleaved (possibly on many processors).
Deadlock:
A deadlock situation can arise, if the following four conditions hold simultaneously
in a system.
Mutual Exclusion: Resources must be allocated to processes at any time in an

exclusive manner and not on a shared basis for a deadlock to be possible. If
another process requests that resource, the requesting process must be
delayed until the resource has been released.
Hold and Wait Condition: Even if a process holds certain resources at any
moment, it should be possible for it to request for new ones. It should not give
up (release) the already held resources to be able to request for new ones. If it
is not true, a deadlock can never take place.
No Preemption Condition: Resources can't be preempted. A resource can be
released only voluntarily by the process holding it, after that process has
completed its task.
Circular Wait Condition: There must exist a set = {Po, P1, P2, ... , Pn} of
waiting processes such that Po is waiting for a resource that is held by P1, P1
is waiting for a resource that is held by P2, ... , Pn - 1 is waiting for a resource
that is held by Pn and Pn is waiting for a resource that is held by P0.
Resource Allocation Graph: The resource allocation graph consists of a set of

vertices V and a set of edges E. Set of vertices V is partitioned into two types
1. P = {Pl, P2, ... ,Pn}, the set consisting of all the processes in the system.
2. R = {Rl, R2, ... , Rm}, the set consisting of all resource types in the system.
Directed Edge PiPj is known as request edge.

Directed Edge Pj Pi is known as assignment edge.
Resource Instance
One instance of resource type R1.

Two instances of resource type R2.
One instance of resource type R3.
Three instances of resource type R4
Process States
Process P1 is holding an instance of resource type R2 and is waiting for an

instance of resource type Rl.
Process P2 is holding an instance of R1 and R2 is waiting for an instance of
resource type R3.
Process P3 is holding an instance of R3.
Basic facts related to resource allocation graphs are given below
Note: If graph consists no cycle it means there is no deadlock in the system.
If graph contains cycle
1. If only one instance per resource type, then deadlock.

2. If several instances per resource type, then there mayor may
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2. If several instances per resource type, then there mayor may not be deadlock.
Deadlock Handling Strategies

In general, there are four strategies of dealing with deadlock problem:
1. The Ostrich Approach: Just ignore the deadlock problem altogether.

2. Deadlock Detection and Recovery: Detect deadlock and, when it occurs, take
steps to recover.
3. Deadlock Avoidance: Avoid deadlock by careful resource scheduling.
4. Deadlock Prevention: Prevent deadlock by resource scheduling so as to
negate at least one of the four conditions.
Deadlock Prevention
Deadlock prevention is a set of methods for ensuring that atleast one of the
necessary conditions can't hold.
Elimination of Mutual Exclusion Condition

Elimination of Hold and Wait Condition
Elimination of No-preemption Condition
Elimination of Circular Wait Condition
Deadlock Avoidance
This approach to the deadlock problem anticipates deadlock before it actually
occurs.
A deadlock avoidance algorithm dynamically examines the resource allocation
state to ensure that a circular wait condition can never exist. The resource
allocation state is dened by the number of available and allocated resources and
the maximum demands of the processes.
Safe State: A state is safe, if the system can allocate resources to each process
and still avoid a deadlock.
A system is in safe state, if there exists a safe sequence of all processes. A

deadlock state is an unsafe state. Not all unsafe states cause deadlocks. It is
important to note that an unsafe state does not imply the existence or even the
eventual existence a deadlock. What an unsafe state does imply is simply that
some unfortunate sequence of events might lead to a deadlock.
Address Binding: Binding of instructions and data to memory addresses.
1. Compile time: if process location is known then absolute code can be

generated.
2. Load time: Compiler generates relocatable code which is bound at load time.
2. Load time: Compiler generates relocatable code which is bound at load time.
3. Execution time: If a process can be moved from one memory segment to
another then binding must be delayed until run time.
Dynamic Loading:
Routine is not loaded until it is called.

Better memory-space utilization;
Unused routine is never loaded.
Useful when large amounts of code are needed to handle infrequently
occurring cases.
No special support from the operating system is required; implemented
through program design.
Dynamic Linking:
Linking postponed until execution time.

Small piece of code, stub, used to locate the appropriate memory-resident
library routine.
Stub replaces itself with the address of the routine, and executes the routine.
Operating system needed to check if routine is in processes memory address
Overlays: This techniques allow to keep in memory only those instructions and
data, which are required at given time. The other instruction and data is loaded into
the memory space occupied by the previous ones when they are needed.
Swapping: Consider an environment which supports multiprogramming using say
Round Robin (RR) CPU scheduling algorithm. Then, when one process has nished
executing for one time quantum, it is swapped out of memory to a backing store.
The memory manager then picks up another process from the backing store and
loads it into the memory occupied by the previous process. Then, the scheduler
picks up another process and allocates the CPU to it.
Memory Management Techniques
Memory management is the functionality of an operating system which handles or
manages primary memory. Memory management keeps track of each and every
memory location either it is allocated to some process or it is free.
There are two ways for memory allocation as given below
Single Partition Allocation: The memory is divided into two parts. One to be used
by as and the other one is for user programs. The as code and date is protected
from being modied by user programs using a base register.
Multiple Partition Allocation: The multiple partition allocation may be further
classied as
Fixed Partition Scheme: Memory is divided into a number of xed size partitions.
Then, each partition holds one process. This scheme supports multiprogramming
as a number of processes may be brought into memory and the CPU can be
switched from one process to another.
When a process arrives for execution, it is put into the input queue of the smallest
partition, which is large enough to hold it.
Variable Partition Scheme: A block of available memory is designated as a hole at
Variable Partition Scheme: A block of available memory is designated as a hole at
any time, a set of holes exists, which consists of holes of various sizes scattered
throughout the memory.
When a process arrives and needs memory, this set of holes is searched for a hole
which is large enough to hold the process. If the hole is too large, it is split into two
parts. The unused part is added to the set of holes. All holes which are adjacent to
each other are merged.
There are different ways of implementing allocation of partitions from a list of free
holes, such as:
rst-t: allocate the rst hole that is big enough

best-t: allocate the smallest hole that is small enough; the entire list of holes
must be searched, unless it is ordered by size
next-t: scan holes from the location of the last allocation and choose the
next available block that is large enough (can be implemented using a circular
linked list)
Instructions and data to memory addresses can be done in following ways
Compile time: When it is known at compile time where the process will reside,
compile time binding is used to generate the absolute code.
Load time: When it is not known at compile time where the process will
reside in memory, then the compiler generates re-locatable code.
Execution time: If the process can be moved during its execution from one
memory segment to another, then binding must be delayed to be done at run
time
Paging
It is a memory management technique, which allows the memory to be allocated to

the process wherever it is available. Physical memory is divided into xed size
blocks called frames. Logical memory is broken into blocks of same size called
pages. The backing store is also divided into same size blocks.
When a process is to be executed its pages are loaded into available page frames.
A frame is a collection of contiguous pages. Every logical address generated by the
CPU is divided into two parts. The page number (P) and the page offset (d). The
page number is used as an index into a page table.
Each entry in the page table contains the base address of the page in physical
memory (f). The base address of the Pth entry is then combined with the offset (d)
to give the actual address in memory.
Virtual Memory
Separation of user logical memory from physical memory. It is a technique to run
process size more than main memory. Virtual memory is a memory management
scheme which allows the execution of a partially loaded process.
Advantages of Virtual Memory
The advantages of virtual memory can be given as

Logical address space can therefore be much larger than physical address
space.
space.
Allows address spaces to be shared by several processes.
Less I/O is required to load or swap a process in memory, so each user can
run faster.
Segmentation
Logical address is divided into blocks called segment i.e., logical address
space is a collection of segments. Each segment has a name and length.
Logical address consists of two things < segment number, offset>.
Segmentation is a memory-management scheme that supports the following
user view of memory. All the location within a segment are placed in
contiguous location in primary storage.
The le system consists of two parts:
1. A collection of les
2. A directory structure
The le management system can be implemented as one or more layers of the

operating system.
The common responsibilities of the le management system includes the following
Mapping of access requests from logical to physical le address space.

Transmission of le elements between main and secondary storage.
Management of the secondary storage such as keeping track of the status
allocation and deallocation of space.
Support for protection and sharing of les and the recovery and possible
restoration of the les after system crashes.
File Attributes
Each le is referred to by its name. The le is named for the convenience of the
users and when a le is named, it becomes independent of the user and the
process. Below are le attributes
Name
Type
Location
Size
Protection
Time and date
Disk Scheduling
One of the responsibilities of the OS is to use the hardware eciently. For the disk
drives, meeting this responsibility entails having fast access time and large disk
bandwidth.
Access time has two major components
Seek time is the time for the disk arm to move the heads to the cylinder
containing the desired sector.
The rotational latency is the additional time for the disk to rotate the desired
6/1/2017
The rotational latency IBPS(SO)I.T.Officer:OperatingSystemStudyNotes
is the additional time for the disk to rotate the desired
sector to the disk head. It is not xed, so we can take average value.
Disk bandwidth is the total number of bytes transferred, divided by the total time
between the rst for service and the completion of last transfer.
FCFS Scheduling: This is also known as First In First Out (FIFO) simply queues
processes in the order that they arrive in the ready queue.
The following features which FIFO scheduling have.
First come rst served scheduling.

Processes request sequentially.
Fair to all processes, but it generally does not provide the fastest service.
Consider a disk queue with requests for 110to blocks on cylinder.
Shortest Seek Time First (SSTF) Scheduling: It selects the request with the
minimum seek time from the current head position. SSTF scheduling is a form of
SJF scheduling may cause starvation of some requests. It is not an optimal
algorithm but its improvement over FCFS
SCAN Scheduling: In the SCAN algorithm, the disk arm starts at one end of the disk
and moves toward the other end, servicing requests as it reaches each cylinder
until it gets to the other end of the disk. At the other end, the direction of head
movement is reversed and servicing continues. The head continuously scans back
and forth across the disk. The SCAN algorithm is sometimes called the elevator
algorithm, since the disk arm behaves just like an elevator in a building, rst
servicing all the request going up and then reversing to service requests the other
way.
C-SCAN Scheduling: Circular SCAN is a variant of SCAN, which is designed to
provide a more uniform wait time. Like SCAN, C-SCAN moves the head from one
end of the disk to the other, servicing requests along the way. When the head
reaches the other end, however it immediately returns to the beginning of the disk
without servicing any requests on the return trip. The C-SCAN scheduling algorithm
essentially treats the cylinders as a circular list that wraps around from the nal
cylinder to the rst one.
Thanks.
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Nice explanationn
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What is cache coherence?
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IBPS (SO) I.T.Ocer : Operating System Study Notes

Hardware: It provides the basic computing resources for the system. It

Components of a Computer System

Process Management: The operating system manages many kinds of

File Management: A le is a collected of related information dened by its

Functions of Operating System

Program Execution:The operating system helps to load a program into

Error Detection:It is necessary that the operating system must be aware of

Some important tasks that Operating System handles are:

3. Multi-Programming:Execute Multiple Programs on the System at a Time and in

5. Distributed Operating System: Distributed Means Data is Stored and Processed

A process can be dened in any of the following ways

A process is a program in execution.

Current value of Program Counter (PC)

Process State Model

Process state:The process state consist of everything necessary to resume the

Code for the program.

A process goes through a series of discrete process states.

New State: The process being created.

A thread can be in any of several states (Running, Blocked, Ready or

Each thread has its own stack.

Thread minimizes context switching time.

Difference between Process and Thread:

Processes executing concurrently in the operating system may be either

There are two fundamental models of IPC:

Shared memory:In the shared memory model, a region of memory that is

Jobs are executed on rst come, rst serve basis.

2. Shortest Job First (SJF)

Best approach to minimize waiting time.

3. Priority Based Scheduling

Each process is assigned a priority. Process with highest priority is to be

4. Round Robin Scheduling

Each process is provided a x time to execute called quantum.

Multiple queues are maintained for processes.

Currency arises in three different contexts:

The race condition is a situation where several processes access (read/write)

1. Consider a system consisting of n processes all competing to use some

The Critical-Section Problem

1. The critical-section problem is to design a protocol that the processes can

Mutual Exclusion: Resources must be allocated to processes at any time in an

Resource Allocation Graph: The resource allocation graph consists of a set of

Directed Edge PiPj is known as request edge.

One instance of resource type R1.

Process P1 is holding an instance of resource type R2 and is waiting for an

Note: If graph consists no cycle it means there is no deadlock in the system.

If graph contains cycle

1. If only one instance per resource type, then deadlock.

Deadlock Handling Strategies

1. The Ostrich Approach: Just ignore the deadlock problem altogether.

Elimination of Mutual Exclusion Condition

A system is in safe state, if there exists a safe sequence of all processes. A

1. Compile time: if process location is known then absolute code can be

Routine is not loaded until it is called.

Linking postponed until execution time.

rst-t: allocate the rst hole that is big enough