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CHAP 5 Report
This chapter discusses data and process modeling techniques that analysts use to
show how the system transforms data into useful information. The deliverable, or end
product, of data and process modeling is a logical model that will support business
operations and meet user needs.
INTRODUCTION
During the requirements modeling process described in Chapter 4, you used fact-finding
techniques to investigate the current system and identify user requirements. Now, in
Chapters 5 and 6 you will use that information to develop a logical model of the
proposed system and document the system requirements. A logical model shows what
the system must do, regardless of how it will be implemented physically. Later, in the
systems design phase, you build a physical model that describes how the system will be
constructed. Data and process modeling involves three main tools: data flow diagrams,
a data dictionary, and process descriptions.
DFD Symbols
DFD use four basic symbols that represent processes, data flows, data stores,
and entities.
There are two different versions of DFD symbols namely: Gane and Sarson
Symbol Set and Yourdon and Coad Symbol Set.
1. Gane and Sarson type DFDs- are common for visualizing information systems.
The processes are squares with rounded corners.
2. Yourdon and Coad type DFDs- are usually used for system analysis and
design. The processes are depicted as circles.
https://www.smartdraw.com/data-flow-diagram/
Process symbols
a process receives input data and procedure output that has a different content,
form, or both.
Process can be very simple or quite complex.
Processes contain business logic, also called business rules, that transform
the data and produce the required results.
It can be referred as a black box, because the inputs, the outputs, and the
general functions of the process are known, but the underlying details and logic
of the problems are hidden.
An example of a black box is a network router. An observer can see cables that carry
data into and out of the router, but the routers internal operations are not revealed
only the results are apparent.
DATA FLOW SYMBOL
A data flow is a path for data to move from one part of the information
system to another. It represents one or more data items.
The symbol for a data flow is a line with a single or double arrow-head.
THREE DATA FLOW AND PROCESS COMBINATIONS THAT YOU MUST AVOID:
ENTITY SYMBOL
The symbol for an entity is a rectangle, which may be shaded to make it look
three-dimensional
A DFD shows only external entities that provide data to the system or receive
output from the system.
DFD entities are also called terminators because they are data origins or final
destinations.
System analysts call an entity that supplies data to the system a source, and an
entity that receives data from the system a sink.
CREATING A SET OF DFDs
To learn how to construct DFDs, we will use two information systems.
Grading system: use by instructor to assign final grades based on the scores that
students received during the term.
Order system: uses by the company to enter orders and apply payments against
a customers balance.
DATA DICTIONARY
Key questions:
How does the client know what a Data Flow name means?
How do analysts and clients know they are talking about the same data flowing
around an organization?
A data dictionary is created to define the contents of each data flow, each data store,
each process to avoid ambiguity or confusion about what particular data is collected and
stored.
Data elements (or attributes) are the simplest entry in the data dictionary, for example
state (NSW, WA, VIC, QLD, SA, TAS) or quantity (number ordered). These elements
cannot be further simplified. A collection of related elements are called data
structures and these appear within either data flows or data stores. A data structure
can be simple like address or complex like order form. Address has a number of data
elements (address line 1, address line 2, suburb, state, postcode). Order form could
contain at least 10 structures as well as perhaps 50 elements.
All these structures (collections of elements) and elements are organized alphabetically
in a document called the data dictionary. There is only one entry for each name used.
For each data element, data flow or data store similar information is documented.
description or purpose
examples and often statements about where each data element appears within
the data modelling diagrams (e.g. which processes, data stores, data flows)
date
name of business
ABN No.
address
phone number
docket number
time
purchase
description
cost
quality
total
subtotal
GST
inclusive total
payment method
amount paid
change
An extract from a data dictionary for a fast food outlet system appears below.
Phone
https://www.dlsweb.rmit.edu.au/toolbox/knowmang/content/gathering_data/sad/dfds/ddi
ct.htm
(INTERNET)
Data Dictionary
Data dictionary is a method for analyzing the data flows and data stores of data-
oriented systems.
The data dictionary is a reference work of data about data (metadata).
It identifies, coordinates, and confirms what a specific data term means to different
people in the organization.
The Repository
A data repository is a large collection of project information.
It includes:
Information about system data.
Procedural logic.
Screen and report design.
Relationships between entries.
Project requirements and deliverables.
Project management information.
Defining Elements
Data elements should be defined with descriptive information, length and type of data
information, validation criteria, of data information, validation criteria, and default values.
Each element should be defined once in the data dictionary.
Attributes of each element are:
Element ID. This is an optional entry that allows the analyst to build automated
data dictionary entries.
The name of the element, descriptive and unique
It should be what the element is commonly called in most programs or by the
major user of the element.
Consistency is desirable
(BOOK)
A data dictionary, or data repository, is a central storehouse of information about the
systems data. The main purpose of a data dictionary is to describe, document and
organize facts about the:
data flows,
data stores,
processes, and
external entities.
A data element, or data item or field, is the smallest piece of data that has meaning
within an information system. Examples are, SS#, CustID, LastName, etc.
Each data structure or record contains one or more data elements. Each data element
needs to be described.
You must document every data element in the data dictionary.
A record is a data structure that contains a set of related data elements that are stored
and processed together.
Typical characteristics of a record include the following:
Record or data structure name The record name as it appears in the related data
flow and data store entries in the data dictionary
Definition or description A brief definition of the record
Alternate name(s) Any aliases for the record name
Attributes A list of all the data elements included in the record.
The only disadvantage of the four-model approach is the added time and cost needed
to develop a logical and physical model of the current system. Most projects have very
tight schedules that might not allow time to create the current system models.
Additionally, users and managers want to see progress on the new system they are
much less concerned about documenting the current system. As a systems analyst, you
must stress the importance of careful documentation and resist the pressure to hurry
the development process at the risk of creating serious problems later.
CHAPTER SUMMARY
During data and process modeling, a systems analyst develops graphical models to
show how the system transforms data into useful information. The end product of data
and process modeling is a logical model that will support business operations and meet
user needs. Data and process modeling involves three main tools: data flow diagrams,
a data dictionary, and process descriptions.
Dam flow diagrams (DFDs) graphically show the movement and transformation of data
in the information system. DFDs use four symbols: The process symbol transforms
data; the data flow symbol shows data movement; the data store symbol shows data at
rest; and the external entity symbol represents someone or something connected to the
information system. Various rules and techniques are used to name, number, arrange,
and annotate the set of DFDs to make them consistent and understandable.
A set of DFDs is like a pyramid with the context diagram at the top. The context diagram
represents the information systems scope and its external connections but not its
internal workings. Diagram 0 displays the information systems major processes, data
stores, and data flows and is the exploded version of the context diagrams process
symbol, which represents the entire information system. Lower-level DFDs show
additional detail of the information system through the leveling technique of numbering
and partitioning. Leveling continues until you reach the functional primitive processes,
which are not decomposed further and are documented with process descriptions. All
diagrams must be balanced to ensure their consistency and accuracy.
The data dictionary is the central documentation tool for structured analysis. All data
dementia, data flows, data stores, processes, entities, and records are documented m
the data dictionary Consolidating documentation in one location allows you to verify the
information system 1: accuracy and consistency more easily and generate a variety of
useful reports.
Each functional primitive process is documented using structured English, decision
tables and decision trees. Structured English uses a subset of standard English that
defines each process with combinations of the basic building blocks of sequence,
selection, and iteration. You also can document the logic by using decision tables or
decision trees.
Structured analysis tools can be used to develop a logical model during one systems
analysis phase, and a physical model during the systems design phase. Many analysts
use a four-model approach, which involves a physical model of the current system, a
logical model of the current system, a logical model of the new system, and a physical
model of the new system.