Electricpowertransmission

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Electricpower
transmissionisthebulk
movementofelectrical
energyfromagenerating
site,suchasapower
plant,toanelectrical
substation.The
interconnectedlines
whichfacilitatethis
movementareknownas
atransmissionnetwork.
Thisisdistinctfromthe
localwiringbetween
highvoltagesubstations
andcustomers,whichis
typicallyreferredtoas
electricpower
distribution.The 500kVThreephaseelectricpowerTransmissionLinesatGrandCouleeDam
combinedtransmission
anddistributionnetwork
isknownasthe"powergrid"inNorthAmerica,orjust"thegrid".IntheUnitedKingdom,thenetworkisknownas
the"NationalGrid".

Awideareasynchronousgrid,alsoknownasan"interconnection"inNorthAmerica,directlyconnectsalarge
numberofgeneratorsdeliveringACpowerwiththesamerelativefrequencytoalargenumberofconsumers.For
example,therearefourmajorinterconnectionsinNorthAmerica(theWesternInterconnection,theEastern
Interconnection,theQuebecInterconnectionandtheElectricReliabilityCouncilofTexas(ERCOT)grid).In
EuropeonelargegridconnectsmostofcontinentalEurope.

Historically,transmissionanddistributionlineswereownedbythesamecompany,butstartinginthe1990s,many
countrieshaveliberalizedtheregulationoftheelectricitymarketinwaysthathaveledtotheseparationofthe
electricitytransmissionbusinessfromthedistributionbusiness.[1]

Contents
1 System
2 Overheadtransmission
3 Undergroundtransmission
4 History
5 Bulkpowertransmission
5.1 Gridinput
5.2 Losses
5.3 Transposition
5.4 Subtransmission
5.5 Transmissiongridexit
6 Advantageofhighvoltagepowertransmission
 7 Modelingandthetransmissionmatrix
7.1 Losslessline
7.2 Shortline
7.3 Mediumline
7.4 Longline
8 Highvoltagedirectcurrent
9 Capacity
10 Control
10.1 Loadbalancing
10.2 Failureprotection
11 Communications
12 Electricitymarketreform
13 Costofelectricpowertransmission
14 Merchanttransmission
15 Healthconcerns
16 UnitedStatesgovernmentpolicy
17 Specialtransmission
17.1 Gridsforrailways
17.2 Superconductingcables
17.3 Singlewireearthreturn
17.4 Wirelesspowertransmission
18 Securityofcontrolsystems
19 Records
20 Seealso
21 References
22 Furtherreading
23 Externallinks

System
Mosttransmissionlinesarehighvoltagethreephasealternatingcurrent(AC),althoughsinglephaseACis
sometimesusedinrailwayelectrificationsystems.Highvoltagedirectcurrent(HVDC)technologyisusedfor
greaterefficiencyoververylongdistances(typicallyhundredsofmiles).HVDCtechnologyisalsousedin
submarinepowercables(typicallylongerthan30miles(50km)),andintheinterchangeofpowerbetweengrids
thatarenotmutuallysynchronized.HVDClinksareusedtostabilizelargepowerdistributionnetworkswhere
suddennewloads,orblackouts,inonepartofanetworkcanresultinsynchronizationproblemsandcascading
failures.

Diagramofanelectricpowersystemtransmissionsystemisinblue
Electricityistransmittedathighvoltages
(115kVorabove)toreducetheenergyloss
whichoccursinlongdistancetransmission.
Powerisusuallytransmittedthroughoverhead
powerlines.Undergroundpowertransmission
hasasignificantlyhigherinstallationcostand
greateroperationallimitations,butreduced
maintenancecosts.Undergroundtransmission
issometimesusedinurbanareasor
environmentallysensitivelocations.
Alackofelectricalenergystoragefacilitiesintransmissionsystemsleadstoakeylimitation.Electricalenergy
mustbegeneratedatthesamerateatwhichitisconsumed.Asophisticatedcontrolsystemisrequiredtoensure
thatthepowergenerationverycloselymatchesthedemand.Ifthedemandforpowerexceedssupply,the
imbalancecancausegenerationplant(s)andtransmissionequipmenttoautomaticallydisconnectand/orshutdown
topreventdamage.Intheworstcase,thismayleadtoacascadingseriesofshutdownsandamajorregional
blackout.ExamplesincludetheUSNortheastblackoutsof1965,1977,2003,andmajorblackoutsinotherUS
regionsin1996and2011.Electrictransmissionnetworksareinterconnectedintoregional,national,andeven
continentwidenetworkstoreducetheriskofsuchafailurebyprovidingmultipleredundant,alternativeroutesfor
powertoflowshouldsuchshutdownsoccur.Transmissioncompaniesdeterminethemaximumreliablecapacityof
eachline(ordinarilylessthanitsphysicalorthermallimit)toensurethatsparecapacityisavailableintheeventof
afailureinanotherpartofthenetwork.

Overheadtransmission
Highvoltageoverheadconductorsarenot
coveredbyinsulation.Theconductor
materialisnearlyalwaysanaluminum
alloy,madeintoseveralstrandsand
possiblyreinforcedwithsteelstrands.
Copperwassometimesusedforoverhead
transmission,butaluminumislighter,
yieldsonlymarginallyreduced
performanceandcostsmuchless.
Overheadconductorsareacommodity Fourcircuit,twovoltagepower
suppliedbyseveralcompaniesworldwide. transmissionline"Bundled"2ways
Improvedconductormaterialandshapes
areregularlyusedtoallowincreased
3phasehighvoltagelinesin capacityandmodernizetransmission
WashingtonState,"Bundled" circuits.Conductorsizesrangefrom
3ways 12mm2(#6Americanwiregauge)to
750mm2(1,590,000circularmilsarea),
withvaryingresistanceandcurrentcarryingcapacity.Thickerwires
wouldleadtoarelativelysmallincreaseincapacityduetotheskineffect
(whichcausesmostofthecurrenttoflowclosetothesurfaceofthewire).
Becauseofthiscurrentlimitation,multipleparallelcables(calledbundle
conductors)areusedwhenhighercapacityisneeded.Bundleconductors
arealsousedathighvoltagestoreduceenergylosscausedbycorona
discharge.
AtypicalACSR.Theconductor
Today,transmissionlevelvoltagesareusuallyconsideredtobe110kV
consistsofsevenstrandsofsteel
andabove.Lowervoltages,suchas66kVand33kV,areusually
surroundedbyfourlayersof
consideredsubtransmissionvoltages,butareoccasionallyusedonlong
aluminium.
lineswithlightloads.Voltageslessthan33kVareusuallyusedfor
distribution.Voltagesabove765kVareconsideredextrahighvoltageand
requiredifferentdesignscomparedtoequipmentusedatlowervoltages.

Sinceoverheadtransmissionwiresdependonairforinsulation,thedesignoftheselinesrequiresminimum
clearancestobeobservedtomaintainsafety.Adverseweatherconditions,suchashighwindandlowtemperatures,
canleadtopoweroutages.Windspeedsaslowas23knots(43km/h)canpermitconductorstoencroachoperating
clearances,resultinginaflashoverandlossofsupply.[2]Oscillatorymotionofthephysicallinecanbetermed
galloporflutterdependingonthefrequencyandamplitudeofoscillation.

Undergroundtransmission
Electricpowercanalsobetransmittedbyundergroundpowercablesinsteadofoverheadpowerlines.Underground
cablestakeuplessrightofwaythanoverheadlines,havelowervisibility,andarelessaffectedbybadweather.
However,costsofinsulatedcableandexcavationaremuchhigherthanoverheadconstruction.Faultsinburied
transmissionlinestakelongertolocateandrepair.Undergroundlinesarestrictlylimitedbytheirthermalcapacity,
whichpermitslessoverloadorreratingthanoverheadlines.LongundergroundACcableshavesignificant
capacitance,whichmayreducetheirabilitytoprovideusefulpowertoloadsbeyond50miles(80kilometres).
LongundergroundDCcableshavenocapacitanceissue,andcanrunforthousandsofmiles.

History
Intheearlydaysofcommercialelectricpower,transmissionofelectric
poweratthesamevoltageasusedbylightingandmechanicalloads
restrictedthedistancebetweengeneratingplantandconsumers.In1882,
generationwaswithdirectcurrent(DC),whichcouldnoteasilybe
increasedinvoltageforlongdistancetransmission.Differentclassesof
loads(forexample,lighting,fixedmotors,andtraction/railwaysystems)
requireddifferentvoltages,andsouseddifferentgeneratorsand
circuits.[3][4]

Duetothisspecializationoflinesandbecausetransmissionwasinefficient
forlowvoltagehighcurrentcircuits,generatorsneededtobeneartheir
loads.Itseemed,atthetime,thattheindustrywoulddevelopintowhatis
nowknownasadistributedgenerationsystemwithlargenumbersofsmall
generatorslocatedneartheirloads.[5]

Thetransmissionofelectricpowerwithalternatingcurrent(AC)became NewYorkCitystreetsin1890.
possibleafterLucienGaulardandJohnDixonGibbsbuiltwhattheycalled Besidestelegraphlines,multiple
thesecondarygenerator,anearlytransformerprovidedwith1:1turnratio electriclineswererequiredforeach
andopenmagneticcircuit,in1881. classofdevicerequiringdifferent
voltages
ThefirstlongdistanceAClinewas34kilometres(21miles)long,builtfor
the1884InternationalExhibitionofTurin,Italy.Itwaspoweredbya
2000V,130HzSiemens&HalskealternatorandfeaturedseveralGaulardsecondarygeneratorswiththeirprimary
windingsconnectedinseries,whichfedincandescentlamps.ThesystemprovedthefeasibilityofACelectric
powertransmissiononlongdistances.[4]

AveryfirstoperativeAClinewasputintoservicein1885inviadeiCerchi,Rome,Italy,forpubliclighting.It
waspoweredbytwoSiemens&Halskealternatorsrated30hp(22kW),2000Vat120Hzandused19kmof
cablesand200parallelconnected2000Vto20Vstepdowntransformersprovidedwithaclosedmagneticcircuit,
oneforeachlamp.FewmonthslateritwasfollowedbythefirstBritishACsystem,whichwasputintoserviceat
theGrosvenorGallery,London.ItalsofeaturedSiemensalternatorsand2400Vto100Vstepdowntransformers
oneperuserwithshuntconnectedprimaries.[6]
 WorkingfromwhatheconsideredanimpracticalGaulardGibbsdesign,
electricalengineerWilliamStanley,Jr.developedwhatisconsideredthe
firstpracticalseriesACtransformerin1885.[7]Workingwiththesupportof
GeorgeWestinghouse,in1886heinstalleddemonstrationtransformer
basedalternatingcurrentlightingsysteminGreatBarrington,
Massachusetts.Poweredbyasteamenginedriven500VSiemens
generator,voltagewassteppeddownto100VoltsusingthenewStanley
transformertopowerincandescentlampsat23businessesalongmainstreet
withverylittlepowerlossover4000feet.[8]Thispracticaldemonstrationof
atransformerandalternatingcurrentlightingsystemwouldlead
WestinghousetobegininstallingACbasedsystemslaterthatyear.[7]

In1888alternatingcurrentsystemsgainedfurtherviabilitywith
introductionofafunctionalACmotor,somethingthesesystemshadlacked
uptillthen.Thedesign,aninductionmotorrunningonpolyphasecurrent,
wasindependentlyinventedbyGalileoFerrarisandNikolaTesla(with
WorkingforWestinghouse,William
TeslasdesignbeinglicensedbyWestinghouseintheUS).Thisdesignwas
StanleyJr.spenthistimerecovering
furtherdevelopedintothemodernpracticalthreephaseformbyMikhail
fromillnessinGreatBarrington
installingwhatisconsideredthe DolivoDobrovolskyandCharlesEugeneLancelotBrown.[9]
world'sfirstpracticalACtransformer
Thelate1880sandearly1890swouldseeafinancialmergerofmany
system.
smallerelectriccompaniesintoafewlargercorporationssuchasGanzand
AEGinEuropeandGeneralElectricandWestinghouseElectricintheUS.
ThesecompaniescontinuedtodevelopACsystemsbutthetechnicaldifferencebetweendirectandalternating
currentsystemswouldfollowamuchlongertechnicalmerger.[10]DuetoinnovationintheUSandEurope,
alternatingcurrent'seconomyofscalewithverylargegeneratingplantslinkedtoloadsvialongdistance
transmissionwasslowlybeingcombinedwiththeabilitytolinkitupwithalloftheexistingsystemsthatneededto
besupplied.TheseincludedsinglephaseACsystems,polyphaseACsystems,lowvoltageincandescentlighting,
highvoltagearclighting,andexistingDCmotorsinfactoriesandstreetcars.Inwhatwasbecomingauniversal
system,thesetechnologicaldifferencesweretemporarilybeingbridgedviathedevelopmentofrotaryconverters
andmotorgeneratorsthatwouldallowthelargenumberoflegacysystemstobeconnectedtotheACgrid.[10][11]
Thesestopgapswouldslowlybereplacedasoldersystemswereretiredorupgraded.

Thefirsttransmissionofthreephasealternatingcurrentusinghighvoltage
tookplacein1891duringtheinternationalelectricityexhibitionin
Frankfurt.A15,000Vtransmissionline,approximately175kmlong,
connectedLauffenontheNeckarandFrankfurt.[6][12]

Voltagesusedforelectricpowertransmissionincreasedthroughoutthe
20thcentury.By1914,fiftyfivetransmissionsystemseachoperatingat
morethan70,000Vwereinservice.Thehighestvoltagethenusedwas
150,000V.[13]Byallowingmultiplegeneratingplantstobeinterconnected Westinghousealternatingcurrent
overawidearea,electricityproductioncostwasreduced.Themost polyphasegeneratorsondisplayatthe
efficientavailableplantscouldbeusedtosupplythevaryingloadsduring 1893World'sFairinChicago,partof
theday.Reliabilitywasimprovedandcapitalinvestmentcostwasreduced, their"TeslaPolyphaseSystem".
sincestandbygeneratingcapacitycouldbesharedovermanymore Suchpolyphaseinnovations
customersandawidergeographicarea.Remoteandlowcostsourcesof revolutionizedtransmission
energy,suchashydroelectricpowerorminemouthcoal,couldbeexploited
tolowerenergyproductioncost.[3][6]
Therapidindustrializationinthe20thcenturymadeelectricaltransmissionlinesandgridsacriticalinfrastructure
iteminmostindustrializednations.Theinterconnectionoflocalgenerationplantsandsmalldistributionnetworks
wasgreatlyspurredbytherequirementsofWorldWarI,withlargeelectricalgeneratingplantsbuiltby
governmentstoprovidepowertomunitionsfactories.Laterthesegeneratingplantswereconnectedtosupplycivil
loadsthroughlongdistancetransmission.[14]

Bulkpowertransmission
Engineersdesigntransmissionnetworkstotransporttheenergyas
efficientlyasfeasible,whileatthesametimetakingintoaccounteconomic
factors,networksafetyandredundancy.Thesenetworksusecomponents
suchaspowerlines,cables,circuitbreakers,switchesandtransformers.
Thetransmissionnetworkisusuallyadministeredonaregionalbasisbyan
entitysuchasaregionaltransmissionorganizationortransmissionsystem
operator.

Transmissionefficiencyisgreatlyimprovedbydevicesthatincreasethe
voltage(andtherebyproportionatelyreducethecurrent),intheline
conductors,thusallowingpowertobetransmittedwithacceptablelosses. Atransmissionsubstationdecreases
Thereducedcurrentflowingthroughthelinereducestheheatinglossesin thevoltageofincomingelectricity,
theconductors.AccordingtoJoule'sLaw,energylossesaredirectly allowingittoconnectfromlong
proportionaltothesquareofthecurrent.Thus,reducingthecurrentbya distancehighvoltagetransmission,to
factoroftwowilllowertheenergylosttoconductorresistancebyafactor locallowervoltagedistribution.It
offourforanygivensizeofconductor. alsoreroutespowertoother
transmissionlinesthatservelocal
Theoptimumsizeofaconductorforagivenvoltageandcurrentcanbe markets.ThisisthePacifiCorpHale
estimatedbyKelvin'slawforconductorsize,whichstatesthatthesizeisat Substation,Orem,Utah,USA
itsoptimumwhentheannualcostofenergywastedintheresistanceis
equaltotheannualcapitalchargesofprovidingtheconductor.Attimesof
lowerinterestrates,Kelvin'slawindicatesthatthickerwiresareoptimalwhile,whenmetalsareexpensive,
thinnerconductorsareindicated:however,powerlinesaredesignedforlongtermuse,soKelvin'slawhastobe
usedinconjunctionwithlongtermestimatesofthepriceofcopperandaluminumaswellasinterestratesfor
capital.

TheincreaseinvoltageisachievedinACcircuitsbyusingastepuptransformer.HVDCsystemsrequire
relativelycostlyconversionequipmentwhichmaybeeconomicallyjustifiedforparticularprojectssuchas
submarinecablesandlongerdistancehighcapacitypointtopointtransmission.HVDCisnecessaryfortheimport
andexportofenergybetweengridsystemsthatarenotsynchronizedwitheachother.

Atransmissiongridisanetworkofpowerstations,transmissionlines,andsubstations.Energyisusually
transmittedwithinagridwiththreephaseAC.SinglephaseACisusedonlyfordistributiontoenduserssinceitis
notusableforlargepolyphaseinductionmotors.Inthe19thcentury,twophasetransmissionwasusedbutrequired
eitherfourwiresorthreewireswithunequalcurrents.Higherorderphasesystemsrequiremorethanthreewires,
butdeliverlittleornobenefit.

Thepriceofelectricpowerstationcapacityishigh,andelectricdemandisvariable,soitisoftencheapertoimport
someportionoftheneededpowerthantogenerateitlocally.Becauseloadsareoftenregionallycorrelated(hot
weatherintheSouthwestportionoftheUSmightcausemanypeopletouseairconditioners),electricpoweroften
comesfromdistantsources.Becauseoftheeconomicbenefitsofloadsharingbetweenregions,widearea
transmissiongridsnowspancountriesandevencontinents.Thewebofinterconnectionsbetweenpowerproducers
andconsumersshouldenablepowertoflow,evenifsomelinksareinoperative.
 Theunvarying(orslowlyvaryingovermanyhours)portionoftheelectric
demandisknownasthebaseloadandisgenerallyservedbylargefacilities
(whicharemoreefficientduetoeconomiesofscale)withfixedcostsfor
fuelandoperation.Suchfacilitiesarenuclear,coalfiredorhydroelectric,
whileotherenergysourcessuchasconcentratedsolarthermaland
geothermalpowerhavethepotentialtoprovidebaseloadpower.
Renewableenergysources,suchassolarphotovoltaics,wind,wave,and
tidal,are,duetotheirintermittency,notconsideredassupplying"base
load"butwillstilladdpowertothegrid.Theremainingor'peak'power
demand,issuppliedbypeakingpowerplants,whicharetypicallysmaller,
fasterresponding,andhighercostsources,suchascombinedcycleor
combustionturbineplantsfueledbynaturalgas.

Thesynchronousgridsofthe Longdistancetransmissionofelectricity(thousandsofkilometers)ischeap
EuropeanUnion andefficient,withcostsofUS$0.0050.02perkWh(comparedtoannual
averagedlargeproducercostsofUS$0.010.025perkWh,retailrates
upwardsofUS$0.10perkWh,andmultiplesofretailforinstantaneous
suppliersatunpredictedhighestdemandmoments).[15]Thusdistantsupplierscanbecheaperthanlocalsources
(e.g.,NewYorkoftenbuysover1000MWofelectricityfromCanada).[16]Multiplelocalsources(evenifmore
expensiveandinfrequentlyused)canmakethetransmissiongridmorefaulttoleranttoweatherandotherdisasters
thatcandisconnectdistantsuppliers.

Longdistancetransmissionallowsremoterenewableenergyresourcesto
beusedtodisplacefossilfuelconsumption.Hydroandwindsources
cannotbemovedclosertopopulouscities,andsolarcostsarelowestin
remoteareaswherelocalpowerneedsareminimal.Connectioncostsalone
candeterminewhetheranyparticularrenewablealternativeiseconomically
sensible.Costscanbeprohibitivefortransmissionlines,butvarious
proposalsformassiveinfrastructureinvestmentinhighcapacity,verylong
distancesupergridtransmissionnetworkscouldberecoveredwithmodest
usagefees.
Ahighpowerelectricaltransmission
tower,230kV,doublecircuit,also
Gridinput
doublebundled
Atthepowerstations,thepowerisproducedatarelativelylowvoltage
betweenabout2.3kVand30kV,dependingonthesizeoftheunit.Thegeneratorterminalvoltageisthenstepped
upbythepowerstationtransformertoahighervoltage(115kVto765kVAC,varyingbythetransmissionsystem
andbythecountry)fortransmissionoverlongdistances.

IntheUnitedStates,powertransmissionis,variously,230kVto500kV,withlessthan230kVormorethan
500kVbeinglocalexceptions.Forexample,theWesternSystemhastwoprimaryinterchangevoltages:500kV
ACat60Hz,and500kV(1,000kVnet)DCfromNorthtoSouth(U.S.CanadabordertoU.S.Mexicoborder).

The287.5kV(HoovertoLosAngelesline,viaVictorville)and345kV(APSline)beinglocalstandards,bothof
whichwereimplementedbefore500kVbecamepractical,andthereaftertheWesternSystemstandard.

Losses

Transmittingelectricityathighvoltagereducesthefractionofenergylosttoresistance,whichvariesdependingon
thespecificconductors,thecurrentflowing,andthelengthofthetransmissionline.Forexample,a100mi
(160km)spanat765kVcarrying1000MWofpowercanhavelossesof1.1%to0.5%.A345kVlinecarryingthe
sameloadacrossthesamedistancehaslossesof4.2%.[17]Foragivenamountofpower,ahighervoltagereduces
thecurrentandthustheresistivelossesintheconductor.Forexample,raisingthevoltagebyafactorof10reduces
thecurrentbyacorrespondingfactorof10andthereforethe lossesbyafactorof100,providedthesame
sizedconductorsareusedinbothcases.Eveniftheconductorsize(crosssectionalarea)isreducedtenfoldto
matchthelowercurrent,the lossesarestillreducedtenfold.Longdistancetransmissionistypicallydone
withoverheadlinesatvoltagesof115to1,200kV.Atextremelyhighvoltages,morethan2,000kVexistsbetween
conductorandground,coronadischargelossesaresolargethattheycanoffsetthelowerresistivelossesintheline
conductors.Measurestoreducecoronalossesincludeconductorshavinglargerdiametersoftenhollowtosave
weight,[18]orbundlesoftwoormoreconductors.

Factorsthataffecttheresistance,andthusloss,ofconductorsusedintransmissionanddistributionlinesinclude
temperature,spiraling,andtheskineffect.Theresistanceofaconductorincreaseswithitstemperature.
Temperaturechangesinelectricpowerlinescanhaveasignificanteffectonpowerlossesintheline.Spiraling,
whichreferstothewaystrandedconductorsspiralaboutthecenter,alsocontributestoincreasesinconductor
resistance.Theskineffectcausestheeffectiveresistanceofaconductortoincreaseathigheralternatingcurrent
frequencies.

TransmissionanddistributionlossesintheUSAwereestimatedat6.6%in1997[19]and6.5%in2007.[19]In
general,lossesareestimatedfromthediscrepancybetweenpowerproduced(asreportedbypowerplants)and
powersoldtotheendcustomersthedifferencebetweenwhatisproducedandwhatisconsumedconstitute
transmissionanddistributionlosses,assumingnoutilitytheftoccurs.

Asof1980,thelongestcosteffectivedistancefordirectcurrenttransmissionwasdeterminedtobe7,000
kilometres(4,300miles).Foralternatingcurrentitwas4,000kilometres(2,500miles),thoughalltransmission
linesinusetodayaresubstantiallyshorterthanthis.[15]

Inanyalternatingcurrenttransmissionline,theinductanceandcapacitanceoftheconductorscanbesignificant.
Currentsthatflowsolelyinreactiontothesepropertiesofthecircuit,(whichtogetherwiththeresistancedefine
theimpedance)constitutereactivepowerflow,whichtransmitsnorealpowertotheload.Thesereactive
currents,however,areveryrealandcauseextraheatinglossesinthetransmissioncircuit.Theratioof'real'power
(transmittedtotheload)to'apparent'power(theproductofacircuit'svoltageandcurrent,withoutreferenceto
phaseangle)isthepowerfactor.Asreactivecurrentincreases,thereactivepowerincreasesandthepowerfactor
decreases.Fortransmissionsystemswithlowpowerfactor,lossesarehigherthanforsystemswithhighpower
factor.Utilitiesaddcapacitorbanks,reactorsandothercomponents(suchasphaseshiftingtransformersstatic
VARcompensatorsandflexibleACtransmissionsystems,FACTS)throughoutthesystemtocompensateforthe
reactivepowerflowandreducethelossesinpowertransmissionandstabilizesystemvoltages.Thesemeasuresare
collectivelycalled'reactivesupport'.

Transposition

Currentflowingthroughtransmissionlinesinducesamagneticfieldthatsurroundsthelinesofeachphaseand
affectstheinductanceofthesurroundingconductorsofotherphases.Themutualinductanceoftheconductorsis
partiallydependentonthephysicalorientationofthelineswithrespecttoeachother.Threephasepower
transmissionlinesareconventionallystrungwithphasesseparatedondifferentverticallevels.Themutual
inductanceseenbyaconductorofthephaseinthemiddleoftheothertwophaseswillbedifferentthanthe
inductanceseenbytheconductorsonthetoporbottom.Animbalancedinductanceamongthethreeconductorsis
problematicbecauseitmayresultinthemiddlelinecarryingadisproportionateamountofthetotalpower
transmitted.Similarly,animbalancedloadmayoccurifonelineisconsistentlyclosesttothegroundandoperating
atalowerimpedance.Becauseofthisphenomenon,conductorsmustbeperiodicallytransposedalongthelengthof
thetransmissionlinesothateachphaseseesequaltimeineachrelativepositiontobalanceoutthemutual
inductanceseenbyallthreephases.Toaccomplishthis,linepositionisswappedatspeciallydesigned
transpositiontowersatregularintervalsalongthelengthofthetransmissionlineinvarioustranspositionschemes.

Subtransmission

Subtransmissionispartofanelectricpowertransmissionsystemthatrunsat
relativelylowervoltages.Itisuneconomicaltoconnectalldistributionsubstations
tothehighmaintransmissionvoltage,becausetheequipmentislargerandmore
expensive.Typically,onlylargersubstationsconnectwiththishighvoltage.Itis
steppeddownandsenttosmallersubstationsintownsandneighborhoods.
Subtransmissioncircuitsareusuallyarrangedinloopssothatasinglelinefailure
doesnotcutoffservicetoalargenumberofcustomersformorethanashorttime.
Loopscanbe"normallyclosed",wherelossofonecircuitshouldresultinno
interruption,or"normallyopen"wheresubstationscanswitchtoabackupsupply.
Whilesubtransmissioncircuitsareusuallycarriedonoverheadlines,inurban
areasburiedcablemaybeused.Thelowervoltagesubtransmissionlinesuseless
rightofwayandsimplerstructuresitismuchmorefeasibletoputthem
undergroundwhereneeded.Highervoltagelinesrequiremorespaceandare
usuallyabovegroundsinceputtingthemundergroundisveryexpensive. A115kVsubtransmission
lineinthePhilippines,along
Thereisnofixedcutoffbetweensubtransmissionandtransmission,or with20kVdistributionlines
subtransmissionanddistribution.Thevoltagerangesoverlapsomewhat.Voltages andastreetlight,allmounted
of69kV,115kV,and138kVareoftenusedforsubtransmissioninNorth inawoodsubtransmission
America.Aspowersystemsevolved,voltagesformerlyusedfortransmission pole
wereusedforsubtransmission,andsubtransmissionvoltagesbecamedistribution
voltages.Liketransmission,subtransmissionmovesrelativelylargeamountsof
power,andlikedistribution,subtransmissioncoversanareainsteadofjustpoint
topoint.[20]

Transmissiongridexit

Atthesubstations,transformersreducethevoltagetoalowerlevelfordistribution
tocommercialandresidentialusers.Thisdistributionisaccomplishedwitha
combinationofsubtransmission(33to132kV)anddistribution(3.3to25kV).
Finally,atthepointofuse,theenergyistransformedtolowvoltage(varyingby
countryandcustomerrequirementsseeMainselectricitybycountry).

Advantageofhighvoltagepowertransmission
115kVHframetransmission
Highvoltagepowertransmissionallowsforlesserresistivelossesoverlong tower
distancesinthewiring.Thisefficiencyofhighvoltagetransmissionallowsforthe
transmissionofalargerproportionofthegeneratedpowertothesubstationsandinturntotheloads,translatingto
operationalcostsavings.

Inaverysimplifiedmodel,assumetheelectricalgriddeliverselectricityfromagenerator(modelledasanideal
voltagesourcewithvoltage ,deliveringapower )toasinglepointofconsumption,modelledbyapure
resistance ,whenthewiresarelongenoughtohaveasignificantresistance .
Iftheresistancearesimplyinserieswithoutanytransformerbetweenthem,
thecircuitactsasavoltagedivider,becausethesamecurrent
runsthroughthewireresistanceandthepowereddevice.As
aconsequence,theusefulpower(usedatthepointofconsumption)is:

Electricalgridwithoutatransformer.

Electricalgridwithatransformer.

Assumenowthatatransformerconvertshighvoltage,lowcurrentelectricitytransportedbythewiresintolow
voltage,highcurrentelectricityforuseattheconsumptionpoint.Ifwesupposeitisanidealtransformerwitha
voltageratioof (i.e.,thevoltageisdividedby andthecurrentismultipliedby inthesecondarybranch,
comparedtotheprimarybranch),thenthecircuitisagainequivalenttoavoltagedivider,butthetransformer
consumptionbranchhasanapparentresistanceof .Theusefulpoweristhen:

For (i.e.conversionofhighvoltagetolowvoltageneartheconsumptionpoint),alargerfractionofthe
generator'spoweristransmittedtotheconsumptionpointandalesserfractionislosttoJouleheating.

Modelingandthetransmissionmatrix
Oftentimes,weareonlyinterestedintheterminal
characteristicsofthetransmissionline,whicharethe
voltageandcurrentatthesendingandreceivingends.
Thetransmissionlineitselfisthenmodeledasa"black
box"anda2by2transmissionmatrixisusedtomodel
itsbehavior,asfollows:

"Blackbox"modelfortransmissionline

Thelineisassumedtobeareciprocal,symmetricalnetwork,meaningthatthereceivingandsendinglabelscanbe
switchedwithnoconsequence.ThetransmissionmatrixTalsohasthefollowingproperties:
TheparametersA,B,C,andDdifferdependingonhowthedesiredmodelhandlestheline'sresistance(R),
inductance(L),capacitance(C),andshunt(parallel,leak)conductanceG.Thefourmainmodelsaretheshortline
approximation,themediumlineapproximation,thelonglineapproximation(withdistributedparameters),andthe
losslessline.Inallmodelsdescribed,acapitallettersuchasRreferstothetotalquantitysummedoverthelineand
alowercaselettersuchascreferstotheperunitlengthquantity.

Losslessline

Thelosslesslineapproximationistheleastaccuratemodelitisoftenusedonshortlineswhentheinductanceof
thelineismuchgreaterthanitsresistance.Forthisapproximation,thevoltageandcurrentareidenticalatthe
sendingandreceivingends.

Thecharacteristicimpedanceispurereal,whichmeansresistiveforthat
impedance.Anditisoftencalledsurgeimpedanceforalosslessline.
Whenlosslesslineisterminatedbysurgeimpedance,thereisnovoltage
drop.Becausethoughthephaseanglesofvoltageandcurrentarerotated,
themagnitudesofvoltageandcurrentremainconstantalongthelengthof
theline.Forload>SIL,thevoltagewilldropfromsendingendandtheline
willconsumeVARs.Forload<SIL,thevoltagewillincreasefrom
sendingend,andthelinewillgenerateVARs.

Shortline

Theshortlineapproximationisnormallyusedforlineslessthan50miles
long.Forashortline,onlyaseriesimpedanceZisconsidered,whileCand Voltageonsendingandreceiving
Gareignored.ThefinalresultisthatA=D=1perunit,B=ZOhms,and endsforlosslessline
C=0.Theassociatedtransitionmatrixforthisapproximationistherefore:

Mediumline

Themediumlineapproximationisusedforlinesbetween50and150mileslong.Inthismodel,theseries
impedanceandtheshunt(currentleak)conductanceareconsidered,withhalfoftheshuntconductancebeing
placedateachendoftheline.Thiscircuitisoftenreferredtoasanominal(pi)circuitbecauseoftheshape()
thatistakenonwhenleakconductanceisplacedonbothsidesofthecircuitdiagram.Theanalysisofthemedium
linebringsonetothefollowingresult:

Counterintuitivebehaviorsofmediumlengthtransmissionlines:

voltageriseatnoloadorsmallcurrent
 receivingendcurrentcanexceedsendingendcurrent

Longline

Thelonglinemodelisusedwhenahigherdegreeofaccuracyisneededorwhenthelineunderconsiderationis
morethan150mileslong.Seriesresistanceandshuntconductanceareconsideredasdistributedparameters,
meaningeachdifferentiallengthofthelinehasacorrespondingdifferentialresistanceandshuntadmittance.The
followingresultcanbeappliedatanypointalongthetransmissionline,where isthepropagationconstant.

Tofindthevoltageandcurrentattheendofthelongline, shouldbereplacedwith (thelinelength)inall

parametersofthetransmissionmatrix.

(Forthefulldevelopmentofthismodel,seetheTelegrapher'sequations.)

Highvoltagedirectcurrent
Highvoltagedirectcurrent(HVDC)isusedtotransmitlargeamountsofpoweroverlongdistancesorfor
interconnectionsbetweenasynchronousgrids.Whenelectricalenergyistobetransmittedoververylongdistances,
thepowerlostinACtransmissionbecomesappreciableanditislessexpensivetousedirectcurrentinsteadof
alternatingcurrent.Foraverylongtransmissionline,theselowerlosses(andreducedconstructioncostofaDC
line)canoffsettheadditionalcostoftherequiredconverterstationsateachend.

HVDCisalsousedforsubmarinecablesbecauseACcannotbesuppliedoverdistancesofmorethanabout30
kilometres(19mi),duetothefactthatthecablesproducetoomuchreactivepower.Inthesecasesspecialhigh
voltagecablesforDCareused.SubmarineHVDCsystemsareoftenusedtoconnecttheelectricitygridsof
islands,forexample,betweenGreatBritainandcontinentalEurope,betweenGreatBritainandIreland,between
TasmaniaandtheAustralianmainland,andbetweentheNorthandSouthIslandsofNewZealand.Submarine
connectionsupto600kilometres(370mi)inlengtharepresentlyinuse.[21]

HVDClinkscanbeusedtocontrolproblemsinthegridwithACelectricityflow.ThepowertransmittedbyanAC
lineincreasesasthephaseanglebetweensourceendvoltageanddestinationendsincreases,buttoolargeaphase
anglewillallowthesystemsateitherendofthelinetofalloutofstep.SincethepowerflowinaDClinkis
controlledindependentlyofthephasesoftheACnetworksateitherendofthelink,thisphaseanglelimitdoesnot
exist,andaDClinkisalwaysabletotransferitsfullratedpower.ADClinkthereforestabilizestheACgridat
eitherend,sincepowerflowandphaseanglecanthenbecontrolledindependently.

Asanexample,toadjusttheflowofACpoweronahypotheticallinebetweenSeattleandBostonwouldrequire
adjustmentoftherelativephaseofthetworegionalelectricalgrids.ThisisaneverydayoccurrenceinACsystems,
butonethatcanbecomedisruptedwhenACsystemcomponentsfailandplaceunexpectedloadsontheremaining
workinggridsystem.WithanHVDClineinstead,suchaninterconnectionwould:

1.ConvertACinSeattleintoHVDC
2.UseHVDCforthe3,000milesofcrosscountrytransmissionand
3.ConverttheHVDCtolocallysynchronizedACinBoston,
(andpossiblyinothercooperatingcitiesalongthetransmissionroute).Suchasystemcouldbelesspronetofailure
ifpartsofitweresuddenlyshutdown.OneexampleofalongDCtransmissionlineisthePacificDCIntertie
locatedintheWesternUnitedStates.

Capacity
Theamountofpowerthatcanbesentoveratransmissionlineislimited.Theoriginsofthelimitsvarydepending
onthelengthoftheline.Forashortline,theheatingofconductorsduetolinelossessetsathermallimit.Iftoo
muchcurrentisdrawn,conductorsmaysagtooclosetotheground,orconductorsandequipmentmaybedamaged
byoverheating.Forintermediatelengthlinesontheorderof100kilometres(62miles),thelimitissetbythe
voltagedropintheline.ForlongerAClines,systemstabilitysetsthelimittothepowerthatcanbetransferred.
Approximately,thepowerflowingoveranAClineisproportionaltothecosineofthephaseangleofthevoltage
andcurrentatthereceivingandtransmittingends.Thisanglevariesdependingonsystemloadingandgeneration.
Itisundesirablefortheangletoapproach90degrees,asthepowerflowingdecreasesbuttheresistivelosses
remain.Veryapproximately,theallowableproductoflinelengthandmaximumloadisproportionaltothesquare
ofthesystemvoltage.Seriescapacitorsorphaseshiftingtransformersareusedonlonglinestoimprovestability.
Highvoltagedirectcurrentlinesarerestrictedonlybythermalandvoltagedroplimits,sincethephaseangleisnot
materialtotheiroperation.

Uptonow,ithasbeenalmostimpossibletoforeseethetemperaturedistributionalongthecableroute,sothatthe
maximumapplicablecurrentloadwasusuallysetasacompromisebetweenunderstandingofoperationconditions
andriskminimization.Theavailabilityofindustrialdistributedtemperaturesensing(DTS)systemsthatmeasurein
realtimetemperaturesallalongthecableisafirststepinmonitoringthetransmissionsystemcapacity.This
monitoringsolutionisbasedonusingpassiveopticalfibersastemperaturesensors,eitherintegrateddirectlyinside
ahighvoltagecableormountedexternallyonthecableinsulation.Asolutionforoverheadlinesisalsoavailable.
Inthiscasetheopticalfiberisintegratedintothecoreofaphasewireofoverheadtransmissionlines(OPPC).The
integratedDynamicCableRating(DCR)oralsocalledRealTimeThermalRating(RTTR)solutionenablesnot
onlytocontinuouslymonitorthetemperatureofahighvoltagecablecircuitinrealtime,buttosafelyutilizethe
existingnetworkcapacitytoitsmaximum.Furthermore,itprovidestheabilitytotheoperatortopredictthe
behaviorofthetransmissionsystemuponmajorchangesmadetoitsinitialoperatingconditions.

Control
Toensuresafeandpredictableoperation,thecomponentsofthetransmissionsystemarecontrolledwith
generators,switches,circuitbreakersandloads.Thevoltage,power,frequency,loadfactor,andreliability
capabilitiesofthetransmissionsystemaredesignedtoprovidecosteffectiveperformanceforthecustomers.

Loadbalancing

Thetransmissionsystemprovidesforbaseloadandpeakloadcapability,withsafetyandfaulttolerancemargins.
Thepeakloadtimesvarybyregionlargelyduetotheindustrymix.Inveryhotandverycoldclimateshomeair
conditioningandheatingloadshaveaneffectontheoverallload.Theyaretypicallyhighestinthelateafternoonin
thehottestpartoftheyearandinmidmorningsandmideveningsinthecoldestpartoftheyear.Thismakesthe
powerrequirementsvarybytheseasonandthetimeofday.Distributionsystemdesignsalwaystakethebaseload
andthepeakloadintoconsideration.

Thetransmissionsystemusuallydoesnothavealargebufferingcapabilitytomatchtheloadswiththegeneration.
Thusgenerationhastobekeptmatchedtotheload,topreventoverloadingfailuresofthegenerationequipment.
Multiplesourcesandloadscanbeconnectedtothetransmissionsystemandtheymustbecontrolledtoprovide
orderlytransferofpower.Incentralizedpowergeneration,onlylocalcontrolofgenerationisnecessary,andit
involvessynchronizationofthegenerationunits,topreventlargetransientsandoverloadconditions.

Indistributedpowergenerationthegeneratorsaregeographicallydistributedandtheprocesstobringthemonline
andofflinemustbecarefullycontrolled.Theloadcontrolsignalscaneitherbesentonseparatelinesoronthe
powerlinesthemselves.Voltageandfrequencycanbeusedassignallingmechanismstobalancetheloads.

Involtagesignaling,thevariationofvoltageisusedtoincreasegeneration.Thepoweraddedbyanysystem
increasesasthelinevoltagedecreases.Thisarrangementisstableinprinciple.Voltagebasedregulationiscomplex
touseinmeshnetworks,sincetheindividualcomponentsandsetpointswouldneedtobereconfiguredeverytime
anewgeneratorisaddedtothemesh.

Infrequencysignaling,thegeneratingunitsmatchthefrequencyofthepowertransmissionsystem.Indroopspeed
control,ifthefrequencydecreases,thepowerisincreased.(Thedropinlinefrequencyisanindicationthatthe
increasedloadiscausingthegeneratorstoslowdown.)

Windturbines,vehicletogridandotherlocallydistributedstorageandgenerationsystemscanbeconnectedtothe
powergrid,andinteractwithittoimprovesystemoperation.Internationally,thetrendhasbeenaslowmovefrom
aheavilycentralizedpowersystemtoadecentralizedpowersystem.Themaindrawoflocallydistributed
generationsystemswhichinvolveanumberofnewandinnovativesolutionsisthattheyreducetransmissionlosses
byleadingtoconsumptionofelectricityclosertowhereitwasproduced.[22]

Failureprotection

Underexcessloadconditions,thesystemcanbedesignedtofailgracefullyratherthanallatonce.Brownouts
occurwhenthesupplypowerdropsbelowthedemand.Blackoutsoccurwhenthesupplyfailscompletely.

Rollingblackouts(alsocalledloadshedding)areintentionallyengineeredelectricalpoweroutages,usedto
distributeinsufficientpowerwhenthedemandforelectricityexceedsthesupply.

Communications
Operatorsoflongtransmissionlinesrequirereliablecommunicationsforcontrolofthepowergridand,often,
associatedgenerationanddistributionfacilities.Faultsensingprotectiverelaysateachendofthelinemust
communicatetomonitortheflowofpowerintoandoutoftheprotectedlinesectionsothatfaultedconductorsor
equipmentcanbequicklydeenergizedandthebalanceofthesystemrestored.Protectionofthetransmissionline
fromshortcircuitsandotherfaultsisusuallysocriticalthatcommoncarriertelecommunicationsareinsufficiently
reliable,andinremoteareasacommoncarriermaynotbeavailable.Communicationsystemsassociatedwitha
transmissionprojectmayuse:

Microwaves
Powerlinecommunication
Opticalfibers

Rarely,andforshortdistances,autilitywillusepilotwiresstrungalongthetransmissionlinepath.Leasedcircuits
fromcommoncarriersarenotpreferredsinceavailabilityisnotundercontroloftheelectricpowertransmission
organization.

Transmissionlinescanalsobeusedtocarrydata:thisiscalledpowerlinecarrier,orPLC.PLCsignalscanbe
easilyreceivedwitharadioforthelongwaverange.
Opticalfiberscanbeincludedinthestrandedconductorsofatransmissionline,intheoverheadshieldwires.
Thesecablesareknownasopticalgroundwire(OPGW).Sometimesastandalonecableisused,alldielectricself
supporting(ADSS)cable,attachedtothetransmissionlinecrossarms.

Somejurisdictions,suchasMinnesota,prohibitenergytransmissioncompaniesfromsellingsurplus
communicationbandwidthoractingasatelecommunicationscommoncarrier.Wheretheregulatorystructure
permits,theutilitycansellcapacityinextradarkfiberstoacommoncarrier,providinganotherrevenuestream.

Electricitymarketreform
Someregulatorsregardelectrictransmissiontobeanaturalmonopoly[23][24]andtherearemovesinmany
countriestoseparatelyregulatetransmission(seeelectricitymarket).

Spainwasthefirstcountrytoestablisharegionaltransmissionorganization.Inthatcountry,transmission
operationsandmarketoperationsarecontrolledbyseparatecompanies.ThetransmissionsystemoperatorisRed
ElctricadeEspaa(REE)andthewholesaleelectricitymarketoperatorisOperadordelMercadoIbricode
EnergaPoloEspaol,S.A.(OMEL)[1](http://www.omel.es).Spain'stransmissionsystemisinterconnected
withthoseofFrance,Portugal,andMorocco.

IntheUnitedStatesandpartsofCanada,electricaltransmissioncompaniesoperateindependentlyofgeneration
anddistributioncompanies.

Costofelectricpowertransmission
Thecostofhighvoltageelectricitytransmission(asopposedtothecostsofelectricpowerdistribution)is
comparativelylow,comparedtoallothercostsarisinginaconsumer'selectricitybill.IntheUK,transmission
costsareabout0.2pperkWhcomparedtoadelivereddomesticpriceofaround10pperkWh.[25]

ResearchevaluatesthelevelofcapitalexpenditureintheelectricpowerT&Dequipmentmarketwillbeworth
$128.9bnin2011.[26]

Merchanttransmission
Merchanttransmissionisanarrangementwhereathirdpartyconstructsandoperateselectrictransmissionlines
throughthefranchiseareaofanunrelatedutility.

OperatingmerchanttransmissionprojectsintheUnitedStatesincludetheCrossSoundCablefromShoreham,
NewYorktoNewHaven,Connecticut,NeptuneRTSTransmissionLinefromSayreville,N.J.,toNewbridge,N.Y,
andPath15inCalifornia.AdditionalprojectsareindevelopmentorhavebeenproposedthroughouttheUnited
States,includingtheLakeErieConnector,anunderwatertransmissionlineproposedbyITCHoldingsCorp.,
connectingOntariotoloadservingentitiesinthePJMInterconnectionregion.[27]

ThereisonlyoneunregulatedormarketinterconnectorinAustralia:BasslinkbetweenTasmaniaandVictoria.Two
DClinksoriginallyimplementedasmarketinterconnectors,DirectlinkandMurraylink,havebeenconvertedto
regulatedinterconnectors.NEMMCO(http://www.nemmco.com.au/psplanning/psplanning.html#interconnect)

Amajorbarriertowideradoptionofmerchanttransmissionisthedifficultyinidentifyingwhobenefitsfromthe
facilitysothatthebeneficiarieswillpaythetoll.Also,itisdifficultforamerchanttransmissionlinetocompete
whenthealternativetransmissionlinesaresubsidizedbyotherutilitybusinesses.[28]
Healthconcerns
Somelargestudies,includingalargestudyintheUnitedStates,havefailedtofindanylinkbetweenlivingnear
powerlinesanddevelopinganysicknessordiseases,suchascancer.A1997studyfoundthatitdidnotmatterhow
closeonewastoapowerlineorasubstation,therewasnoincreasedriskofcancerorillness.[29]

Themainstreamscientificevidencesuggeststhatlowpower,lowfrequency,electromagneticradiationassociated
withhouseholdcurrentsandhightransmissionpowerlinesdoesnotconstituteashortorlongtermhealthhazard.
Somestudies,however,havefoundstatisticalcorrelationsbetweenvariousdiseasesandlivingorworkingnear
powerlines.Noadversehealtheffectshavebeensubstantiatedforpeoplenotlivingclosetopowerlines.[30]

Thereareestablishedbiologicaleffectsforacutehighlevelexposuretomagneticfieldswellabove100T(1G).
Inaresidentialsetting,thereis"limitedevidenceofcarcinogenicityinhumansandlessthansufficientevidencefor
carcinogenicityinexperimentalanimals",inparticular,childhoodleukemia,associatedwithaverageexposureto
residentialpowerfrequencymagneticfieldabove0.3T(3mG)to0.4T(4mG).Theselevelsexceedaverage
residentialpowerfrequencymagneticfieldsinhomes,whichareabout0.07T(0.7mG)inEuropeand0.11T
(1.1mG)inNorthAmerica.[31][32]

TheEarth'snaturalgeomagneticfieldstrengthvariesoverthesurfaceoftheplanetbetween0.035mTand0.07mT
(35T70Tor0.35G0.7G)whiletheInternationalStandardforthecontinuousexposurelimitissetat
40mT(40,000Tor400G)forthegeneralpublic.[31]

TreeGrowthRegulatorandHerbicideControlMethodsmaybeusedintransmissionlinerightofways[33]which
mayhavehealtheffects.

UnitedStatesgovernmentpolicy
TheFederalEnergyRegulatoryCommission(FERC)istheprimaryregulatoryagencyofelectricpower
transmissionandwholesaleelectricitysaleswithintheUnitedStates.ItwasoriginallyestablishedbyCongressin
1920astheFederalPowerCommissionandhassinceundergonemultiplenameandresponsibilitymodifications.
ThatwhichisnotregulatedbyFERC,primarilyelectricpowerdistributionandtheretailsaleofpower,isunder
thejurisdictionofstateauthority.

TwoofthemorenotableU.S.energypoliciesimpactingelectricitytransmissionareOrderNo.888andtheEnergy
PolicyActof2005.

OrderNo.888adoptedbyFERCon24April1996,wasdesignedtoremoveimpedimentstocompetitioninthe
wholesalebulkpowermarketplaceandtobringmoreefficient,lowercostpowertotheNationselectricity
consumers.Thelegalandpolicycornerstoneoftheserulesistoremedyunduediscriminationinaccesstothe
monopolyownedtransmissionwiresthatcontrolwhetherandtowhomelectricitycanbetransportedininterstate
commerce.[34]OrderNo.888requiredallpublicutilitiesthatown,control,oroperatefacilitiesusedfor
transmittingelectricenergyininterstatecommerce,tohaveopenaccessnondiscriminatorytransmissiontariffs.
Thesetariffsallowanyelectricitygeneratortoutilizethealreadyexistingpowerlinesforthetransmissionofthe
powerthattheygenerate.OrderNo.888alsopermitspublicutilitiestorecoverthecostsassociatedwithproviding
theirpowerlinesasanopenaccessservice.[34][35]

TheEnergyPolicyActof2005(EPAct)signedintolawbycongresson8August2005,furtherexpandedthe
federalauthorityofregulatingpowertransmission.EPActgaveFERCsignificantnewresponsibilitiesincluding
butnotlimitedtotheenforcementofelectrictransmissionreliabilitystandardsandtheestablishmentofrate
incentivestoencourageinvestmentinelectrictransmission.[36]

Historically,localgovernmentshaveexercisedauthorityoverthegridandhavesignificantdisincentivesto
encourageactionsthatwouldbenefitstatesotherthantheirown.Localitieswithcheapelectricityhavea
disincentivetoencouragemakinginterstatecommerceinelectricitytradingeasier,sinceotherregionswillbeable
tocompeteforlocalenergyanddriveuprates.Forexample,someregulatorsinMainedonotwishtoaddress
congestionproblemsbecausethecongestionservestokeepMainerateslow.[37]Further,vocallocalconstituencies
canblockorslowpermittingbypointingtovisualimpact,environmental,andperceivedhealthconcerns.Inthe
US,generationisgrowingfourtimesfasterthantransmission,butbigtransmissionupgradesrequirethe
coordinationofmultiplestates,amultitudeofinterlockingpermits,andcooperationbetweenasignificantportion
ofthe500companiesthatownthegrid.Fromapolicyperspective,thecontrolofthegridisbalkanized,andeven
formerenergysecretaryBillRichardsonreferstoitasathirdworldgrid.TherehavebeeneffortsintheEUandUS
toconfronttheproblem.TheUSnationalsecurityinterestinsignificantlygrowingtransmissioncapacitydrove
passageofthe2005energyactgivingtheDepartmentofEnergytheauthoritytoapprovetransmissionifstates
refusetoact.However,soonaftertheDepartmentofEnergyuseditspowertodesignatetwoNationalInterest
ElectricTransmissionCorridors,14senatorssignedaletterstatingtheDOEwasbeingtooaggressive.[38]

Specialtransmission
Gridsforrailways

InsomecountrieswhereelectriclocomotivesorelectricmultipleunitsrunonlowfrequencyACpower,thereare
separatesinglephasetractionpowernetworksoperatedbytherailways.PrimeexamplesarecountriesinEurope
(includingAustria,GermanyandSwitzerland)whichutilizetheolderACtechnologybasedon162/3Hz(Norway
andSwedenalsousethisfrequencybutuseconversionfromthe50HzpublicsupplySwedenhasa162/3Hz
tractiongridbutonlyforpartofthesystem).

Superconductingcables

Hightemperaturesuperconductors(HTS)promisetorevolutionizepowerdistributionbyprovidinglossless
transmissionofelectricalpower.Thedevelopmentofsuperconductorswithtransitiontemperatureshigherthanthe
boilingpointofliquidnitrogenhasmadetheconceptofsuperconductingpowerlinescommerciallyfeasible,at
leastforhighloadapplications.[39]Ithasbeenestimatedthatthewastewouldbehalvedusingthismethod,since
thenecessaryrefrigerationequipmentwouldconsumeabouthalfthepowersavedbytheeliminationofthe
majorityofresistivelosses.SomecompaniessuchasConsolidatedEdisonandAmericanSuperconductorhave
alreadybeguncommercialproductionofsuchsystems.[40]InonehypotheticalfuturesystemcalledaSuperGrid,
thecostofcoolingwouldbeeliminatedbycouplingthetransmissionlinewithaliquidhydrogenpipeline.

Superconductingcablesareparticularlysuitedtohighloaddensityareassuchasthebusinessdistrictoflarge
cities,wherepurchaseofaneasementforcableswouldbeverycostly.[41]
 HTStransmissionlines[42]
Location Length(km) Voltage(kV) Capacity(GW) Date
Carrollton,Georgia 2000
Albany,NewYork[43] 0.35 34.5 0.048 2006
LongIsland[44] 0.6 130 0.574 2008
TresAmigas 5 Proposed2013
Manhattan:ProjectHydra Proposed2014
Essen,Germany[45][46] 1 10 0.04 2014

Singlewireearthreturn

Singlewireearthreturn(SWER)orsinglewiregroundreturnisasinglewiretransmissionlineforsupplying
singlephaseelectricalpowerforanelectricalgridtoremoteareasatlowcost.Itisprincipallyusedforrural
electrification,butalsofindsuseforlargerisolatedloadssuchaswaterpumps.Singlewireearthreturnisalsoused
forHVDCoversubmarinepowercables.

Wirelesspowertransmission

BothNikolaTeslaandHidetsuguYagiattemptedtodevisesystemsforlargescalewirelesspowertransmissionin
thelate1800sandearly1900s,withnocommercialsuccess.

InNovember2009,LaserMotivewontheNASA2009PowerBeamingChallengebypoweringacableclimber
1kmverticallyusingagroundbasedlasertransmitter.Thesystemproducedupto1kWofpoweratthereceiver
end.InAugust2010,NASAcontractedwithprivatecompaniestopursuethedesignoflaserpowerbeaming
systemstopowerlowearthorbitsatellitesandtolaunchrocketsusinglaserpowerbeams.

Wirelesspowertransmissionhasbeenstudiedfortransmissionofpowerfromsolarpowersatellitestotheearth.A
highpowerarrayofmicrowaveorlasertransmitterswouldbeampowertoarectenna.Majorengineeringand
economicchallengesfaceanysolarpowersatelliteproject.

Securityofcontrolsystems
TheFederalgovernmentoftheUnitedStatesadmitsthatthepowergridissusceptibletocyberwarfare.[47][48]The
UnitedStatesDepartmentofHomelandSecurityworkswithindustrytoidentifyvulnerabilitiesandtohelp
industryenhancethesecurityofcontrolsystemnetworks,thefederalgovernmentisalsoworkingtoensurethat
securityisbuiltinastheU.S.developsthenextgenerationof'smartgrid'networks.[49]

Records
Highestcapacitysystem:6.3GWHVDCItaipu(Brazil/Paraguay)(600kVDC)[50]
Highesttransmissionvoltage(AC):
planned:1.20MV(UltraHighVoltage)onWardhaAurangabadline(India)underconstruction.
Initiallywilloperateat400kV.[51]
worldwide:1.15MV(UltraHighVoltage)onEkibastuzKokshetauline(Kazakhstan)
Largestdoublecircuittransmission,KitaIwakiPowerline(Japan).
Highesttowers:YangtzeRiverCrossing(China)(height:345mor1,132ft)
Longestpowerline:IngaShaba(DemocraticRepublicofCongo)(length:1,700kilometresor1,056miles)
 Longestspanofpowerline:5,376m(17,638ft)atAmeralikSpan(Greenland,Denmark)
Longestsubmarinecables:
NorNed,NorthSea(Norway/Netherlands)(lengthofsubmarinecable:580kilometresor360miles)
Basslink,BassStrait,(Australia)(lengthofsubmarinecable:290kilometresor180miles,total
length:370.1kilometresor230miles)
BalticCable,BalticSea(Germany/Sweden)(lengthofsubmarinecable:238kilometresor148
miles,HVDClength:250kilometresor155miles,totallength:262kilometresor163miles)
Longestundergroundcables:
Murraylink,Riverland/Sunraysia(Australia)(lengthofundergroundcable:180kilometresor112
miles)

Seealso

General: Technical:

Distributedgeneration Backfeeding
Electricitydistribution Conductormarkinglights
Greenpowergrid Doublecircuittransmissionline
Overheadpowerline ElectromagneticTransientsProgram(EMTP)
Poweroutage FlexibleACtransmissionsystem(FACTS)
Geomagneticallyinducedcurrent,(GIC)
Electricitymarket: Gridtiedelectricalsystem
Highvoltagedirectcurrent(HVDC)
Electricitymarket Listofhighvoltageundergroundandsubmarinecables
Dynamicdemand(electricpower) Loadprofile
Demandresponse Powerlinecommunications(PLC)
Listofenergystorageprojects Radiofrequencypowertransmission
Submarinepowercable
Transport: Threephaseelectricpower
Wheeling(electricpowertransmission)
Tractionpowernetwork

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les/transmission/cigre/presentlimitsofverylongdista
ncetransmissionsystems/index.shtml)(pdf).CIGRE
InternationalConferenceonLargeHighVoltage
ElectricSystems,1984Session,29August
6September.GlobalEnergyNetworkInstitute.
Retrieved29March2011.Checkdatevaluesin:
|accessdate=(help)4.98MB
16."NYISOZoneMaps"(http://www.nyiso.com/public/ma
rkets_operations/market_data/maps/index.jsp).New
YorkIndependentSystemOperator.Retrieved
10January2014.Checkdatevaluesin:|accessdate=
(help)
17.AmericanElectricPower,TransmissionFacts,page4:
http://www.aep.com/about/transmission/docs/transmission
facts.pdf
18.CaliforniaPublicUtilitiesCommission(http://www.cpu
c.ca.gov/environment/info/aspen/deltasub/pea/16_corona
_and_induced_currents.pdf)Coronaandinduced
currents
19."WherecanIfinddataonelectricitytransmissionand
distributionlosses?"(http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/tools/faqs/
faq.cfm?id=105&t=3).FrequentlyAskedQuestions
Electricity.U.S.EnergyInformationAdministration.
19November2009.Retrieved29March2011.Check
datevaluesin:|accessdate=,|date=(help)
20.DonaldG.FinkandH.WayneBeaty.(2007),Standard
HandbookforElectricalEngineers(15thEdition).
McGrawHill.ISBN9780071441469section18.5
21.Guarnieri,M.(2013)."TheAlternatingEvolutionof
DCPowerTransmission".IEEEIndustrialElectronics
Magazine.7(3):6063.
doi:10.1109/MIE.2013.2272238(https://doi.org/10.110
9%2FMIE.2013.2272238).
22."TheBumpyRoadtoEnergyDeregulation"(https://ww
w.enpowered.com/blog/thebumpyroadtoenergydere
gulation).EnPowered.20160328.
23.RaghuvirSrinivasan(August15,2004)."Power
transmissionbusinessisanaturalmonopoly"(http://w
ww.thehindubusinessline.com/iw/2004/08/15/stories/20
04081501201300.htm).TheHinduBusinessLine.The
Hindu.RetrievedJanuary31,2008.
24.LynneKiesling(18August2003)."RethinktheNatural
MonopolyJustificationofElectricityRegulation"(htt
p://www.reason.org/commentaries/kiesling_20030818b.
shtml).ReasonFoundation.Retrieved31January2008.
Checkdatevaluesin:|accessdate=,|date=(help)
25.WhatisthecostperkWhofbulktransmission(http://w
ww.clavertonenergy.com/whatisthecostperkwhofb
ulktransmissionnationalgridintheuknotethisexclu
desdistributioncosts.html)/NationalGridintheUK
(notethisexcludesdistributioncosts)
26.TheElectricPowerTransmission&Distribution
(T&D)EquipmentMarket20112021(http://www.visio
ngain.com/Report/626/TheElectricPowerTransmissio
nandDistribution(TD)EquipmentMarket2011202
1)
27.HowITCHoldingsplanstoconnectPJMdemandwith
Ontario'srichrenewables,UtilityDive,8Dec2014,
http://www.utilitydive.com/news/howitcholdings
planstoconnectpjmdemandwithontariosrich
renewables/341524/
28.FionaWoolf(February2003).GlobalTransmission
Expansion.PennwellBooks.pp.226,247.ISBN0
878148620.
 29.PowerLinesandCancer(http://www.abc.net.au/rn/talk
s/8.30/helthrpt/stories/s175.htm),TheHealthReport/
ABCScienceBroadcaston7June1997(Australian
BroadcastingCorporation)
30.Electromagneticfieldsandpublichealth(http://www.wh
o.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs322/en/),WorldHealth
Organization
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who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs322/en/index.html).
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2007.Retrieved23January2008.Checkdatevaluesin:
|accessdate=(help)
32."ElectricandMagneticFieldsAssociatedwiththeUse
ofPower"(http://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/docs/emf0
2.pdf)(PDF).NationalInstituteofEnvironmentalHealth
Sciences.June2002.Retrieved29January2008.Check
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g/landdocs/rm95800w.txt).UnitedStatesofAmerica
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Furtherreading
Grigsby,L.L.,etal.TheElectricPowerEngineeringHandbook.USA:CRCPress.(2001).ISBN08493
85784
Hughes,ThomasP.,NetworksofPower:ElectrificationinWesternSociety18801930,TheJohnsHopkins
UniversityPress,Baltimore1983ISBN0801828732,anexcellentoverviewofdevelopmentduringthe
first50yearsofcommercialelectricpower
Reilly,Helen(2008).ConnectingtheCountryNewZealandsNationalGrid18862007.Wellington:
SteeleRoberts.pp.376pages.ISBN9781877448409.
Pansini,AnthonyJ,E.E.,P.E.undergroundingelectriclines.USAHaydenBookCo,1978.ISBN08104
08279
39.JacobOestergaardetal.(2001)."Energylossesof
superconductingpowertransmissioncablesinthegrid".
IEEETransactionsonAppliedSuperconductivity.11:
2375.doi:10.1109/77.920339(https://doi.org/10.1109%
2F77.920339).
40.600msuperconductingelectricitylinelaidinNewYork
(http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn11907supercon
ductingpowerlinetoshoreupnewyorkgrid.html)
41.Superconductingcableswillbeusedtosupply
electricitytoconsumers(http://www.futureenergies.co
m/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=237)
42.Superconductivity'sFirstCentury(http://spectrum.ieee.
org/biomedical/imaging/superconductivitysfirstcentur
y/3)
43.AlbanyHTSCableProject(http://www.superpowerinc.
com/content/htstransmissioncable)
44.HighTemperatureSuperconductors(http://www03.ib
m.com/ibm/history/ibm100/us/en/icons/hightempsuperc
onductors/)
45.HighTemperatureSuperconductorTechnologyStepped
Up(http://www.powermag.com/business/HighTempera
tureSuperconductorTechnologySteppedUp_4412.htm
l)
46.Operationoflongestsuperconductingcableworldwide
started(http://phys.org/news/201405longestsupercon
ductingcableworldwide.html)
47.BBC:Spies'infiltrateUSpowergrid'(http://news.bbc.c
o.uk/2/hi/technology/7990997.stm)
48.CNN:Video(http://www.cnn.com/2009/TECH/04/08/gr
id.threat/index.html?iref=newssearch#cnnSTCVideo)
49.Reuters:USconcernedpowergridvulnerabletocyber
attack(http://in.reuters.com/article/oilRpt/idINN085391
1920090408)
50."EnergySystems,EnvironmentandDevelopment"(htt
p://www.geni.org/globalenergy/library/technicalarticles/
transmission/unitednations/centerforscienceandtech
nologyfordevelopment/advancedtechnologyassessme
ntsystem/energysystemsenvironmentanddevelopme
nt.shtml).AdvancedTechnologyAssessmentSystems.
GlobalEnergyNetworkInstitute(6).Autumn1991.
RetrievedDecember27,2008.
51."IndiaStepsItUp"(http://tdworld.com/overhead_trans
mission/powergridresearchdevelopment201301/).
Transmission&DistributionWorld.January2013.
 WestinghouseElectricCorporation,"ElectricpowertransmissionpatentsTeslapolyphasesystem".
(TransmissionofpowerpolyphasesystemTeslapatents)
ThePhysicsofEverydayStuffTransmissionLines(http://www.bsharp.org/physics/transmission)

Externallinks
Japan:World'sFirstInGridHighTemperatureSuperconducting
WikimediaCommonshas
PowerCableSystem(http://www.sei.co.jp/news_e/press/06/06_09.ht
mediarelatedtoElectric
ml)Linkbroken powertransmission.
APowerGridfortheHydrogenEconomy:Overview/AContinental
SuperGrid(http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=apowergridfort Lookupgridelectricityin
hehydr200607) Wiktionary,thefree
GlobalEnergyNetworkInstitute(GENI)(http://www.geni.org)The dictionary.
GENIInitiativefocusesonlinkingrenewableenergyresources
aroundtheworldusinginternationalelectricitytransmission.
UnionfortheCoordinationofTransmissionofElectricity(UCTE)(http://www.ucte.org/),theassociationof
transmissionsystemoperatorsincontinentalEurope,runningoneofthetwolargestpowertransmission
systemsintheworld
NonIonizingRadiation,Part1:StaticandExtremelyLowFrequency(ELF)ElectricandMagneticFields
(2002)(http://monographs.iarc.fr/htdocs/monographs/vol80/80.html)bytheIARCLinkBroken.
ASimulationofthePowerGrid(http://tcip.mste.illinois.edu/applet2.php)TheTrustworthyCyber
InfrastructureforthePowerGrid(TCIP)(http://tcip.mste.illinois.edu/)groupattheUniversityofIllinoisat
UrbanaChampaign(http://illinois.edu)hasdevelopedlessonsandanappletwhichillustratethetransmission
ofelectricityfromgeneratorstoenergyconsumers,andallowstheusertomanipulategeneration,
consumption,andpowerflow.
MapofU.S.electricpowergenerationandtransmission(http://www.energygraph.com/interactivemap.htm
l)

Maps

Electricpowertransmissionsystems(worldwide)basedonOpenstreetmapData(http://www.flosm.de/en/Po
werGrid.html)

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