1.

0 Review of Materials Science & Engineering (12 hours)

MEC 681 1
1.1 Classes of materials and their properties

2
 Types of Materials
Let us classify materials according to the way the atoms are bound
together
Metals: valence electrons are detached from atoms, and spread in
an 'electron sea' that "glues" the ions together. Strong, ductile,
conduct electricity and heat well, are shiny polished.

Semiconductors: the bonding is covalent (electrons are shared

between atoms). Their electrical properties depend strongly on
minute proportions of contaminants. Examples: Si, Ge, GaAs.

Ceramics: atoms behave like either positive or negative ions, and

are bound by Coulomb forces. They are usually combinations of
metals or semiconductors with oxygen, nitrogen or carbon (oxides,
nitrides, and carbides). Hard, brittle, insulators. Examples: glass,
porcelain.

Polymers: are bound by covalent forces and also by weak van der
Waals forces, and usually based on C and H. They decompose at
moderate temperatures (100400 C), and are lightweight.
Examples: plastics rubber.
3
 Classification of Materials
Metals Ceramics & Glasses Polymers
good conductors of thermally and very large molecules
electricity and heat electrically insulating low density, low weight
lustrous appearance resistant to high maybe extremely
susceptible to temperatures and flexible
corrosion harsh environments
strong, but hard, but brittle
deformable

Elaine D. Haberer, UCSB

 Classification of Materials: A Few Additional Catagories

Biomaterials Semiconductors Composites

implanted in human electrical properties consist of more than
body between conductors one material type
compatible with and insulators designed to display
body tissues electrical properties a combination of
can be precisely properties of each
controlled component

Intel Pentium 4 fiberglass surfboards

hip replacement

Elaine D. Haberer, UCSB

 Why study materials?
applied scientists or engineers must make material choices
materials selection
in-service performance
deterioration
economics

BUTreally, everyone makes material choices!

aluminum glass plastic

Elaine D. Haberer, UCSB

7
 Properties

Properties are the way the material responds to the

environment and external forces.
Mechanical properties response to mechanical forces,
strength, etc.
Electrical and magnetic properties - response electrical
and magnetic fields, conductivity, etc.
Thermal properties are related to transmission of heat
and heat capacity.
Optical properties include to absorption, transmission
and scattering of light.
Chemical stability in contact with the environment -
corrosion resistance.

8
 Structure

Different levels of structure in materials (atomic,

microscopic, macroscopic)
Relation among material processing, structure,
properties, and performance
Bonding between atoms
Crystal Structure
Miller Indices
Crystalline Defects

9
 What is Materials Science and
Engineering ?

Material science is the investigation of the relationship among processing,

structure, properties, and performance of materials.
10
Structure, Processing, & Properties
Properties depend on structure
E.g: hardness vs structure of steel
(d)
6 00
Hardness (BHN)

30 mm
5 00 (c)
Data obtained from Figs. 10.30(a)
4 00 (b)
and 10.32 with 4 wt% C composition,
and from Fig. 11.14 and associated
(a)
4 mm discussion, Callister 7e.
3 00 Micrographs adapted from (a) Fig.
10.19; (b) Fig. 9.30;(c) Fig. 10.33;
30 mm
30 mm and (d) Fig. 10.21, Callister 7e.
2 00
100
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Cooling Rate (C/s)
Processing can change structure
E.g: structure vs cooling rate of steel
11
 Structure

Subatomic level
Electronic structure of individual atoms that defines
interaction among atoms (interatomic bonding).
Atomic level
Arrangement of atoms in materials (for the same atoms
can have different properties, e.g. two forms of carbon:
graphite and diamond)
Microscopic structure
Arrangement of small grains of material that can be
identified by microscopy.
Macroscopic structure
Structural elements that may be viewed with the naked
eye.

12
1.2 Bonding of Materials Structure

What holds the atoms in metals/crystals,

ceramics, polymers and elastomers
together?

MEC 681 13
Composition, Bonding, Crystal Structure
and Microstructure DEFINE Materials
Properties

14
 Review of Atomic Structure
Electrons, Protons, Neutrons, Quantum mechanics of atoms,
Electron states, The Periodic Table
Atomic Bonding in Solids
Bonding Energies and Forces
Periodic Table
Primary Interatomic Bonds
- Ionic
- Covalent
- Metallic
Secondary Bonding (Van der Waals)
- Three types of Dipole Bonds
Molecules and Molecular Solids
Understanding of interatomic bonding is the first towards
understanding/explaining materials properties

15
 Structure of Atoms
ATOM
Basic Unit of an Element
Diameter : 10 10 m.
Neutrally Charged

Nucleus Electron Cloud

Diameter : 10 14m Mass : 9.109 x 10 31 kg
Accounts for almost all mass Charge : -1.602 x 10 19 C
Positive Charge Accounts for all volume

Proton Neutron
Mass : 1.673 x 10 27 kg Mass : 1.675 x 10 27 kg
Charge : 1.602 x 10 19 C Neutral Charge

16
 Electron Configurations
Valence electrons those in unfilled shells
Filled shells more stable
Valence electrons are most available for
bonding and tend to control the chemical
properties

example: C (atomic number = 6)

1s2 2s2 2p2

valence electrons

17
 Valence Electrons
Valence electrons determine all of the
following properties
1) Chemical
2) Electrical
3) Thermal
4) Optical

18
 Periodic Table
Elements in the same column (Elemental Group) share similar properties.
Group number indicates the number of electrons available for bonding.

0: Inert gases (He, Ne, Ar...) have filled subshells: chem. Inactive

IA: Alkali metals (Li, Na, K) have one electron in outermost occupied s
subshell - eager to give up electron chem. Active

VIIA: Halogens (F, Br, Cl...) missing one electron in outermost occupied p shell -
want to gain electron - chem. Active

19
 The Periodic Table
Columns: Similar Valence Structure

inert gases
give up 1e
give up 2e

accept 2e
accept 1e
give up 3e

H He
Li Be O F Ne
Adapted from
Na Mg S Cl Ar Fig. 2.6,
Callister 7e.
K Ca Sc Se Br Kr
Rb Sr Y Te I Xe
Cs Ba Po At Rn
Fr Ra

Electropositive elements: Electronegative elements:

Readily give up electrons Readily acquire electrons
to become + ions. to become - ions.
20
 Types of Bonding
Primary bonding: e- are transferred or shared
Strong (100-1000 KJ/mol or 1-10 eV/atom)
Ionic: Strong Coulomb interaction among negative atoms (have an
extra electron each) and positive atoms (lost an electron). Example -
Na+Cl-
Covalent: electrons are shared between the molecules, to saturate
the valency. Example - H2
Metallic: the atoms are ionized, loosing some electrons from the
valence band. Those electrons form a electron sea, which binds the
charged nuclei in place
Secondary Bonding: no e- transferred or shared
Interaction of atomic/molecular dipoles
Weak (< 100 KJ/mol or < 1 eV/atom)
" Fluctuating Induced Dipole (inert gases, H2, Cl2)
" Permanent dipole bonds (polar molecules - H2O, HCl...)
" Polar molecule-induced dipole bonds (a polar molecule like induce
a dipole in a nearby nonpolar atom/molecule)

21
 Ionic Bonding
Ionic bonding is due to electrostatic force of
attraction between cations and anions.
It can form between metallic and nonmetallic
elements.
Electrons are transferred from electropositive to
electronegative atoms
Electropositive Electronegative
Electron
Element Atom
Transfer

Electrostatic
Cation Attraction Anion
+ve charge -ve charge

IONIC BOND
MEC 481 22
Ionic bond metal + nonmetal

donates accepts
electrons electrons

Dissimilar electronegativities

ex: MgO Mg 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 O 1s2 2s2 2p4

[Ne] 3s2

Mg2+ 1s2 2s2 2p6 O2- 1s2 2s2 2p6

[Ne] [Ne]

23
 Examples: Ionic Bonding
Predominant bonding in Ceramics
NaCl
MgO
CaF 2
CsCl

Give up electrons Acquire electrons

Adapted from Fig. 2.7, Callister 7e. (Fig. 2.7 is adapted from Linus Pauling, The Nature of the Chemical
Bond, 3rd edition, Copyright 1939 and 1940, 3rd edition. Copyright 1960 by Cornell University.
24
 Bonding/Lattice Energies
Lattice energies and melting points of ionically bonded
solids are high.
Lattice energy decreases when size of ion increases.
Multiple bonding electrons increase lattice energy.

Example :-
NaCl Lattice energy = 766 KJ/mol
Melting point = 801oC
CsCl Lattice energy = 649 KJ/mol
Melting Point = 646oC
BaO Lattice energy = 3127 KJ/mol
Melting point = 1923oC

25
 Covalent Bonding (I)
In Covalent bonding, outer s and p electrons are shared between two atoms to obtain
noble gas configuration.
Takes place between elements with small differences in electronegativity and close
by in periodic table.
Covalent bonds are HIGHLY directional
Bonds - in the direction of the greatest orbital overlap
Covalent bond model: an atom can covalently bond with at most 8-N, N = number of
valence electrons
Example: Cl2 molecule. ZCl =17 (1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5)
N = 7, 8 - N = 1 can form only one covalent bond

H H
Overlapping Electron Clouds

26
 Metallic Bonding (I)
Atoms in metals are closely packed in crystal structure.
Valence electrons are detached from atoms, and spread in an
'electron sea' that "glues" the ions together.
These free electrons are reason for electric conductivity and
ductility
A metallic bond is non-directional (bonds form in any direction)
atoms pack closely

27
 Secondary Bonding (I)
Secondary = van der Waals = physical (as opposite to chemical bonding
that involves e- transfer) bonding results from interaction of atomic or
molecular dipoles and is weak, ~0.1 eV/atom or ~10 kJ/mol.

Permanent dipole moments exist in some molecules (called polar

molecules) due to the asymmetrical arrangement opositively and
negatively regions (HCl, H2O). Bonds between adjacent polar
molecules permanent dipole bonds are strongest among
secondary bonds.

28
 Summary (II)
Ceramics Large bond energy
(Ionic & covalent bonding): large Tm
large E
small a

Metals Variable bond energy

(Metallic bonding): moderate Tm
moderate E
moderate a

Polymers Directional Properties

(Covalent & Secondary): Secondary bonding dominates
small Tm
small E
large a

29
1.3 The Relationship Between Processing, Structure,
and Properties

MEC 481 30
 Types of Solids
Crystalline material: atoms self-organize in a periodic array
Single crystal: atoms are in a repeating or periodic array over the
entire extent of the material
Polycrystalline material: comprised of many small crystals or grains

Amorphous: lacks a systematic atomic arrangement

31
MEC 481 32
MEC 681 33
 Densities of Material Classes
In general Graphite/
rmetals > rceramics > rpolymers
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
30
Why? Platinum
B ased on data in Table B1, Callister
*GFRE, CFRE, & AFRE are Glass,
20 Gold, W
Metals have... Tantalum Carbon, & Aramid Fiber-Reinforced
Epoxy composites (values based on
close-packing 60% volume fraction of aligned fibers
10 Silver, Mo in an epoxy matrix).
(metallic bonding) Cu,Ni
Steels
often large atomic masses Tin, Zinc
Zirconia

r (g/cm3 )
5
Ceramics have... 4
Titanium
Al oxide
less dense packing 3
Diamond
Si nitride
Aluminum Glass -soda
often lighter elements Concrete
Silicon PTFE
Glass fibers
GFRE*
2 Carbon fibers
Polymers have... Magnesium G raphite
Silicone CFRE *
A ramid fibers
PVC
low packing density PET
PC
AFRE *
1 HDPE, PS
(often amorphous) PP, LDPE
lighter elements (C,H,O)
0.5
Composites have... 0.4
Wood

intermediate values 0.3

Data from Table B1, Callister 7e.
34
 Polycrystalline Materials

Grain Boundaries
regions between crystals
transition from lattice of
one region to that of the
other
slightly disordered
low density in grain
boundaries
high mobility
high diffusivity
high chemical reactivity
Adapted from Fig. 4.7, Callister 7e.
35
 Solidification
Grains can be - equiaxed (roughly same size in all directions)
- columnar (elongated grains)
~ 8 cm

heat
flow

Shell of
Columnar in equiaxed grains
area with less due to rapid
undercooling cooling (greater
T) near wall
Adapted from Fig. 4.12, Callister 7e.

Grain Refiner - added to make smaller, more uniform, equiaxed grains.

36
 METALLIC MATERIALS
In engineering applications there are very few metals that are
actually pure element and most of those in engineering are
mixtures or compound of more than one elements.
Most materials are in multi solid phases which are in
chemically homogeneous portion.
Physical and mechanical properties of engineering materials
such as strength, hardness, toughness, fatigue and corrosion
resistance depend on both the chemical compositions and
microstructures.
What is an alloy ? An alloy is a material which is developed
to have properties better than the pure element through mixing
of more than one elements .It can be metals (aluminum
alloys,steel, copper alloys etc.) or non metals (ceramic alloys ).

37
 Metallic Alloys
Pure metals posses properties which are non-useable in
engineering applications. Examples : Pure iron is ductile but poor
strength, pure carbon is hard and brittle while pure aluminum is
ductile and soft etc.
The mixture of iron and carbon is steel and copper zinc mixture is
brass.
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon which is hard, ductile and more
important can be heat treated to establish certain desired properties.
Alloying actually transforms certain phases and microstructures in
the material.
Certain phases or microstructures do give great effects properties
especially at different temperatures and compositions.
Transformation of phases could be achieved by heat treatment.

38
 Components and Phases
Components:
The elements or compounds which are present in the mixture
(e.g., Al and Cu)
Phases:
The physically and chemically distinct material regions
that result (e.g., a and b).

Aluminum- b (lighter
Copper
phase)
Alloy

a (darker
phase)
Adapted from
chapter-opening
photograph,
Chapter 9,
Callister 3e.
39
 Phase Transformations of Alloys

Effect of adding other elements

Change transition temp.

Cr, Ni, Mo, Si, Mn

retard a + Fe3C
transformation

Adapted from Fig. 10.23, Callister 7e.

40
 Hardenability--Steels
Ability to form martensite
Jominy end quench test to measure hardenability.

Adapted from Fig. 11.11,

Callister 7e. (Fig. 11.11
flat ground adapted from A.G. Guy,
specimen Essentials of Materials
(heated to Science, McGraw-Hill Book
Rockwell C Company, New York,
phase field) 1978.)
24C water hardness tests

Hardness versus distance from the quenched end.

Hardness, HRC

Adapted from Fig. 11.12,

Callister 7e.

Distance from quenched end

41
 Hardenability vs Alloy Composition
100 10 3 2 Cooling rate (C/s)
Jominy end quench
60

Hardness, HRC
results, C = 0.4 wt% C 100

4340 80 %M
50
40 4140

Adapted from Fig. 11.14, Callister 7e.

8640
(Fig. 11.14 adapted from figure furnished 5140
courtesy Republic Steel Corporation.) 20
0 10 20 30 40 50
Distance from quenched end (mm)

"Alloy Steels" 800

(4140, 4340, 5140, 8640) T(C) TE
--contain Ni, Cr, Mo 600 shift from
A B
(0.2 to 2wt%) A to B due
400 to alloying
--these elements shift
the "nose". M(start)
200
--martensite is easier M(90%)
to form. 0 -1 3 5
10 10 10 10 Time (s) 42
 Quenching Medium & Geometry
Effect of quenching medium:
Medium Severity of Quench Hardness
air low low
oil moderate moderate
water high high
Effect of geometry:
When surface-to-volume ratio increases:
--cooling rate increases
--hardness increases

Position Cooling rate Hardness

center low low
surface high high

43
 Steels
Low Alloy High Alloy
low carbon Med carbon high carbon
<0.25 wt% C 0.25-0.6 wt% C 0.6-1.4 wt% C

heat austenitic
Name plain HSLA plain
plain tool
treatable stainless
Cr,V Cr, Ni Cr, V,
Additions none none none Cr, Ni, Mo
Ni, Mo Mo Mo, W
Example 1010 4310 1040 43 40 1095 4190 304
Hardenability 0 + + ++ ++ +++ 0
TS - 0 + ++ + ++ 0
EL + + 0 - - -- ++
Uses auto bridges crank pistons wear drills high T
struc. towers shafts gears applic. saws applic.
sheet press. bolts wear dies turbines
vessels hammers applic. furnaces
blades V. corros.
resistant
increasing strength, cost, decreasing ductility 44
Based on data provided in Tables 11.1(b), 11.2(b), 11.3, and 11.4, Callister 7e.
 Limitations of Ferrous Alloys

1) Relatively high density

2) Relatively low conductivity
3) Poor corrosion resistance

45
 Heat Treatment Procedure

Heating

Holding (soaking)

Cooling
46
 Thermal Processing of Metals
Annealing: Heat to Tanneal, then cool slowly.

Stress Relief: Reduce Spheroidize (steels):

stress caused by: Make very soft steels for
-plastic deformation good machining. Heat just
-nonuniform cooling below TE & hold for
-phase transform. 15-25 h.

Types of Full Anneal (steels):

Make soft steels for
Annealing good forming by heating
to get , then cool in
furnace to get coarse P.
Process Anneal:
Negate effect of
cold working by Normalize (steels):
Deform steel with large
(recovery/
grains, then normalize
recrystallization)
to make grains small.

47
 Summary: Processing Options
Adapted from
Austenite () Fig. 10.36,
Callister 7e.

slow moderate rapid

cool cool quench

Pearlite Bainite Martensite

(a + Fe3C layers + a (a + Fe3C plates/needles) (BCT phase
proeutectoid phase) diffusionless
transformation)
Martensite reheat
T Martensite
Strength

Ductility
bainite Tempered
fine pearlite Martensite
coarse pearlite (a + very fine
spheroidite Fe3C particles)

General Trends 48
1.4 Materials Processing and
Design Limitation

MEC 681 49
 Mechanical Prop: Fe-C System (1)
Effect of wt% C Pearlite (med)
Pearlite (med) Cementite
ferrite (soft) (hard)
Adapted from Fig. 9.30,Callister Co < 0.76 wt% C Co > 0.76 wt% C Adapted from Fig. 9.33,Callister 7e.
7e. (Fig. 9.30 courtesy Republic (Fig. 9.33 copyright 1971 by United
Steel Corporation.) Hypoeutectoid Hypereutectoid States Steel Corporation.)

TS(MPa) Hypo Hyper %EL Hypo Hyper

1100 80

Impact energy (Izod, ft-lb)

YS(MPa) 100 Adapted from Fig.
10.29, Callister 7e.
900 (Fig. 10.29 based on
hardness data from Metals
40
700 Handbook: Heat
50 Treating, Vol. 4, 9th
ed., V. Masseria
500 (Managing Ed.),
0 American Society for
Metals, 1981, p. 9.)
300
0
0.76

0.76
0 0.5 0 0.5 1
wt% C wt% C
More wt% C: TS and YS increase , %EL decreases.
50
 Mechanical Behavior of Fe-C Alloys
(II)
The strength and hardness of the different microstructures is
inversely related to the size of the microstructures (fine structures
have more phase boundaries inhibiting dislocation motion).

Mechanical properties of bainite, pearlite, spheroidite

Considering microstructure we can predict that
Spheroidite is the softest
Fine pearlite is harder and stronger than coarse pearlite
Bainite is harder and stronger than pearlite

Mechanical properties of martensite

Of the various microstructures in steel alloys martensite is the
hardest, strongest and the most brittle
The strength of martensite is not related to microstructure.
Rather, it is related to the interstitial C atoms hindering dislocation
motion (solid solution hardening) and to the small number of slip
systems.
51
 Classification of Materials
Metals:
Strong, ductile
high thermal & electrical conductivity
opaque, reflective.

Polymers/plastics: Covalent bonding sharing of es

Soft, ductile, low strength, low density
thermal & electrical insulators
Optically translucent or transparent.

Ceramics: ionic bonding (refractory) compounds of

metallic & non-metallic elements (oxides, carbides, nitrides,
sulfides)
Brittle, glassy, elastic
non-conducting (insulators)

52
 Mechanical Properties
We know that ceramics are more brittle than metals.

Why?

Consider method of deformation

slippage along slip planes
in ionic solids this slippage is very difficult
too much energy needed to move one anion past another
anion (due to the presence of lattice distortion)

53
 Taxonomy of Ceramics
Glasses Clay Refractories Abrasives Cements Advanced
products ceramics
-optical -whiteware -bricks for -sandpaper -composites engine
-composite -bricks high T -cutting -structural -rotors
reinforce (furnaces) -polishing -valves
-containers/ Adapted from Fig. 13.1 and discussion in
-bearings
household Section 13.2-6, Callister 7e.
-sensors
Properties:
-- Tm for glass is moderate, but large for other ceramics.
-- Small toughness, ductility; large moduli & creep resist.
Applications:
-- High T, wear resistant, novel uses from charge neutrality.
Fabrication
-- some glasses can be easily formed
-- other ceramics can not be formed or cast.
54
 Ceramic Fabrication Methods-I

GLASS PARTICULATE CEMENTATION

FORMING FORMING
Pressing:
Pressing
Gob
operation
plates, dishes, cheap glasses
--mold is steel with
Parison graphite lining
mold
Fiber drawing:
Compressed
Blowing: air

suspended
Parison

Finishing
mold wind up
Adapted from Fig. 13.8, Callister, 7e. (Fig. 13.8 is adapted from C.J. Phillips, 55
Glass: The Miracle Maker, Pittman Publishing Ltd., London.)
 Particulate Forming

Produced by compacting powder or particles into shapes

and heated to bond particles together.
Material preparation: Particles and binders and lubricants
are (sometimes ground) and blend wet or dry.
Forming: Formed in dry, plastic or liquid conditions.
Cold forming process is predominant.
Compaction, slipcasting and extrusion are the common
forming processes.

56
 Ceramic Fabrication Methods-IIA

GLASS PARTICULATE CEMENTATION

FORMING FORMING
Milling and screening: desired particle size
Mixing particles & water: produces a "slip"
Form a "green" component Ao container
--Hydroplastic forming: die holder Adapted from
force bille extrusion Fig. 11.8 (c),
extrude the slip (e.g., into a pipe) ram Ad Callister 7e.
t
container die
--Slip casting:
pour slip absorb water pour slip drain green
into mold into mold into mold mold ceramic Adapted from Fig.
green 13.12, Callister 7e.
ceramic (Fig. 13.12 is from
W.D. Kingery,
Introduction to
Ceramics, John
Wiley and Sons,
Inc., 1960.)
solid component hollow component
Dry and fire the component 57
 Extrusion
Single cross sections and hollow shapes of ceramics can be
produced by extrusion.
Plastic ceramic material is forced through a hard steel or alloy die
by a motor driven augur.
Examples: Refractory brick, sewer pipe, hollow tubes.

58
After W. D. Kingery, Introduction to Ceramics, Wiley, 1960.
 Powder Pressing (I)
Sintering - powder touches - forms neck & gradually neck thickens
add processing aids to help form neck
little or no plastic deformation
Uniaxial compression - compacted in single direction
Isostatic (hydrostatic) compression - pressure applied by
fluid - powder in rubber envelope
Hot pressing - pressure + heat are applied simultaneously

Adapted from Fig. 13.16, Callister 7e.

MEC 481 59
 Powder Pressing (II)
Dry Pressing: Simultaneous uniaxial compaction and shaping of
powder along with binder.
Wide variety of shapes can be formed rapidly and
accurately.

Isolatic pressing: Ceramic powder is loaded into a flexible chamber

and pressure is applied outside the chamber with hydraulic fluid.
Examples: Spark plug insulators, carbide tools.

60
After J. S. Reed and R. B Runk, Ceramic Fabrication Process, vol 9: 1976, p.74.
 Thermal Treatments
Drying: Parts are dried before firing to remove water
from ceramic body.
Usually carried out at or below 1000C.
Sintering: Small particles are bonded together by solid
state diffusion producing dense coherent product.
Carried out at higher temperature but below MP.
Longer the sintering time, larger the particles are.
Vitrification: During firing, glass phase liquefies and fills
the pores.
Upon cooling liquid phase of glass solidifies and
a glass matrix that bonds the particles is formed.

61
11-19
 Drying and Firing
Drying: layer size and spacing decrease. Adapted from Fig.
13.13, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 13.13 is from
W.D. Kingery,
Introduction to
Ceramics, John
Wiley and Sons,
Inc., 1960.)

wet slip partially dry green ceramic

Drying too fast causes sample to warp or crack due to non-uniform shrinkage
Firing:
--T raised to (900-1400C)
--vitrification: liquid glass forms from clay and flows between
SiO2 particles. Flux melts at lower T.
Adapted from Fig. 13.14,
Si02 particle Callister 7e.
(quartz) (Fig. 13.14 is courtesy H.G.
Brinkies, Swinburne
micrograph of glass formed University of Technology,
porcelain around Hawthorn Campus,
the particle Hawthorn, Victoria,
Australia.)

62
70 mm
 Ceramic Fabrication Methods-IIB

GLASS PARTICULATE CEMENTATION

FORMING FORMING
Sintering: useful for both clay and non-clay compositions.
Procedure:
-- produce ceramic and/or glass particles by grinding
-- place particles in mold
-- press at elevated T to reduce pore size.
Aluminum oxide powder:
-- sintered at 1700C
for 6 minutes.

Adapted from Fig. 13.17, Callister 7e.

(Fig. 13.17 is from W.D. Kingery, H.K.
Bowen, and D.R. Uhlmann, Introduction
to Ceramics, 2nd ed., John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1976, p. 483.)

mm 481
15 MEC 63
 Ceramic Fabrication Methods-III
GLASS PARTICULATE CEMENTATION
FORMING FORMING
Produced in extremely large quantities.
Portland cement:
-- mix clay and lime bearing materials
-- calcinate (heat to 1400C)
-- primary constituents:
tri-calcium silicate
di-calcium silicate
Adding water
-- produces a paste which hardens
-- hardening occurs due to hydration (chemical reactions with the
water).
Forming: done usually minutes after hydration begins.

64
 Engineering Ceramics
Alumina (Al2O3): Aluminum oxide is doped with magnesium
oxide, cold pressed and sintered.
Uniform structure. Used for electric applications.
Silicon Nitride (Si3N4): Compact of silicon powder is nitrided in a
flow of nitrogen gas.
Moderate strength and used for parts of advanced
engines.
Silicon Carbide (SiC): Very hard refractory carbide, sintered at
21000C.
Used as reinforcement in composite materials.
Zirconia (ZrO2): Polymorphic and is subject to cracking.
Combined with 9% MgO to produce ceramic with high
fracture toughness.

65
11-21
 Polymers

What is a polymer?
Poly mer
many repeat unit

repeat repeat repeat

unit unit unit
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C
H H H H H H H Cl H Cl H Cl H CH3 H CH3 H CH3
Polyethylene (PE) Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) Polypropylene (PP)
Adapted from Fig. 14.2, Callister 7e.

66
 Taxonomy of Polymers

Polymeric materials
Plastics Elastomers

Thermoplastic Thermosetting Vulcanized Unvulcanised

Commodities plastic General Use plastic Commodities plastics General use plastics

Polyethylene Nylon Phenolics Ureas

Polyvinyl chloride Polycarbonates Polyurethane Melamines

Polystyrene Acetals

67
 Thermoplastic
Thermoplastic polymers become soft and deformable upon heating.
These processes are totally reversible and may be repeated (recyclable)
This is the characteristic of linear Polymeric molecules and some branched
molecules.
The high temperature plasticity is due to the ability of the molecules/
chains to slide past one another.
Thermoplastics gain ductility at high temperatures.
Thermoplastics are normally fabricated by simultaneous application of heat
and pressure.
On a molecular level as the temperature is raised , secondary bonding
forces are diminished so that the relative movement of adjacent chain
is facilitated when stress is applied.
Thermoplastics are relatively soft and ductile.
Processing of thermoplastics products by : injection moulding, blow
moulding, thermoforming and vacuum moulding.

68
 Thermosetting Plastics
Thermosetting become hard and rigid upon heating, this
phenomena is not lost upon cooling.
This is characteristics of network molecular structures formed by the
step growth mechanism.
The chemical reaction steps are enhanced by higher temperatures
and are irreversible ( non recyclable)
During initial heating , covalent cross links are formed between
adjacent molecular chains, these bonds anchor the chain
together to resist the vibrational and rotational chain motion at
high temperatures.
Heating to excessive temperature will cause severance of cross link
bonds and polymer will degrade.
Thermosetting polymers are harder, stronger and more brittle and
have better dimensional stability.
Processing of thermosetting plastics : Compression moulding,
Transfer molding. 69
 Elastomers
Elastomers can be deformed to very large strains
when stressed and then spring back elastically to their
original dimensions when the stress is removed.
E.g: Natural rubber (polyisoprene).

H CH3 H H
| | | |
-C C = C C
| |
H H

70
 Vulcanization (I)
Vulcanization an irreversible chemical reaction usually at high
temperatures, involving the addition of sulfur compounds by cross
linking into larger molecules to restrict molecular movement.
The double bonds in the polyisoprene molecules open and form
sulfur atoms cross link.
This increases the tensile strength of rubber.

71
 Vulcanisation (II)
Vulcanised rubber is considered as thermosetting polymers.

Elastic modulus, tensile strength, oxidation resistance are

increased by vulcanization (magnitude of E is proportional to number
the number of cross-links. Too many cross-links reduces extensibility.

72
 Mechanical Properties
i.e. stress-strain behavior of polymers

brittle polymer

FS of polymer ca. 10% that of metals

plastic
elastomer
elastic modulus
less than metal

Adapted from Fig. 15.1,

Strains deformations > 1000% possible Callister 7e.

(for metals, maximum strain ca. 10% or less)

73
 Tensile Response: Brittle & Plastic
Near Failure (MPa) fibrillar
structure
x brittle failure
near
onset of
failure
necking plastic failure
x
Initial
unload/reload

e
aligned, networked
cross- case crystalline
linked regions
case slide
semi-
crystalline amorphous
crystalline
case regions
regions align
elongate
Stress-strain curves adapted from Fig. 15.1, Callister 7e. Inset figures along plastic response curve adapted from
Figs. 15.12 & 15.13, Callister 7e. (Figs. 15.12 & 15.13 are from J.M. Schultz, Polymer Materials Science, Prentice-
Hall, Inc., 1974, pp. 500-501.) 74
 Processing of Plastics

Thermoplastic
can be reversibly cooled & reheated, i.e. recycled
heat till soft, shape as desired, then cool
ex: polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, etc.

Thermoset
when heated forms a network
degrades (not melts) when reheated
mold the prepolymer then allow further reaction
ex: urethane, epoxy

75
 Composite Materials

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
What are the classes and types of composites?
Why are composites used instead of metals,
ceramics, or polymers?

How do we estimate composite stiffness & strength?

What are some typical applications?

76
 Composites
Definition-
Composite is a material composed of two or more different
materials, with the properties of the resultant material being
superior to the properties of the materials that make up the
composite.

Combine materials with the objective of getting a more desirable

combination of properties
Ex: get flexibility & weight of a polymer plus the strength of a
ceramic

Principle of combined action

Mixture gives averaged properties

77
The Composite Classification commonly refers to materials
developed to meet the demand in building, electronic, aerospace,
and automotives industries.
Composites can be designed to be stronger, lighter, stiffer and more
heat resistant to natural materials or to possess properties required
by the technology.
Composites allow the designer to select the right combination of
materials to perform safely at the lowest cost.

78
1.5 Case study of Modern
Materials Applications

www.materials.ac.uk/guides/casestudies.asp
 Materials Selection
The designer of any product, other than
software must get involved with material
selection.

Only occasionally will the exact grade of

material be specified by the customer.

Even then the designer must understand

the material to be able to design the
product.
 Decisions, decisions!
So many materials, so much information.

How do we decide?
How do we begin to choose?

First we need to look at the function of the

product product analysis
 Product Analysis
Just what it says analyse the product!
What does it do?
How does it do it?
Where does it do it?
Who uses it?
What should it cost?
 Case Study a bike
What is the function of a bike obvious?
How does the function depend on the type
of bike?
Racing
Touring
Mountain bike
Commuter
Childs
 Case Study a bike (2)
How is it made to be easily maintained?
What should it look like (colours etc.)?
What should it cost?
How has it been made comfortable to
ride?
How do the mechanical parts work and
interact?
 Component or system?
1st problem is.
Is it one component or a system of
components working together?

A spanner is a component, a cordless

screwdriver is a system.
 System Analysis
When we analyse a system we need to
break the system down into individual
components and then analyse each one.
Cordless screwdriver
 System Analysis the bike
The bike breaks down (we hope not!) into
various parts:
Frame
Forks
Wheels
Saddle
Etc.
 System Analysis the bike (2)
We now need to look at the following for
each part:
Requirements (mechanical, ergonomic,
aesthetic etc.)
Function
How many are going to be made?
What manufacturing methods are we
going to use?
 Manufacturing
Oh No!
We have to actually make it!

This is a key question which has a massive

influence on materials selection.
e.g. The frame, what materials could we
use?
 Frame Materials
Steel
Strong, stiff, heavy, but cheap

Aluminium
weaker, lighter, more expensive than steel

Composite (CFRP)
strong, stiff, very light, but expensive to buy
and to fabricate
Bike Frame
Frame Design Detail
 What Properties?
Mechanical
Strength, modulus etc.
Physical
Density, melting point.
Electrical
Conductivity, resistivity.
Aesthetic
Appearance, texture, colour
Processability
Ductility, mouldability
And last, but not least.
Cost, cost, cost!
 Where do I find the data?
Textbooks
Databooks
Manufacturers literature
Internet Sites
 Textbooks
Good for general information
Some have tables of properties
Not good for detailed specifications and
properties.
A useful first point of call
 Databooks
One of the quickest sources of detailed
information.
Usually contain grades and specifications
as well as properties.
Small and perfectly formed pocketbooks
Easy to navigate around
 Manufacturers literature
Variable in quality and usefulness.
Often only cover their products.
Usually do not compare materials.
Can be biased.
Good for final selection before ordering.
 Internet Sites
Can be a real minefield.
Lots of poorly presented information.
Google searches bring up lots of rubbish.
Hard to find technical information.
Best to use non-commercial sites.
Materials Selection Charts
 Modulus - Density Chart
Modulus spans 5 orders of magnitude
0.01 GPa for foams to 1000 GPa for diamond
The charts therefore use logarithmic
scales, where twice the distance means
ten times.
This makes it possible to show the full
range on one chart,

101
Materials Selection Charts
 Materials Selection Charts
Allow easy visualisation of properties
Show lots of different materials
Can be drilled down to specifics
Show balances of properties
e.g. strength v cost
Ideal for a first rough cut selection
 Summary
1. Think about the design from ergonomic
and functional viewpoint.
2. Decide on the materials to be used.
3. Choose a suitable process that is also
economic
Steps 2 & 3 may be iterative. Dont forget
the
 Bigger Picture
Is the product
performance driven or
cost driven?
This makes a huge
difference when
choosing materials.
 Manufacturing Process

Although we usually
choose materials first
sometimes it is the
shape and process
which is the limiting
factor.
Case Study (2) Drink Container
What are the
requirements?
Case Study (2) Drink Container
Provide leak free environment for storing liquid.
Comply with food standards & protect liquid from
health hazards.
For fizzy drinks, withstand pressure.
Brand image & identity
Easy to open
Easy to store & transport
Cheap for high volumes
 Possible Materials
Steel
Aluminium
Glass
Plastic
Paper
 Failure of Proton Wajas Door Handle

Discussion at
Pusat
Meeting with Manufacturing
Kecemerlangan
Management Department at
Proton Edar Sdn
Delloyds Industries Sdn (M) Bhd in
Bhd in Shah Alam
Kg. Jawa Klang
Students :
(15 June 2004)
Zaifol B. Samsu (2002242042)
Mohd Lukman B. Awg. Noh (2002658135
 66.9 N

Fixed
point

32.46 N

Density vs Sectional Area Number

1.3000

1.2500

1.2000
Density (g/cm )
3

1.1500

1.1000
Sample1
Sample 2
Sample 3
1.0500 Sample 4
Density Test Sample 5

1.0000
Stress Analysis For Different Thickness
111
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Sectional area number
Collaboration with ANSHIN CASTING INDUSTRIES (ACI)

Microstructure Quantitative
26 May 2006
Spectrometer
Test Observation Metallographic

112
Tensile Test
Hardness
(a) Test (b)
Density
Measurement Ferrite

Ultrasonic Testing Graphite

Pearlite

(a) (b)
Case Study (3) Dental implants
What are the
requirements?