Annotated Source List

Cantwell, Brian. "Gasdynamics of Nozzle Flow." Fundamentals of Compressible

Flow, 2007.

The purpose of a nozzle is to convert thermal to kinetic energy, and the applications of nozzles
could include rocket and jet engines, wind tunnels, and piping control systems. When the flow
inside the nozzle is traveling at the speed of a Mach number that is less than one, than a
decreased area within the nozzle leads to more speed, however, if the Mach number is greater
than one, than increasing the area will result in an increase in the flow speed of the substance. In
a nozzle, when there is a fluid that has a lower heat capacity ratio, it takes a very large area ratio
in order to generate a high Mach number flow; however, this does not have an impact on
subsonic flows. In a converging nozzle, the gas exits to the ambient atmosphere, and gas is
continuously supplied to the reservoir before the convergence so that the nozzle pressure is
constant. By utilizing a large nozzle, the boundary layer thickness will be small compared to the
diameter of the nozzle, which allows most of the flow to travel in a linear path and not rotate. If
the ambient pressure equals the pressure that is in the nozzle reservoir then there is no flow, and
if the ratio between the reservoir pressure and the ambient temperature reaches a critical point,
then than the static exit pressure is what determines the speed of the flow at the exit. In a
converging diverging nozzle if the ratio between the pressure at the nozzle reservoir is not very
big, the flow throughout the nozzle will be subsonic, and the exit pressure will match the ambient
pressure. When a diverging section is present in the nozzle, the pressure ratio that leads to
choking is less than the ratio in a converging nozzle. Almost all air-breathing propulsion systems
use multiple throats; the first is used to decelerate the incoming flow, and the second is to
accelerate the exit flow, and when a compressor or a turbine are utilized, than several more
throats may be utilized.
This source provides useful information about how different nozzle designs can affect the
amount of energy and the characteristics of the motive fluid through the nozzle and the flow
through it. Additionally, the source provides the reader with information on how the environment
that the nozzle is in affects it. The source is well organized and can be understood well by
someone with a moderate amount of knowledge about the topic, and could be utilized by rocket
and airbreathing engine designers.

Fluid Flow, Ideal Flow, Bernoulli's Principle. University of Australia.

Analyzing the principles of Fluid Flow can be very complicated, but by making a series of
assuming an ideal fluid, one can make a simpler model. An ideal fluid is incompressible, does
not rotate, has no internal friction, and has a steady flow. In Bernoullis principle, a fluid that
experiences a constriction while travelling through a pipe will result in a drop in pressure. When
calculating for Bernoullis principle, it is important to note that it can only be used when
calculating for an ideal fluid. Each term in the equation has the dimensions of energy and
volume, or energy density. An example of the Venturi effect is that when a fast stream of
something such as air is shot out of a nozzle smaller than the input it will have a lower pressure
than the surrounding atmosphere. The source provides a diagram and a set of equations that
explain how to calculate the water flow from the tank, where the hole is located below the water
level and the water level flows slowly. The source also explains how a siphoning system works.
If a fluid is Viscous, than the Venturi effect will change in the manner that there will be a small
pressure drop along the piping. Some of this energy results in internal friction, and therefore, the
energy generated by the friction is dissipated as thermal energy along the pipeline.

This source provides good background information on fluid motion, Bernoullis equation, and
the resulting Venturi effect. The equations themselves are clear, but understanding the variables
may take some time since they are not clearly listed. The source has the benefit of providing
information about the Venturi effect not only on liquid, but air as well. There are several helpful
examples involving both water piping and airflow where the Venturi effect can be calculated.
Although irrelevant to this project, there are also other examples of the Venturi effect such as
how smoke rises through a chimney, how a spray bottle works, and the effect of Arteriosclerosis.

Ilin, et al. "Simulation of Plasma Detachment in VASIMR." Simulation of Plasma

Detachment in VASIMR, Jan. 2002, pp. 1-5.

The VASIMRs rocket engine nozzle plays two important roles, the first being that is converts
the perpendicular motion of Ions into axial motion, and the second being that the plasma
detaches from the thruster. In order to simulate these, one can use fluid models, particle models,
and numerical solutions of kinetic equations. In the VASIMR, there are three magnetic cells, one
in the front, used where the plasma is ionized, one in the middle, used where the plasma is
electromagnetically heated, and one the back the ensures plasma ejection from the rocket.
Several Equations are provided including exhaust thrust velocity, thrust force, exhaust ion
energy, and maximum ion density. The ratio of plasma kinetic energy to the magnetic field
energy density increases as it travels downstream. When simulating the trajectory of the Plasma
plume, plasma and electric current density are assumed constant, as well as cylindrical
symmetry, which results in the radial and axial coordinates being left. Simulating the plasma
requires five models: a magnetostatic field, a nonlinear particle model that can calculates ion
velocities, the Ion density, electron density, and plasma current density.
This section of the article provides good information on the process where the plasma is
ejected from the VASIMR is ejected from the magnetic nozzle, hoe it is simulated, providing
several equations that are useful for analyzing behaviors of the plasma while about to be ejected
from the nozzle. This section of this source is important to the topic of choosing the geometry of
the engine because it provides information of how actual plasma will behave when injected into
the engine and the resulting thrust plume.

Ilin, et al. "Simulation of Plasma Detachment in VASIMR." Simulation of Plasma

Detachment in VASIMR, Jan. 2002, pp. 5-11

When modeling the VASIMR engine system cylindrical symmetry and magnetic permeability
are assumed to be constant, and this allows for modeling in a cylindrical coordinate system. This
section of the source explains some of the rules of Ion Motion and illustrates the magnetic field
lines and ion trajectory in the exhaust area of the VASIMR engine. In order to calculate the Ion
density, one uses a weighting method for ion trajectories, which is explained in more detail. The
electric field in the engine is calculated from the electric potential, and in a system with only
radial and axial components. The bulk electron density and the ion density are assumed equal. In
order to calculate the internal plasma magnetic field, one must first calculate the plasma current.
The internal plasma magnetic field can be calculated in the same way that can be used for the
vacuum magnetic field calculation. The plasma current density can be affected by the curvature
of the magnetic field. In the VASIMR there are several ways that indicate plasma detachment
including when the Ion Larmor radius becomes greater than the magnetic field curvature, when
the plasma magnetic field approaches a constant in the plasma exhaust, and when magnetic
movement increases. The use of Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) simulation software such as
Nimrod can help increase the accuracy when analyzing the VASIMR plasma exhaust region.
Nimrod was designed for nonlinear fluid modeling of magnetized plasmas, and was upgraded to
include the density equation in the model, which removes the incompressible fluid
approximation.

The things that this source did well includes explaining how the VASIMR plasma exhaust
system was modeled through the Nimrod simulation software and how it was modified to fit the
application of modeling the VASIMR rocket engine. However, despite the article saying that the
software was open source, there was no information on how to access it. There were also a lot of
helpful equations that will be used for the hand calculations of the magnetic field and its
properties and explanations for what they would be used for, but the source could have improved
by expanding on what those equations were used to calculate and how the equations were solved.

Keidar, M., and I. Beilis. Plasma Flow and Plasma-Wall Transition in a Hall
Thruster. Dec. 2001.
A Hall thruster is capable of accelerating the thrust within a quasineutral plasma and the
acceleration is not limited by space charge effects, which means that it is more advanced than
most other electric propulsion engines. Two types of hall thrusters exist; one thruster that has a
closed electron drift and an extended acceleration zone, which is known as a stationary plasma
thruster, and a thruster with a short acceleration channel, known as a Thruster with Anode Layer.
In a stationary plasma thruster, the interaction of plasma with the dielectric walls plays an
important role due to the collisions that occur between the thruster walls and the secondary
electrons. Recent findings have shown that the interaction between the plasma and the dielectric
wall of the thruster is important in determining the discharge characteristics, and the transition
between the plasma and wall region determines the particle-energy fluxes from plasma to the
wall. In current models, the region for the quasineutral plasma is extended up to the edge of the
plasma sheath, in order to provide a boundary condition. The electric field at the sheath will
become a continuous function based on the effects of several factors, such as the Bohm and Ion
velocity. The plasma presheath is based on the assumption that the quasineutral region length is
much larger than the Debye radius. In typical conditions of the hall thruster, the effect of
collisions between charged particles in the plasma is small, and there are several factors that
make up the total frequency of electron collisions, with collisions that occur between walls being
the biggest factor. The electric field decreases from the characteristic value of the Debye length
down to zero when the velocity in the quasineutral plasma presheath. In order to complete the
model of the plasma engine, several boundary conditions about the plasma must be specified,
including plasma density, velocity, and the temperature of the electrons that are at the
downstream boundary. While the plasma is being ionized, the density initially increases. After
being accelerated the plasma density decreases downstream, and near the exit nozzle, it also
heats up at the same time. It was found that the dielectric wall affects the plasma flow through
the coefficient of the secondary electron emission, and that in the considered condition the
presheath length becomes comparable to the channel width, which turns the plasma channel into
an effective presheath.
This source could benefit any researcher looking for information on how to mathematically
model a hall thruster and how the plasma stream interacts with the wall of the engine as well as
how plasma sheaths form around the wall of the plasma. Information is given on the plasma
sheaths that form around the wall of the two different types of hall thrusters, and how the plasma
behaves within the nozzle. One thing about this source that could have been improved is its
organization, as the source was difficult to read.

Kirk, D. R. "Rockets and Mission Analysis." Mechanical and Aerospace

Engineering Department, Florida Institute of Technology. Speech.

Chemical rockets are limited by the amount of energy that the propellants can carry, which
contrasts to the limiting factor of spacecraft electric propulsion, which is the amount of power
that the spacecraft systems can produce. Chemical engines can produce a high amount of power
because of the rapid conversion of energy that occurs within the engine. The energy conversion
process on spacecraft electric engines is limited by the mass of conversion equipment that must
be carried. Electrothermal propulsion is limited by the wall temperature heating, and does not
have a specific impulse that is much greater than a hydrogen oxygen rocket. In electrostatic and
electromagnetic propulsion, the propellant is not heated and therefore, heat does not affect the
specific impulse. Instead, the propellant is ionized and accelerated by magnetic and electric
fields. This type of electric propulsion can produce longer mission times and exhaust velocities,
but at the expense of a higher power requirement. Solar arrays that are small have a good weight
to power ratio but larger arrays become prohibitively large. RTGs and Nuclear Power Reactors
are better for missions with higher power requirements. The mass flow rate of the propellant in
electric systems is usually constant, and the exhaust velocity is fixed by the power input and the
mass flow rate of the propellant. An increased exhaust velocity would require a greater amount
of power supplied to the thruster, and an increased mass flow rate would result in a decreased
burn time. In an electric propulsion system, an increase of exhaust velocity requiring an increase
in power would result in no increase in velocity due to increased mass. Higher exhaust velocities
allow for a much higher payload to propellant mass ratio, and this will lead to a higher vehicle
velocity. Ion thrusters are electrostatic engines, and work by producing ions by collisions
between electrons and neutral atoms. MPD thrusters work on the principle of electromagnetic
electric propulsion, and they pass a large amount of current through a small amount of gas in
order to ionize the propellant, and they can be operated in pulses or continuously. It has a high
energy density and specific impulse, which make it ideal for use in long range missions.
 This source is applicable to anyone who wants to learn the operational specs of different types
of spacecraft electric propulsion engines, how they function, and about some different thrusters
that were made. This source also has information about the different principles that electric
propulsion engines operate on, how the effectiveness of spacecraft electric propulsion engines
can be improved, and the trends that result from electric propulsion engine operating parameters,
such as power, being changed. The source has very good illustrations; including graphs,
diagrams, and is very easy to understand.

Lazar, Eli. "Introduction." Fundamental Physics and Application of Plasma Actuators for High
Speed Flows, U of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, 2011, pp. 1-40.

The application of flow control is of particular importance to future airbreathing engines.

The key to success is designing effective injection, mixing, and combustion processes inside
the supersonic combustion chamber. Plasma can be used as a flow control device. The plasma
can be generated by microwaves, laser-induced optical breakdown, and electrical discharge.
One of these methods was chosen to be applied to a supersonic crossflow. In order to diagnose
problems with the flow in this environment, researchers needed a way to make high velocity
measurements while at a long distance away from the test site because of interference from
electromagnetic noise. Plasmas that would be useful in this application have a relative balance
in charge, and can be influenced by magnetic and electrical fields. When plasma is not in
thermal Equilibrium, this means that its ions and free electrical charges are not balanced. The
Debye radius is the length of the quasi-neutrality, meaning how much separation there is
between electrons and ions. There are three types of particle collisions that can occur: the first
is known as elastic collisions, where kinetic energy is transferred between collision particles,
inelastic collisions, where kinetic energy is transferred into internal energy, and the third type is
known as super elastic.

While this source applies plasma technology for the use of airbreathing engines, many of the
principles and theories discussed, including thermal equilibrium, particle equilibrium, and
Debye radius. This source does a good job at explaining these concepts so that people with
only a little experience with plasma physics can understand them. The source could have
included more graphics as to make important information more easily remembered, and also
could have separated the topics discussed a little bit better so one can more easily focus on one
subject at a time.

"Plasma Flow Control." Fundamental Physics and Application of Plasma Actuators for High
Speed Flows, U of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, 2011, pp. 74-125.
There are three different techniques that can be used to generate plasma. The first way is to
use a laser beam, and some of advantages this is has is that it is able to create a flow that can
deviate from its natural path at a long distance from the original source, and this type of plasma
is more easily managed within a lab. The plasma is generated using laser sparks, and both the
wavelength and the pressure of those laser sparks can be adjusted. The brightness of the laser
sparks was measured using a photodiode, and from this, the emission intensity and the decay rate
could be calculated. There are three ways that plasma can be generated, including from electrons
created by field emissions, thermal emissions, or generation from incident electrons, photons,
and ions. A system like this consists of outer and inner conductors, which allows for the coupling
of microwave energy into the resonator. The plasma is excited at the upper end of the inner
conductor. When considering the design of a resonator, in choosing its diameter, one must
consider the loss mechanisms, such as that experienced in resonator walls, and the maximum
electric field of the inner conductor. A notable characteristic with this setup is that the size of the
plasma emission decreases as plasma increases.
This source did a good a job in explaining three different ways that plasma could be ionized,
and providing data on what happened when these different methods were employed, and the
behavior of the plasma. It also discusses where the three types might be best used. There is also
some data included about how the plasma is ionized, including the design of the ionizing
mechanism. However, this section of the source mainly offered numerical data and graphs about
the plasma and the plasma generation process, and there are not as many explanations of the
processes, such as what was done in other sources.

Magnetic Nozzles. Princeton Electric Propulsion and Plasma Dynamics Laboratory,

alfven.princeton.edu/research/past/MagneticNozzle. Accessed 13 Mar. 2017.

The magnetic nozzle in a plasma engine is responsible for converting the thermal energy of the plasma
into kinetic energy, and this occurs by using a magnetic field that matches the geometry of the nozzle. The
thrust plume that is produced by the nozzle is another very important part of the performance of the
nozzle, where a highly divergent plume delivers less thrust than a plume that is well directed. Plasma
nozzles have a tendency to occasionally develop spatial non-uniformities in the exhaust plume. Based on
these observations, a 2D analytical model of plasma potential, density, and ion Mach number in the
expansion region of the nozzle, and Princeton University has designed an experiment to study the physics
that are associated with the plasma flow. The experiment uses a flat coil radio-frequency plasma source
that was designed to operate up to 1kW, and the plasma source is mounted concentrically by using two
electromagnetic coils. The rear wall of the plasma source can be adjusted relative to the exhaust plane,
which allows the aspect ratio of the thrust plume. The results of this experiment show that the mechanism
that allows the plasma to detach from the applied magnetic field is not clearly understood, and the
theories about how this occur involve complex plasma processes that are difficult to characterize.

This article is very good at providing good, clear, concise and easy to read information on magnetic
nozzles, how the thrust plume affects the performance of an engine, plasma models, and how an
experiment on a magnetic nozzle was set up and conducted. While the article is not very detailed it is a
good place to start for beginners and still contains a good amount of valuable information that can be used
by people research electric propulsion, magnetic nozzles, and how an experiment with a magnetic nozzle
was conducted.

Marquardt, Timothy. An overview of the VASIMR Thruster Concept. Auburn

University
 The VASIMR engine is unique in the way it produces thrust. It ionizes the gas that is injected
by using radio waves, and uses electromagnets to contain and guide the plasma. The plasma
continues to a second stage where it is heated by radio waves tuned to the Ion Cyclotron
frequency of the plasma. The engine's nozzle converts this perpendicular circular motion into
linear thrust. There is no physical contact between the engine and electrodes, which eliminates
the problem of electrodes wearing down. Thrust and Specific Impulse can be varied by adjusting
the gas flow rate and the power input to the RF couplers. However, two downsides of the
VASIMR is that it requires a bigger power source and can be susceptible to strong magnetic
fields that are surrounding it. The gas is originally admitted into the engine and is in a quartz
tube, and surrounding electromagnets produce a field in the axial direction. After passing the
ionizing couplers, the plasma is held only by the magnetic field. The plasma as a whole is still
electrically neutral, or, has a Maxwellian Distribution. The Ion Cyclotron coupler works by
matching the driving radio frequency to the ion cyclotron frequency, causing the particles to
realign rapidly back and forth and transmitting kinetic energy into the plasma.
This source is very valuable for anyone focusing on applied field Magnetoplasmadynamic
engines because of the detail that it provides on the VASIMR, which includes some design
specific items such as how the VASIMR ionizes the gas, what materials it is made of, and some
of the VASIMR's unique aspects. It also points out some of the VASIMR's downsides, which is
beneficial in comparing the VASIMR to other plasma rockets. Another notable part of this source
is its in-depth explanation of the Ion Cyclotron coupler, including how it functions, and what it
does to the plasma that results in it being heated up and energized.

Martinez, Mario. "Magnetic Nozzles." Analysis of Magnetic Nozzles for Space

Plasma Thrusters, Technical U of Madrid, 2013, pp. 9-39.

This source begins by listing several of the advantages that electric propulsion has over
chemical, including that the energy output of electric propulsion is limited only by the power
source onboard. When a electric propulsion system operates with a higher specific impulse, this
means that the change in momentum that the spacecraft engine produces per unit of propellant
consumed will be higher, and as a result, will result in longer mission times. The specific impulse
is limited by the amount of energy delivered per unit mass of the propellant, instead of it being
limited by the propellant itself. This allows electric propulsion to outperform chemical
propulsion in terms of the amount of propellant being used. However, electric propulsion does
not perform well when a lower specific impulse and high thrust configuration is used, due to
very low efficiencies that result. Magnetic nozzles have been recently used in engines like the
VASIMR, The Helicon Plasma Thruster, and Applied Field MPDS thrusters. The magnetic field
in Helicon plasma thrusters plays three roles: preventing plasma losses to the lateral walls,
helping the plasma to conform to the Magnetic Nozzle. This can prevent contact between the
plasma and the walls, and can allow the magnetic field strength and shape to be adapted to the
modify the plasma expansion. These devices are responsible for accelerating the plasma and
translating the thrust produced into acceleration on the spacecraft. A Helicon plasma engine
works by using an RF antenna wound around a tube that ionizes the propellant when power is
supplied. The benefits that Helicon plasma engines have are that they do not have electrodes, and
that it also has a good range of throttling options. Magnetic Nozzles have the purpose of
controlling the energy level of the plasma, its direction, and its distribution. When a uniform
magnetic field is established inside the magnetic field, the particles will move in a helicoidal
(vortex-like) pattern of motion. When no other forces are applied, the center of the vortex motion
(center of gyration) stays on the central axis of the magnetic field. If subjected to a perpendicular
force, the magnetic particles will move sideways at right angles with force and magnetic field
vectors. When spiraling motion occurs, this results in the plasma particles exhibiting some
diametric drift, however, under certain conditions, the motion of the plasma can be well
approximated by the motion of the gyrocenter. A magnetic nozzles ideal operation would be
characterized by most of the magnetic fields internal energy being in the form of electron
thermal energy, where the electrons are fully ionized would move in all directions. In order for
efficient operation of magnetic nozzle requires that plasma must be fully-ionized and hot. Once
the plasma is ionized, it will follow the geometry that is imposed on it by the magnetic field. The
magnetic hall force confines the plasma and accelerates it downstream, and after acceleration, it
must be detached from the nozzle. Ambipolar and Hall acceleration are the two main
mechanisms in a Magnetic Nozzle that accelerate the plasma. The best way to classify the
different acceleration mechanisms is to identify their origin. A key aspect of any electric
propulsion system that uses a magnetic nozzle is the process of the plasma detachment from the
magnetic nozzle and the conversion into a force that is able to propel the spacecraft. This has
been observed in thrusters such as the VASIMR; however, the understanding of the process that
is involved with this is still basic.
This source can be useful to anyone that is conducting research on magnetic nozzles, as the
source gives information of what the magnetic nozzle does, how the nozzle functions, how the
nozzle accelerates the plasma, and some of the physics that are involved with the magnetic
nozzle and how it functions. It can also be useful in the process of thruster design, especially if
the thruster that you are designing is to have a magnetic nozzle. The source does a good job by
including a lot of details that are useful for magnetic nozzle design, however, the source
sometimes presents information too quickly, and as a result, it would take a long time to read.

Martinez, Mario. "Near Region Expansion and Acceleration." Analysis of Magnetic Nozzles for
Space Plasma Thrusters, Technical U of Madrid, 2013, pp. 55-79.
Several simulations are used in investigating the behaviors of the models, which includes
Nozzle Divergence rate, ion magnetization strength, and the non-uniformity of the initial density
profile. The arrangement of coils can affect the shape of the magnetic nozzle in the nearby area,
but as the plasma travels downstream, the magnetic nozzle will still use a single coil, and
therefore, using a single coil will allow for the study of the fundamental principles of the
magnetic nozzle to be more easily conducted. The magnetization strength is important in
governing the ion flow because it controls the intensity of the magnetic force on the ions.
Contrary to the behavior of an ideal gas the electron pressure in an isothermal plasma does not
vanish rapidly, and the plasmas speed increases gradually. The acceleration profile for a uniform
and non-uniform plasma are similar, but the radial electric field and the speed of the plasma flow
differ. As the nozzle diverges, this will result in a decay of the local magnetization parameter, and
in addition, the ion-electron Streamtube separation grows downstream in the nozzle. A pair of
Streamtubes carries a constant and equal amount of ions and electrons, meaning that their
progressive separation would result in the electron current being lower than the ion current. In
the radial direction of the force driving the plasma there is an expanding pressure gradient and a
confining magnetic force. The forces are balanced at the nozzle throat, but downstream, the
pressure gradient tends to be the dominant force and results in the radial expansion of the
plasma. This expansion results in greater plume divergence which negatively affects thruster
efficiency. The Magnetic Nozzle acts as an electrothermal accelerator, and develops the internal
energy of the plasma into directed energy. There are several aspects that can influence the
performance of the magnetic nozzle which includes the length of the nozzle, where evidence has
shown that a longer nozzle has better performance. Increasing the ion magnetization has an
unfavorable effect on plume efficiency because it increases the swirl current, so while keeping
the electrons energized well energized, the guiding field should be decreased.
This section of this source would be useful for those who are designing a plasma engine that
uses a magnetic nozzle, trying to simulate the behaviors in a plasma engine, researching how
different factors relating to the design of the plasma engine will affect the engines performance,
and how the plasma behaves in different parts of the engine. The source is very detailed, and
therefore would only be recommended for those who know a lot about electric propulsion or
plasma.

Meyers, et al. "Mechanical Engineering Lab: Venturi Lab." University of Vermont. Speech.
The Bernouli Principle can be considered to serve as a conservation of energy principle for
flowing fluids and states that velocity of a fluid will increase as the cross sectional area that the
fluid is in decreases, and that as this happens, the static pressure will of the fluid decrease as
well. There are three ways to measure the pressure while conducting experiments. Gauge
Pressure and Vacuum Pressure are both measured relative to the atmospheric pressure. The more
accurate method is to use absolute pressure, which will be measured from a reference to
surrounding air pressure. This allows for the system to recognize and eliminate interference from
the outside air pressure. If water in either a Streamtube or Streamline must travel upwards before
reaching its output, a Manometer can utilize the laws of fluid statics to measure pressures. The
total pressure that is experienced in a Venturi system is the sum of both dynamic and static
pressures. A Pitot probe can be used to measure dynamic pressure, and therefore the flow
velocity. After the total and static pressures are calculated, a static distribution formula can be
used to calculate the velocity distribution. If no fluid mass is added or removed from along the
Streamtube, than the mass flow rate, or the amount of mass traveling through a certain area will
be constant.
This article gave an in depth explanation of a key part when doing any experiment involving
the Venturi principle, which is how to set up the equipment required for collecting data and how
to make any necessary calculations from that data when conducting the experiment. It also
identifies and explains how some of the sensors required collect data function. This will be
important when doing an experiment in order to properly set up the equipment used to collect the
data. The article also gives a good explanation of what the Venturi effect is and provides clear
equations for calculations. This article could have been improved by including examples of how
to calculate some of the data.
Myers, Roger, et al. MPD Thruster Performance MPD Thruster Technology.
The performance of spacecraft electric propulsion engines is governed by their thrust
efficiency and specific impulse, and in order to evaluate the performance of the engine,
measurements must be made of the thrust, propellant flow rate, and input power. Thrust is the
hardest to measure of all four of these measurements, due to the low thrust to weight ratio,
thermal and electromagnetic tares, and interactions between the thrust and the vacuum facility.
Several factors limit the performance of MPD thrusters, including electrode power dissipation,
frozen flow losses, and onset phenomena, which refers to several issues, including high
voltage fluctuations and chamber erosions. The largest power loss mechanism in MPD thrusters
that are operated with a power supply less than 2MW is anode power deposition. The operating
lifetime of the MPD thruster also defines its limit, and this is because thrusters that are intended
to have a long lifespan must operate in a way so that their electrodes do not wear down. For self-
field thrusters, cathode erosion is the biggest limitation of those thrusters, with pulsed thrusters
having the faster erosion rate. MPD thrusters are usually modeled from fluid
magnetohydrodynamic equations, which include electromagnetic behaviors, plasma flow,
equations of state, electromagnetic and thermal transport coefficients, and ionization processes.
Maxwells equations, which describe how magnetic and electric fields are formed by charges,
currents and how changing them will affect the fields, are utilized when calculating the
electromagnetic properties of the fields. The equations used for fluid equation calculations
include the conservation of mass, momentum and energy along with thermodynamic equations of
state, and ionization processes. In these equations, the law of conservation states that the mass
injected into the engine must equal the output mass of the engine. The source next outlines a
variety of plasma properties, which includes plasma temperature, ionization, viscosity, the Hall
Effect, and Ion Slip. As of the time this source was made, there were no complete mathematical
models made of applied field MPD thrusters, but self-field thruster models allow for thrust,
current distribution, and thruster voltage Models have been created in an attempt to investigate
the causes of both macro and microscopic plasma instabilities, which negatively affect thruster
efficiency, and leads to an increased in the voltage drop and plasma resistivity. In more extreme
cases, it can result in severe electrode erosion and voltage oscillation.
This source is useful to those looking to gain an understanding of the factors that affect the
performance of both self and applied field MPD thrusters, performance and lifetime limitations.
It also provides information on how the thrusters, fluids, and magnetic fields are modeled, and
information on some of the properties of plasma. This source would be apply to those
investigating self-field thrusters, but can also apply to those researching the factors that can
affect the performance of an MPD thruster.

Nozzles. webserver.dmt.upm.es/~isidoro/bk3/c17/Nozzles.pdf. Accessed 29 Mar.

2017.
Nozzles are tubes that aim to increase the speed of the flow, or control its direction and
shape. When designing nozzles an isentropic model can be used because there are very little
frictional losses within the nozzle and they also have a favorable pressure gradient. Nozzles too
small can lead to boundary layers dominating. Several conditions can define the properties of the
thrust including that according to the actual area law, provided the nozzle entry area is large
enough so that the entry speed will be neglected, so this will only modify the flow inside the
nozzle and not the exit conditions. If the nozzle flow is subsonic, then the exit pressure coincides
with the discharge pressure at the steady state, and other variables can be obtained from
isentropic relations. Converging nozzles can be used to accelerate fluids in subsonic streams
because density does not vary that much, and as a result liquid jets and low speed gas flows can
be represented with Bernoullis principle. However, when the flow is supersonic a more detailed
analysis is required. Converging nozzles can only become supersonic at the exit stage, and if the
nozzle is fed from a constant pressure, the flow rate of the nozzle will increase as the discharge
pressure is reduced, until the flow becomes choked and no longer changes. A converging-
diverging nozzle is the only nozzle to achieve supersonic flows when choked, and have been
used in many propulsion aspects. When the energy is balanced in a nozzle flow equation, this
implies that the total enthalpy and temperature, and the assumption of a frictionless nozzle
implies the conservation of energy. A choked flow is an effect that obstructs the flow in the
nozzle and it sets a limit on the fluid velocity because it goes supersonic. In a gas flow, choking
occurs when the flow equals Mach 1, and in liquid flow choking occurs when an incompressible
flow reaches the vapor pressure. Mach 1 can be reached in a nozzle neck in either a smooth
throat or a singular throat with a discontinuous area. In a converging-diverging nozzle, the nozzle
must have a smooth area law and a smooth throat in order for the flow to remain attached to the
walls. If the flow is subsonic at the nozzle throat, this means that the nozzle will be subsonic all
throughout the nozzle and will adapt to environmental pressure because those pressure waves
travel at the speed of sound. In a converging/diverging nozzle used on a supersonic aircraft the
throat and exit area should be optimized for maximum thrust as a function of altitude and flight
speed, and there is a single mechanical adjustment, and in a rocket, the nozzles are of a fixed
area. Within the nozzle, a normal shock wave will generate disorder in the system, and as a result
would lower total pressure while increasing static pressure. Shock diamonds are a phenomenon
that occurs in a supersonic exhaust plume of an aerospace propulsion system when operated in
an atmosphere, and when a shock occurs, an abrupt compression causes a sudden increase of
pressure.
This source is very helpful in providing information about how different nozzles will perform
with different types and speeds of flows and how the nozzle flow is affected by these factors. The
source is easy to read and would be useful to people who are designers of nozzles on supersonic
aircraft, spacecraft, or learning about how the nozzle design can affect the performance of a flow.
However, the source is not well organized, and it is difficult to locate information on the source.

Polyaev, V. M., and V. A. Burkaltsev. "Thermodynamic Cycles of Rocket Engines." Thermal to

Mechanical Energy Conversion.
Chemical rockets utilize reactions between a fuel and oxidizer which produces high pressure,
high temperature gases in a converging diverging exhaust nozzle, and the expansion process
converts some of the thermal energy into kinetic energy. This expanding gas is what provides the
thrust in chemical rockets. An ideal thermodynamic cycle has a gas with a constant heat capacity
and would have an invariable composition. The compression process occurs in the pumps and
during this process; the gases are in a liquid state. While the gases enter the combustion chamber
the processes they undergo are characterized by heat input under a constant combustion chamber
pressure. In this stage of the thermodynamic cycle, the velocity of the gas is relatively slow. The
gas expansion process is accumulated as Kinetic energy, and is dependent on the nozzle exit
pressure. Therefore, the cycle work of the ideal rocket engine that has a constant nozzle would be
invariable to the movement of the normal gas flow. If the gas pressure at the nozzle exit is not
equal to the outside pressure, the shape of the cycle would not change. The thermal energy of the
cycle cannot be fully transformed into mechanical work due to energy dissipation and the limited
range of the expansion ratio.
This source would be useful to those investigating chemical propulsion and how to increase
the amount of kinetic energy that is produced by the nozzle. A nozzle of a chemical rocket uses
the principle of an expansion ratio in order to increase the amount of force the engine produces,
which is the opposite of the compression nozzle, which aims to increase the exhaust velocity.
This source can apply to the topic of selecting the geometry used by the engine because it allows
a comparison of the advantages a compression versus an expansion will provide, and can further
research by leading to an investigation of finding the balance between force and exhaust velocity.

Sanchez, Martinez, and J. Polland. "Spacecraft Electric Propulsion-An Overview."

Journal of Propulsion and Power, vol. 14, no. 5, Sept.-Oct. 1998, pp. 688-94.

The purpose of electric propulsion devices is to add energy to a working fluid. The energy
from the electrical source is used to create plasma which is responsible for providing thrust.
There are many different ways that this can be accomplished. Output thrust can be steady or
pulsed, and the gas can be accelerated electromagnetically, electrostatically, thermally, or a
combination. The journal provides information on the operating principles of several types of
E.P. thrusters including Resistojets, Arcjets, Hall Thrusters, Ion Engines, Pulsed Plasma
Thrusters, Field Effect Electrostatic Propulsion, Colloidal Ion Thrusters, and
Magnetoplasmadynamic Thrusters (MPDs). MPDs are able to generate higher power densities
through interaction of magnetic fields. The thrust in a MPD is proportional to magnetic pressure.
Applied field MPD thrusters use external magnets and are arranged to direct the thrust towards
the exit. In this journal, an image depicting the geometries used for different engine designs is
shown. Resistojets and Arcjets both use grilles to allow for the thrust to output from the cathode
and anode. Both Resistojets and Arcjets have a slight compression than an expansion nozzle for
their propellant. However, all of the other types of engines, including Hall Thrusters and MPDs
have only expansion nozzles, with no compression.
This section of the journal was very good in comparing the different types of electric
propulsion thrusters by explaining how they operated, their potential power output levels, and
showing internal diagrams of them side by side. However, this source did not have any good
description of why the different engine geometries were used, and in general it lacked
information on Applied Field MPD thrusters, which is the kind that the Compression Engine was
chosen to be.
Shaw, Margaret. "Indirectly Measuring Thrust from the Radial Magnetic Field."
A Novel Thrust Measurement Method for Plasma Rockets with Magnetic
Nozzles Using B-Field Measurements, Princeton U, 2012, pp. 30-40

In order to prove the validity of using the method of measuring the Radial Magnetic field in
order to determine thrust, it must be compared with the results obtained when a thrust stand is
used. The thrust stand experimental setup that will be used in conjunction with the radial
magnetic field measurement method is called the two-loop experimental setup. When currents
flow through the plasma and nozzle coil, the loops will either experience an attractive or
repulsive force. The plasma coil will reveal induced currents in the plasma flow and the
magnitude and direction of the magnetic field. The nozzle coil represents the magnetic nozzle
coil that thrust can be measured from. The radial component of the magnetic field is the only
component of the magnetic field that causes force on the nozzle in the z-direction. The
magnitude of the field was measured using a hall probe. In conducting this comparative
experiment, direct measurements of the force on the nozzle coil were made while making
indirect measurements of the force by the radial magnetic field. The results of the experiment
resulted in a closely correlated relationship between the two methods, and the sources of error in
the radial magnetic field measurement are likely due to probe positioning and variation in the
magnetic field readout. As the separation between the plasma and nozzle coil increases, the
percent of error in these three measurements decreases. A graph that shows the percent of error
between these two measurements is included. This measurement method could be used on an
engine that produces a magnetic field to confine the plasma and accelerate it out of the nozzle on
the opening end. The thrust of such an engine is based solely on the force of the plasma currents,
making it easier to measure the radial magnetic field. Most plasma propulsion devices use a
physical source tube that confines the plasma, which has a back wall that pressure is applied
from, where thrust is measured from the induced currents and electron pressure. In testing for the
radial magnetic field, probes should be placed at the inner and outer edges of the coils. The coils
should be turned on and the magnetic field measured so that when plasma source is on, only the
field produced by the plasma source will be able to be measured.
This source does include enough information to verify the validity of this thrust measurement
method, and the amount of detail it provides is also good, so it can help a variety of readers
understand it. There is also a lot of information on how this method of thrust calculation could be
used. The source is beneficial because it explains how finding thrust from applied field thruster
can be accomplished in a more economical way. The biggest improvement would be to provide
more details when formulas are given and have a clear definition of what variables are included.

Shaw, Margaret. "Introduction." A Novel Thrust Measurement Method for Plasma

Rockets with Magnetic Nozzles Using B-Field Measurements, Princeton U,
2012, pp. 1-12.

The thrust of a plasma rocket that uses a magnetic coil is produced from two forces; the axial
force on each magnetic coil, which is produced from induced plasma currents and the axial force
on the chamber wall from electron pressure. Currents in the plasma that flow opposite to the
direction of the magnetic coil current decrease the magnetic field and produce positive thrust.
When a magnetic nozzle is used, thrust results from the induced currents in the plasma
interacting with the nozzle coil current. This can transfer the force from the plasma being
expelled to the thruster. Several devices can be used when measuring the thrust of a plasma
engine; which include Pendulum thrust balances, Maxwell stress tensors, and a Momentum flux
sensor. Pendulum Thrust Balancers are mounted at the end of a horizontal or vertical pendulum
arm. The arm is equipped with a displacement sensor, and this displacement is related to the
thrust of the plasma through the amount force it takes for the spring in the sensor to restore to its
normal position. A Maxwell stress tensor can be mounted on the nozzle coil of a linear plasma
hall thruster, which was used to determine the axial force. Magnetic probes are used around the
closed path of the coil in order to detect the magnetic field. However, using this method to
measure thrust is difficult, and therefore is not utilized often. The third type of thrust
measurement, the Plasma momentum flux sensor, is typically used on larger engines. This setup
utilizes a target graphite disc being held by an aluminum bar, and pressure on the aluminum bar
allows the thrust to be measured. The author of the source wanted to find a better way to measure
the thrust that could overcome the limitations of the current methods. The magnetic field that is
generated by an engine's magnetic coil produces a repulsive force and measuring this force
would be able to greatly simplify the process used to find the thrust produced by the engine. The
thrust on a magnetic coil is proportional to the proportional to the radial component of the
induced magnetic field. An ideal setup would be to measure the magnetic field near the coil's
center, but this would be an invasive measurement and would be difficult to set up, so
measurements would need to be taken from the inner and outer edges of the coil.
This chapter of the book does a good job of explaining in detail the forces in a plasma engine
that are responsible for producing thrust and how these forces are transferred in a way that results
in forward motion being created. The chapter explains three methods of how the thrust of a
plasma engine with magnetic coils can be measured from; however, more detail would have
given those with less experience in this area a better understanding of how these work. The
author of this source also explains how a method he devised could be used to measure thrust, and
its advantages and disadvantages over the other three. This source can be applied to those
researching spacecraft electric propulsion, specifically those who need to find a way that the
thrust can be measured from the engine that is simpler than to set up than other methods.

Shaw, Margaret. "Radial Magnetic Field Scaling and Measurement Methods." A Novel Thrust
Measurement Method for Plasma Rockets with Magnetic Nozzles Using B-Field
Measurements, Princeton U, 2012, pp. 13-20.
In order to further examine the possibility of measuring the radial component of the magnetic
field to determine thrust, one must derive a relationship between the magnitude of the magnetic
field and the thrust per unit area or power input per unit area. Any magnetic field that is being
used to confine plasma must have a magnetic pressure that exceeds the gas dynamic pressures
and a mathematical equation that represents this relationship is provided. Next, an equation is
provided for finding thrust during the expansion of the plasma from the rocket. Two constraints;
thrust power and flow power will provide a range of values for the thrust coefficient. An equation
that predicts the strength of the magnetic field at the center of the thruster coil is provided to the
reader, and after this value is found, an estimate of the magnetic field as a function of thrust can
be calculated. A plasma input's efficiency can be approximated by dividing the ratio of power
turned into thrust by the input power. To simplify the equation, it is assumed that there are no
losses before the nozzle entrance. The magnetic field probes used for this type of application
should be solid state, and could include a Fluxgate Magnetometer, Magnetoresistive Gaussmeter,
and Hall Effect Gaussmeter. The Fluxgate Magnetometer converts a magnetic field to an electric
voltage, and the Magnetoresistive Gaussmeter operates on the principle that the resistance of a
ferromagnetic material changes when it is exposed to magnetic field. The Fluxgate
Magnetometer can measure this magnetoresistive effect, and a higher magnetic field increases
the resistivity. The Hall Effect Gaussmeter uses the Lorentz force relation, who states that a
moving change in an external magnetic field will experience a magnetic force perpendicular to
both the magnetic field vector and the particles velocity vector.
This source provides a summary of how the radial component could be utilized in a way that
will allow thrust to be determined, and discusses some basic requirements and constraints of a
propulsion system that uses a plasma engine. It could be useful by providing explanations of
different probes to measure the strength of a magnetic field and how the probes work. This
chapter does a good job of explaining how to solve the equations for different values, such as
predicting the strength of the magnetic field at the center of the coil.