References

FE/EIT Review
John A. Camara, Electrical Engineering Reference Manual, 6th edition,
Professional Publications, Inc, 2002.

John A. Camara, Practice Problems for the Electrical and Computer

Engineering PE Exam, 6th edition, Professional Publications, Inc, 2002.
Circuits
National Council of Examiners for Engineering & Surveying,
Principles and Practice of Engineering, Electrical and Computer
Instructor: Russ Tatro Engineering, Sample Questions and Solutions, NCEES, 2001.

National Council of Examiners for Engineering & Surveying,

Fundamental of Engineering, Supplied-Reference Handbook, NCEES,
2008.

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Introduction
References

The morning FE examination will have 120 questions in a 4 hour

period. The questions cover 12 topic areas:
Michael A. Lindeburg, PE, FE Review Manual, Rapid Preparation for
the General Fundamentals of Engineering Exam, 2nd Edition, 1. Mathematics
Professional Publications, 2006. 2. Engineering Probability and Statistics
3. Chemistry
4. Computers
5. Ethics and Business Practices
Michael A. Lindeburg, PE, FE/EIT Sample Examinations, 2nd Edition, 6. Engineering Economics
Professional Publications, 2006. 7. Engineering Mechanics (Statics and Dynamics)
8. Strength of Materials
9. Material Properties
10. Fluid Mechanics
11. Electricity and Magnetism
12. Thermodynamics

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Introduction Introduction

Section XI. Electricity and Magnetism includes: Section XI. Electricity and Magnetism includes:

A. Charge, Energy, current, voltage, power F. Capacitance and Inductance

B. Work done in moving a charge in an electric field G. Reactance and impedance, susceptance and admittance
relationship between voltage and work
H. AC Circuits
C. Force between charges

D. Current and voltage laws I. Basic complex algebra

Kirchhoff's voltage law, Kirchhoff's current law, Ohms law

E. Equivalent circuit
Series, Parallel, Thvenin/Norton equivalent

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EIT Review 1
 Scope of the Systems Units

You will be expected to analyze Linear, Lumped parameter, time Volt

invariant systems.
The Potential difference is the energy required to move a unit
Linear response is proportional to V or I charge (the electron) through an element (such as a resistor).
(no higher order terms needed)
Amp
Electric current is the time rate of change of the charge, measured
Lumped Parameter - Electrical effects happen instantaneously in the in amperes (A).
system. Low frequency or small size (about 1/10 of the wavelength).
Ohm
Time Invariant - The response of the circuit does NOT depend on The resistance R of an element denotes its ability to resist the flow
when the input was applied. of electric current; it is measured in ohms ().

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Units Algebra of Complex Numbers

Coulomb A complex number z, consists of the sum of real and imaginary

The amount of charge that crosses a surface in one second when a numbers.
steady current of one ampere flows. z = a jb

Farad
The rectangular form can be found from a phasor with polar
Capacitance is the ratio of the charge on one plate of a capacitor to magnitude c and an angle .
the voltage difference between the two plates - measured in farads
(F). a = c cos
Henry b = c sin
Inductance is the property whereby an inductor exhibits opposition z = a + jb = c cos + jc sin
to the charge of current flowing through it - measured in henrys
(H).

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Algebra of Complex Numbers Algebra of Complex Numbers

A complex number z, consists of the sum of real and imaginary Add or subtract complex numbers in the rectangular form.
numbers.
z = a + jb
z = a jb y = c jd

The phasor form (polar) can be found from the rectangular form as
z y = (a c) + j (b d )
follows:
Multiply or divide complex numbers in polar form.
c = a2 + b2 z z
m= = ( )
b y y
= tan
1

a
b
z = c = a 2 + b 2 tan 1
a
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EIT Review 2
 Algebra of Complex Numbers Example - Algebra of Complex Numbers

Complex numbers can also be expressed in exponential form by use of The rectangular form of a given complex number is
Eulers Identity. z = 3 + j4
j
e = cos j sin What is the number when using trigonometric functions?

The trigonometric functions then become: ( A) 5e j 36.86

D

e j + e j ( B) (5)(cos 36.86D + j sin 36.86D )

cos =
2
(C ) cos 0.64 + j sin 0.64
e j e j
sin =
2j ( D) (5)(cos 0.93 + j sin 0.93)
The correct answer is D.

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Electrostatics Electrostatics

Electric charge is a fundamental property of subatomic particles.
A Coulomb equals a very large number of charged particles. This
results in a Farad also being a very large number of charged particles.
Thus we usually deal with very small amount of charge.
An electric field E with units of volts/meter is generated in the vicinity
of an electric charge.
The force applied by the electric field E is defined as the electric flux of
a positive charged particle introduced into the electric field.

F = QE
The charge of one electron is -1.602 x 10-19 C.
The work W performed on a moving charge QB a certain distance in a
The charge of one proton is +1.602 x 10-19 C. field created by charge QA is given by

1 1
r2 r2 r2
QAQB QQ
W = Q E dL = F dr = dr = A B
r1 r1 r1
4 r 2
4 r2 r1

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Electrostatics Electrostatics

Work is performed only if the charges are moved closer or farther apart. Current is the movement of charge.
By convention the current moves in a direction opposite to the flow of
For a uniform electric field (such as inside a capacitor), the work done electrons.
in moving a charge parallel to the E field is Current is measured in Amperes and is the time rate of change of
charge.
W = QV dq(t )
i (t ) =
The last equation says the work done is the charge times the change in dt
voltage the charge experienced by the movement.
If the rate of change in the charge is constant, the current can be
The electric field strength between two parallel plates with a potential written as
difference V and separated by a distance d is dQ
I=
V dt
E= The above equations largely describe the behavior of a capacitor.
d
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EIT Review 3
 Magnetic Fields Practice Problem - Electrostatics

A magnetic field can exist only with two opposite and equal poles. Determine the magnitude of the electric field necessary to place a 1 N force on an
electron.
While scientists have searched for a magnetic monopole it has not yet F = Q E
been found.
Thus
A magnetic field induces a force on a stationary charge.
F 1N
Conversely a moving charge induces a magnetic field. E= = = 6.24 1018 N
1.602 1019 C
C
Q
The magnetic field density is a vector quantity and given by B
= 6.24 1018 Vm

Magnetic Flux
B= =
A Area
An inductor (or transformer) relies on the magnetic field interaction
with moving charges to alter the behavior of a circuit.

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Practice Problem - Electrostatics DC Circuits

A current of 10 A flows through a 1 mm diameter wire. What is the average number DC Circuits include the following topics:
of electrons per second that pass through a cross section of the wire?
DC Voltage
( A) 1.6 1018 electrons
sec
Resistivity
Resistors in Series and Parallel
( B ) 6.2 1018 electrons
sec
Power in a Resistive Element

(C ) 1.6 1019 electrons

sec
Capacitors
Inductors
( D ) 6.3 1019 electrons
sec Capacitors in Series and Parallel

The closest answer is D.

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Circuit Symbols DC Circuits

Electrical Circuits contain active and passive elements.

Active elements can generate electric energy voltage sources, current sources, op-
amps

Passive elements absorb or store electric energy capacitor, inductor, resistor.

An ideal voltage source supplies power at a constant voltage regardless of the current
the external circuit demands.

An ideal current source supplies power at a constant current regardless of the voltage
the external circuit demands.

Dependent sources deliver voltage and current at levels determined by voltages or

currents elsewhere in the circuit.

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EIT Review 4
 DC Voltage DC current

Symbol: V or E (electromotive force) Symbol: A (Coulomb per second)

Circuit usage: V Circuit usage: I
or v(t) when voltage may vary. or i(t) when current may vary with time.

Voltage is a measure of the DIFFERENCE in electrical potential Amperage is a measure of the current flow past a point.
between two points.
Current THROUGH a circuit element.
Voltage ACROSS two points.

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Definitions Resistivity

Symbol: R measured in ohms,

A Direct Current (dc) is a current whose polarity remains constant with
time. The amplitude is usually considered to remain constant. Circuit usage: R

The amplitude is usually considered to remain constant. Resistance is the property of a circuit or circuit element to oppose
current flow.
L Length
R= = (resistivity )
An Alternating Current (ac) is a current that varies with time. A Area

A common form of AC is the sinusoidal power delivered by the power A circuit with zero resistance is a short circuit.
company.
A circuit with an infinite resistance is a open circuit.

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Resistors in Series and Parallel Example - Calculating equivalent resistance

Series Resistors:
Req = ? = 5 + 6 + 7 = 18
Req = R1 + R2 +

Parallel Resistors: The equivalent resistance REQ is larger than the largest resistor.

1 1 1
= + + ......
Req R1 R2
10(20) 200
Req = ? = = = 6.67
10 + 20 30
For Two Resistors in Parallel:

R1 R2
Req = The equivalent resistance REQ is smaller than the smallest resistor.
R1 + R2

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EIT Review 5
 Passive Sign Convention Power in a Resistive Element

The power dissipated across two terminals is

Use a positive sign for the power when:
V2
P = ( ) VI = () = () I 2R
Current is the direction of voltage drop. R

P = the power in watts

V = the voltage in volts
I = the current in amperes

I.A.W. with the Passive Sign Convention

+ (positive) element is absorbing power.
- (negative) element is delivering power.

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Power - Example Capacitors

Power delivered/absorbed.
Symbol: F for capacitance
Circuit usage: C for capacitor

A
C= Q = CV
d
Capacitor resists CHANGE in voltage across it.

Passive charge storage by separation of charge - Electric field energy.

dv 1 t
i (t ) = c v(t ) = i d + v(t0 )
( 5V ) = + 25V = + 1 Watt dt C t0
2 2
V
P = (+) = (+) ( ) ( ) The total energy (in Joules) stored in a capacitor is
R 100 100 4
CV 2 VQ Q 2
energy = = =
2 2 2C
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Inductors Capacitors and Inductors in Series and Parallel

Symbol: H for Henries Capacitors add in parallel (CAP)

Circuit usage: L for inductor CEQ = C1 + C2 + C3 + ...

N Where N is the number of turns through a magnetic Use the following form for series capacitance.
L=
I flux which results from the current I.
1
CEQ = 1
+ C12 + ...
Inductor resists CHANGE in current thru it. C1

Passive energy storage by creation of magnetic field. Inductors add in series (just like resistors)
di 1 t LEQ = L1 + L2 + L3 + ...
v(t ) = L i (t ) = v d + i (t0 )
dt L t0
The total energy (in Joules) stored in an inductor is Use the following form for parallel inductors
1
LI 2 LEQ = 1 1
energy = L1 + L2 + ...
2
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EIT Review 6
 Example - Calculating equivalent capacitance Example - Calculating equivalent inductance

Leq = ? = (1 + 2 + 3) H = 6 H
Ceq = ?

= (1 + 2 + 3) F = 6 F

The equivalent capacitance Ceq is larger than the largest capacitor. The equivalent inductance Leq is larger than the largest inductor.

Leq = ?
Ceq = ? 1 1 1
1 1 = = =
= = 1
1H + 21H + 31H 6 + 3+ 2 1
6
11 1
6 H
1
+ 2 F +
1 1 1 H
1 F 3 F ( + + )
1 1 1
1 2
F 3
6
= H = 0.55 H
1 1 6 11
= 6 + 3+ 2 1
= = F = 0.55 F
6 F
11 1
6 F 11
The equivalent inductance Leq is smaller than the smallest inductor.
The equivalent capacitance Ceq is smaller than the smallest capacitor.
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DC Circuits DC Circuit Analysis

DC Circuit Analysis include the following topics:

Ohms Law
Kirchhoff's Laws
Short Break 5 minutes Rules for Simple Resistive Circuits
Superposition Theorem
Superposition Method
Loop-Current Method
Node-Voltage Method
Source Equivalents
Maximum Power Transfer

We will also briefly look at RC and RL Transients

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Ohms Law Definitions

Ohms Law: V=IR Circuit Connections:

This version of Ohms Law assumes a linear circuit. Branch a connection between two elements

V Nodes point of connection of two or more branches.

R=
I
Loops any closed path (start/end same point) in a circuit.
V
=
A

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EIT Review 7
 Kirchhoffs Laws Rules for Resistive Circuits

Kirchhoffs Current Law sum of all current equals zero. The current through a simple series circuit is the same in all circuit
elements.
sum of all currents in = sum of all currents out. I = I R1 = I R2 = I R3

This is a restatement of conservation of charge. The sum of all voltage drops across all elements is equal to the
equivalent applied voltage.
I in = I out

VEQ = V1 + V2 + ... = IREQ

Kirchhoffs Voltage Law sum of all voltages around a closed path is
zero.
V closed path =0

V rise = Vdrop

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Rules for Simple Resistive Circuits Rules for Simple Resistive Circuits

Voltage Divider for Series Resistors Current Divider for Parallel Resistors:

R2
v1 =
R1
v=
R1
v i1 = i
REQ R1 + R2 R1 + R2

R2 R2
v2 = v= v
REQ R1 + R2 R1
i2 = i
R1 + R2

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Example - Voltage Divider Example Current Divider

Find i2
Find voltage V2

R2 2 2 10V R1 9k 9 30mA
v2 = vs = (10V ) = (10V ) = = 3.33V i2 = i = (30mA) = (30mA) = = 10mA
R1 + R2 4+2 6 3 R1 + R2 9k + 18k 27 3

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EIT Review 8
 Superposition Theorem Superposition Method

1. Deactivate all independent sources except one.

Determine the contribution (responses) of each independent source to Voltage source = zero when shorted.
the variable in question.
Current source = zero when opened.
Then sum these responses to find the total response.
2. Solve the simplified circuit.

The circuit must be linear to use superposition. 3. Repeat until all independent sources are handled.

4. Sum the individual responses to find the total response.

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Methods of Analysis Loop-Current Method

The loop-current is also known as the mesh current method.

Loop-Current Method assign currents in a loop and then write the
voltages around a closed path (KVL). A mesh is a loop which does not contain any other loops within it.

Assign mesh currents to all the (n) meshes.

Node-Voltage Method assign a reference voltage point and write

Apply KVL to each mesh. Express the voltages in terms of Ohms law
current as voltages and resistances at the node. (KCL). i.e. currents and resistances.

Solve the resulting (n) simultaneous equations.

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Example Loop-current Method Node-Voltage Method

The node-voltage method is also known as nodal analysis.

1. Convert all current sources to voltage sources.

Write the mesh equation for loop I1. 2. Chose a node as the voltage reference node. Usually this is the
circuits signal ground.
10V + I1 (10) + ( I1 I 2 ) (30) + I1 (20) = 0
I1 (60) I 2 (30) = 10V
3. Write the KCL equations at all unknown nodes

Write the mesh equation for loop I2. Remember you are writing the sum of all currents entering a node are
( I 2 I1 ) (30) + I 2 (10) + I 2 (20) = 0 equal to the sum of all current leaving a node.
I1 (30) + I 2 (60) = 0 A convention is to assume all currents are leaving the node - the
direction of the voltage drop is away from the node.
Solve for the currents.
I1 (30) + I 2 (60) = 0 I 2 = 12 I1
10V
(60) 12 I1 (30) = 10V I1 = = 0.22 Amps I 2 = 12 I1 = 0.11Amps
45
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EIT Review 9
 Example Node-Voltage Method Example Node-Voltage Method

1 1 1 V2
V1 + + = 10 Amp
1 5 2 2
17 V2 V1 1 1
V1 = 10 Amp + V2 + = 2A
10 2 2 2 10
V1 6
+ V2 = 2A
2 10

Write the node equation for at node 1. One way to simplify is the clear the fractions. From node 1, we then have
V1 10V V1 V V 1 1 1 V2 100V + 5V2
+ ++ 1 2 =0 V1 + + = 10 Amp 17V1 5V2 = 100V V1 =
1 5 2 1 5 2 2 17
Clear the fractions for node 2 equation and Sub above result in the equation for node 2.
Write the node equation at node 2.
100V + 5V2
V2 V1 V2 V1 1 1 5V1 + 6V2 = 20V 5 + 6V2 = 20V
+ 2A = 0 + V2 + 17
2 10 = 2A
2 2 10 25 500
+ 6 V2 = 20V + V 77V2 = 340V + 500V V2 = 10.91V
Solve the simultaneous equations for V1 and V2. 17 17
V1 = 9.09V
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Node-Voltage Method Source Equivalents

As you see from the last example, even relatively simple equations can A source transformation (equivalent) exchanges a voltage source with a
require significant time to solve. series resistance with a current source with a parallel resistor.

Watch your time and tackle time intensive problems only if you have
time to spare.
v s =i s R

vs
is =
R

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Example Source Transformation Example Source Transformation

The above equivalent circuit will behave exactly as the original circuit
would.

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EIT Review 10
 Thevenins Theorem Example Thevenins Theorem

Thevenins Theorem: a linear two-terminal network can be replace with

an equivalent circuit of a single voltage source and a series resistor.

VTH is the open circuit voltage.

RTH is the equivalent resistance of the circuit.

Use node analysis to find voltage V1. Note that V1 = VTH!

V1 25V V
+ 1 3A = 0
5 20
4V1 100V + V1 60V = 0

5V1 = 160V

V1 = VTH = 32V

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Example Thevenins Theorem Nortons Theorem

Now deactivate all independent sources and find the equivalent resistance. Nortons Theorem: a linear two-terminal network can be
replaced with an equivalent circuit of a single current source
and a parallel resistor.

VTH
IN =
Now we can write the Thevenin equivalent circuit. RTH

IN is the short circuit current.

RTH is the equivalent resistance of the circuit.

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Example Nortons Theorem Example Nortons Theorem

Now simplify the circuit by combining resistances and the current sources

5(20)
5 / /20 = = 4
5 + 20

The current isc must be half the 8A input (resistive current divider with equal
resistances in each leg.)
If you already have the Thevenin equivalent circuit (previous example) - do not start
from scratch. However in this example, we will solve the circuit again.

Use a source transformation to put the circuit in terms of current sources.

Does the previous Thevenin equivalent circuit yield the same answer?

25V
i= = 5A ieq = 5 A + 3 A = 8 A
5
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EIT Review 11
 Maximum Power Transfer Maximum Power Transfer

The maximum power delivered to a load is when the load resistance The maximum power delivered to a load is when the load resistance
equals the Thevenin resistance as seen looking into the source. equals the Thevenin resistance as seen looking into the source.

RL = RTH RL = RTH

The voltage across an arbitrary load is When the load resistance equals the Thevenin resistance, the maximum
RL power delivered to the load is given by
VL = VTH
RL + RTH 2
VTH
pmax =
The maximum power delivered to an arbitrary load is given by 4 RTH
2
RL
VTH
V 2
RL + RTH RL
PL = L
= = VTH2
( RTH + RL )
2
RL RL

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RC and RL Transients RC and RL Transients

The capacitor and inductor store energy.

An inductor stores energy in the form of a magnetic field.
A capacitor stores this energy in the form of an electric field.
If a charged inductor (with a steady current flowing) is connected to a
If a charged capacitor is connected to a resistor, it will give up its resistor, it will give up its energy over a short period of time as follows.
energy over a short period of time as follows.
t
t
iL (t ) = iL (t = 0)e
vc (t ) = vc (t = 0)e
Where = L/R.
Where = RC.

This leads to a short hand rule a capacitor acts as an open circuit in a This leads to a short hand rule an inductor acts as a short circuit in a
DC circuit. DC circuit.

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AC Circuits Alternating Waveforms

AC Circuits include the following topics:

Alternating Waveforms The term alternating waveform describes any symmetrical waveform
Sine-Cosine Relations including:
Phasor Transforms of Sinusoids square, sawtooth, triangular, and sinusoidal waves
Average Value
Effective or rms Values Sinusoidal waveforms may be given by
Phase Angles
v (t ) = Vmax sin(t + )
Impedance
Admittance The phase angle describes the value of the sine function at t = 0.
Ohms Law for AC Circuits
Complex Power
Resonance
Transformers
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EIT Review 12
 Sine-Cosine Relations Phasor Transforms of Sinusoids

We often need to write sine in terms of cosine and vice versa. A convention is to express the sinusoidal in terms of cosine. Thus the
phasor is written as a magnitude and phase under the assumption the
underlying sinusoid is a cosine function.
cos(t ) = sin(t + 2 ) = sin(t 2 )
Trigonometric: Vmax cos(t + )
sin(t ) = cos(t 2 ) = cos(t + 2 )
Phasor: Veff
The period of the waveform is T in seconds.
The angular frequency is in radians/second. Rectangular: Vreal + jVimag = Vmax (cos + j sin )
The frequency f in hertz is given by
Exponential: Vmax e j
1
f = =
T 2
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Average Value Effective or rms Value

The average (or mean) value of any periodic variable is given by The root mean squared (rms) of any periodic variable is given by
T
1 1 2
T

T 0 T 0
X ave = x(t ) dt X rms = x (t ) dt

The average value of a sinusoid is zero. The rms value of a sinusoid is

X max
X rms =
A waveform may be rectified which results in a different average 2
value.

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Phase Angles Impedance

It is common to examine the timing of the peak of the volt versus the The term impedance Z in units of ohms describes the effect circuit
timing of the peak of the current. This is usually expressed as a phase elements have on magnitude and phase.
shift.
Z = R jX = Y
A capacitors behavior may be described by its phasor as
ic(t) = vc(t)90.
The resistor has only a real value. Z = R
The current in a capacitor leads the voltage by 90. 1 j
The capacitor has a negative imaginary value. Zc = =
An inductors behavior may be described by its phasor as jC C
vL(t) = iL(t)90.
The inductor has a postive imaginary value. Z L = j L
The current in an inductor lags the voltage by 90.
R = Z cos
X = Z sin
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EIT Review 13
 Admittance Ohms Law for AC Circuits

The reciprocal of impedance is the complex quantity admittance Y. Ohms Law for AC circuits is valid when the voltages and currents are
expressed in similar manner. Either peak or effective but not a mixture
1 of the two.
Y=
Z
V = IZ
The reciprocal of resistive part of the impedance is conductance G.

1 1
G= B=
R X

Y = G + jB

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Complex Power Complex Power

The complex power vector S is also called the apparent power in units
of volts-amps (VA).
S is the vector sum of the real (true, active) power vector P and the
imaginary reactive power vector Q.
S = I * V = P + jQ
The real power P in units of watts (W) is
P = 12 Vmax I max cos = Vrms I rms cos = S cos
The reactive power Q in units of volts-amps reactive (VAR) is
Q = 12 Vmax I max sin = Vrms I rms sin = S sin
4/5/2010
The power factor angle is defined as
p. f . = cos
Since the cosine is positive for both positive and negative angles we
must add a description to the power factor angle.
Lagging p.f. is an inductive circuit.
Leading p.f. is a capacitive circuit.
Power factor correction is the proces of adding inductance or
capacitance to a circuit in order to achieve a p.f. = cos (0) = 1.
81 4/5/2010 82

Complex Power Resonance

The average power of a purely resistive circuit is

2
In a resonant circuit at the resonant frequency, the input voltage and
Vrms current are in phase and the phase angle is zero.
Pave = Vrms I rms = = I rms
2
R
R
Thus the circuit appear to be purely resistive in its response to this AC
For a purely reative load p.f. = 0 and the real aveage power = 0. voltage (again at the resonant frequency).

The circuit is characterized in terms of resonant frequency 0, the

Pave = Vrms I rms cos 90D = 0 bandwidth B, and the quality factor Q.

Each of these parameters can be found from the circuit element values.
1
0 = = 2 f 0
LC

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EIT Review 14
 Transformers

Good Luck on the FE/EIT Exam!

Transformers are used to change voltage levels, match impedances,
and electrical isolate circuits. It is a time exam. Answer what you know. Mark what you might
know and come back later. Do not get bogged down on a few long
The turns ratio a indicates how the magnetic flux links to the mutual questions. Move along!
inductances of the transformer.
It is a multiple choice exam. Look for hints in the answers.
N V I
a = 1 = primary = sec ondary
N 2 Vsec ondary I primary If totally in doubt Guess. Use your intuition and science to guess.

A lossless transformer is called an ideal transformer. The secondary

impedance can be expressed as a reflected impedance given by
V primary
Z EQ = = Z primary + a 2 Z sec ondary
I primary
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FE/EIT Review

Circuits

Instructor: Russ Tatro

4/5/2010 87

EIT Review 15