Fluid Flow in Cracks as Related to
Low-Permeability Gas Sands
K.R. Brower, New Mexico Inst. of Mining and Technology
N.R. Morrow, SPE, New Mexico Inst. of Mining and Technology
Abstract
A problem in formation evaluation of tight gas sands is
that their permeabilities are sometimes surprisingly sen-
sitive to variations in overburden pressure. Photomicro-
graphs of pore casts show an interconnected system of
sheet pores, which are somewhat like the surfaces of a
randomized honeycomb. A mathematical relation for
predicting the pressure dependence of flow rate in sheet
pores has been derived from the dimensions of the pores
and the elastic constants of the matrix. The equation has
been validated by measurements on artificial media con-
taining cracks of known dimensions in glass and concrete.
The observed pressure sensitivity of the gas sands used
in this study requires the aspect ratio of the pores (in this
case, the ratio of average large dimensions to sheet
thickness) to be greater than 100. Aspect ratios have been
determined by taking the large dimension from photo-
micrographs of pore casts or grain size and the thickness
from mercury injection pressure or the slope of a plot of
apparent permeability vs. the reciprocal of mean gas
pressure. The latter gives the diffusive contribution to gas
flow from which the pore size can be calculated. The two
methods for measuring pore size give satisfactory agree-
ment. The aspect ratios for the sheet pores in tight gas
sands are large enough to explain the dependence of
permeability on overburden pressure.
Introduction
Sensitivity of permeability to overburden pressure is often
a key factor in formation evaluation of tight gas sands. 1,2
Gas permeability reductions of more than an order of
magnitude have been observed in dry cores when over-
burden pressure is increased to typical formation values.
Although this sensitivity to pressure has been related to
the presence of clays and shales, 3 the current consensus
is that the pressure behavior of crack-shaped pores-i. e. ,
pores characterized by two large dimensions and one small
one-is largely responsible. 4-6 A similar conclusion was
reached earlier by Fatt with respect to the less severe,
but still significant, sensitivity exhibited by conventional
sandstones. 7 ,8 In this paper, the effect of pressure on
pore structure and consequent changes in gas permeability
are examined for a variety of natural and synthetic porous
media.
Pore Structure
Pore Casts. The pore structure of tight sands is revealed
in three dimensions by resin pore casts such as those
shown in Fig. 1. The cast is prepared by injection of epoxy
Copyright 1985 Society of Petroleum Engineers
APRIL 1985
resin into the sample, followed by etching after the epoxy
is set. 9- 11 Pore casts for over 20 samples, 11 12 of which
were selected for the variety they provided in geologic
character, typically showed sheet pores that are linked to
give random polyhedra. Within this structure are
distributed relatively large pore spaces commonly formed
by solution of individual grains and cements. These spaces
are often filled partially with matrix material.
Inspection of pore casts before and after etching, and
thin sections of samples containing injected resin, indicates
that individual grains are largely bounded by sheet pores;
individual polyhedra, seen in the pore cast, appear to be
associated with individual grains or local regions bounded
by grain surfaces. Thin sections generally show that, as
a sediment is compacted over geologic time by pressure-
solution and recrystallization processes, the grains fit
together more and more snugly and may even fracture,
but they maintain their individual identities with respect
to neighboring grains. The polyhedral structure, therefore,
is related strongly to grain size distribution.
Contact Between Grains. The ability of etchant, used
in preparation of pore casts, to penetrate the sheet pores
through many layers of particles may imply the existence
of areas of cementation or direct contact between grains.
However, from examination of sheet pores studied to date,
the areas of actual contact between grains generally are
difficult to identify from the pore casts and probably are
small. For some sediments with permeability less than
about 0.005 md, it was difficult to prepare satisfactory
pore casts, possibly because the casts had very poor struc-
tural integrity or because the resin did not penetrate the
space, if any, between grains. From our observations to
date, it seems likely that most tight sands of potential com-
mercial interest contain a network of polyhedral sheet
pores that largely control permeability.
Pore Thickness. Electron micrographs of the sheet pore
edges, such as shown in Fig. 1d, for sands of less than
1 md permeability, show their thicknesses to range typical-
ly from about 0.2 to 4 p.m. The lower limit may be related
to difficulties of preparing casts of even finer cracks, since
the presence of much smaller pores is indicated by mer-
cury porosimetry and NMR measurements. 12
Surface Area. The two-dimensional network at the sur-
face of the pore cast permits estimates of crack length per
unit area to be made. These can be translated to approx-
imations of crack surface area, An per unit volume. 13
Typical values, 11 counting both sides of the crack, were
191
 1000 pm
(a) Example of well-defined sheet pore structure and solution
porosity, Wilkin Ridge, lOS, 17E, Sec. 21, UT. Depth =3140
3
m [10,302 ttl, q,a7%, k oo(35)=46.5Xl0- md, k oo(345) =
5.4xl0- 3 md.
~ I-----t
100 pm
(b) Sheet pores of Wilkin Ridge sample shown in more detail.
Flg_ 1-Electron micrographs of pore casts formed from low-permeability gas sands. (Samples supplied by J.K. Pitman , USGS.)
in the range of 125 to 275 cm 2 /cm 3 This range is in
contrast to surface areas measured by nitrogen adsorp-
tion, which are usually in the range of 2.5 X 10 4 to
5 x 10 4 cm 2 I cm 3 . Thus, the surface area of the
polyhedral structure provides only a small fraction of the
total surface area of the system, which is dominated by
the matrix material, consisting of very fine particles
including clays, and microporous minerals , such as chert.
Porosity. Porosities of tight sands are typically about 8%.
The range of surface area and sheet pore thickness given
above would indicate that the fraction of porosity caused
by cracks could range anywhere from a small fraction of
the total porosity to about one-half. (To date, attempts
192
(c) Typical appearance of sheet pores and solution porosity,
Uinta Basin, U78JP16. Depth =2519.85 m [8,267 ttJ, q,= 7.5%,
k oo (35) =6.7x 10 -3 md, k oo(345) = 1.8 x 10 -3 md.
1 pm
(d) End-on view of sheet pore, Brush Creek Well 1-25, 94W,
Sec. 25, CO. Depth=2218.60 m [7,279 ttJ, q,=8.4%,
k 00(35) = 22 x 10 -3 md, k 00(345) = 3 x 10 -3 md.
to measure this fraction from micrographs of pore casts
have not been pursued because porosities obtained from
point counts on micrographs were always too high. Likely
causes are the general difficulty of identifying a crack
edge-the micrographs had high depth of field-and the
presence of undissolved grains and matrix material pro-
tected by resin.) If the average thickness of sheet pores
is 0.5 Jtm and their area, counting only one side, is 100
cm 2 /cm 3 , then the crack porosity, c , is 0.5 %, which
is less than one-tenth of the total porosity. These crack
areas and thicknesses were estimated from pore casts
prepared at ambient conditions; both thicknesses and
effective path lengths for flow can be expected to be re-
duced by increased overburden pressure.
SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS JOURNAL
 STAINLESS STEEL (SS)

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118" PRESSURE TUBING

CONED 8 SLEEVED

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Fig. 2-Apparatus for measurement of permeabilities and mercury injection pressures,

Particle Size Analyses. Sieve analyses for five samples
were carried out on disaggregated rock for particles down
to 44-J-tm diameter. Surface areas estimated from the grain
size distribution (for grains >44 J-tm) were somewhat
higher than those estimated from crack length, indicating
that not all of the larger individual grains provide cast
polyhedra. Typical values of mean grain diameter by
weight were about 100 to 150 J-tm.
Aspect Ratio. From the observed sheet pore thicknesses
and the measured grain and polyhedra sizes, we conclude
that aspect ratios of the sheet pores typically could be in
the range of 50 to 200. In specimens where difficulty was
met in forming pore casts, it is quite possible that sheet
pores existed, but the casts did not have sufficient
mechanical strength to endure acid leaching.
Permeability. In studies of tight sands, a general trend
has been observed that sensitivity to overburden pressure
increases as permeability decreases. However, this is far
from a reliable rule of thumb and is certainly related to
details of pore structure rather than permeability. Ex-
amples of low-permeability media that were not sensitive
to overburden pressure are provided by VycorTM glass
and mortar. The Vycor product has a porosity of 28%
and pore diameter of only about 5 to 6 nm. 14 The pores
are believed to be reasonably close to circular. Although
the permeability was only about 5 x 10 -5 md, no reduc-
tion in flow rate was detected with increase in overburden
to 345 bar [5,000 psi]. Similarly, when a test core oflow-
permeability media was formed from mortar, the
permeability of the material was 0.04 md, but the max-
imum reduction in permeability was only about 10% for
an increase in overburden pressure to 345 bar [5,000 psi].
The form of core holder used in the permeability
measurements is shown in Fig. 2. Details of the ex-
perimental procedure are given in the Appendix.
In contrast to Vycor and mortar, low-permeability gas
sands show reductions in gas permeability with over-
burden pressure from 2- to 25-fold when loading is in-
creased from 35 to 345 bar [50 to 5,000 psi]. Fatt pointed
out that the pressure sensitivity of relatively high-
permeability, consolidated sandstone was much greater
than could be reasonably expected for cylindrical pores.
He demonstrated that pressure sensitivity of sandstones
could be mimicked by highly permeable artificial media
containing sheet pores. 7 Further evidence that high aspect
ratio cracks are responsible for pressure-sensitive behavior
is provided by Wyble, who measured changes in electrical
conductivity and permeability to water for three classes
of pressure-sensitive sandstones. 15 Permeability was
markedly more sensitive to overburden pressure than was
electrical conductivity. Consideration of the presented data
shows that, on average, the reduction in permeability was
fairly close to the cube of the reduction in electrical con-
ductivity; this is to be expected for cracks of high aspect
ratio. The development of high aspect ratio pores in car-
bonate rocks by recrystallization has been discussed at
length by Wardlaw. 9 For some reason not yet
understood, crystal growth appears to cease when two
crystal surfaces come into close proximity. This behavior
offers an explanation for the existence of grain-boundary
sheet pores in a wide variety of sedimentary rocks.
Confining Pressure and Pore Structure. The effect of
overburden pressure on pore structure of a pressure-
sensitive tight sand was investigated by comparing a pore

APRIL 1985 193

 100 I'm 1----1
100 I'm

(a) Ambient pressure. (c) 345 bar [5,000 psi} confining pressure.

,
SOLUTION POROSITY

o
~
100 I'm 1----1
100 I'm

(b) Sketch of region shown in Fig. 3a based on color slide . (d) Sketch of region shown in Fig. 3c based on color slide.
(Shallow etch.) (Deep etch.)

Fig. 3-Change in appearance of pore cast caused by increase in confining pressure from ambient conditions to 345 bar [5,000 psi].

cast formed at ambient conditions with one in which the
core was saturated with resin and subjected to a hydro-
static load of 345 bar [5,000 psi]. The core was allowed
to set for 3 days. As a result of the pressurization, there
was a dramatic change in the appearance of the pore cast.
Sheet pores were no longer abundant and partial etching
revealed that the resin was retained as disconnected
pockets associated with solution porosity. Photomicro-
graphs of the two types of structure observed with and
without confining pressure are shown in Fig. 3. The
micrographs were prepared from color slides and do not
do justice to the clarity with which the features of pore
casts could be seen with the aid of a microscope.
However, the procedure permits unambiguous identifica-
tion of the resin-filled solution pores indicated in Fig. 3
for the regions shown in the photomicrographs. As a result
of the applied confining pressure, many of the cracks had
either closed or become so narrow that the resin struc-
ture, if formed, had collapsed during etching. We lean
towards the latter explanation. Comparable observations
on resin-imprefnated thin sections are reported by Keighin
and Sampath. In our experience, pore casts provide an
even more sensitive test of the presence of sheet pores .
Pores of less than about O.5-lLm thickness are readily seen
in pore casts but are difficult to detect by conventional
means of inspection in 25- to 30-lLm thin sections because
only very thin boundaries between neighboring grains are
seen.
Because of the strong evidence pointing to crack-shaped
pores as a cause of pressure sensitivity of permeability,
quantitative confirmation was sought by examining in
detail the effect of stress on crack shape and flow behavior
in cracks .
Compression of Penny-Shaped Cracks
The literature on the effect of stress on cracks in elastic
media offers a number of possible starting points. A de-
tailed treatment is given by Sneddon and Lowengrub. 16
Walsh 17 derived a relation for the compressibility of a
medium containing penny-shaped cracks:
C=C
s
9(1-2u)v
2
[1 + 16(1-u )r c 3], ... .. ..... ... .. .. (1)

194 SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS JOURNAL

in which c s is the compressibility of the medium, a is
the Poisson ratio, r c is the average radius of a crack, and
v is the volume of medium containing one crack. Expres-
sions for cracks of other shapes are similar in form but
differ in their dependence on a.17
Mavko and Nur 18 have proposed the following com-
pressibility expression for tapered cracks in which the
length and width are different:

............... (2)

The numerical coefficient is nearly the same as in Eq. 1,

but the lateral dimensions, r c and d, decrease as the crack
closes under pressure. For some types of cracks the
tapered shape may be physically more realistic, but this
is probably not true for sheet-like pores, which acquire
their form by recrystallization. In the previously men-
tioned recrystallization experiments by Wardlaw, 9 the
sheet pores will be enlarged at their edges. While the
peripheral mode of support of the penny-shaped cracks
may not be representative of sheet pores in tight sands
(we will return to this point later), the property of
unchanging lateral dimensions is considered appropriate.
The theory for compression of penny-shaped cracks was
tested by experiment. A cement mortar was prepared from
40% Portland cement and 60% fine sand. One portion
was mixed with Mylar disks of 3500-l-tm diameter and
25-l-tm thickness to give a concentration of 29 disks/cm 3
(0.0345 cm 3 0f medium/disk). The other portion served
as a control. Both portions were molded into cylinders
of 1.25-cm diameter and 2.5-cm length and allowed to
set for two weeks. Then both cylinders were heated with
water for 1 hour at 200C [392 OF] to hydrolyze the Mylar
in the sample containing disks. A sample, broken open
to reveal the penny-shaped cracks, is shown in Fig. 4A.
The samples were saturated with water and placed in a
permeameter that was adapted, as described in the Ap-
pendix, to measurement of pore space compressibility.
The volume of extruded water was measured at various
pressures up to 200 bar [2,900 psi]. The initial com-
pressibility of the sample containing cracks was 1.41 times
higher than that of a control core formed from the same
cement mortar mix. According to Eq. 1, with v=0.0345
cm 3 , a=0.2, and r c =0.175 cm:
16(l-a 2 )rc 3
c'/c= 1 + = 1.44.
9(l-2a)v
0.35 mm
Fig. 4A-Artificial cracks: sample broken to show penny-shaped
cracks in mortar formed by hydrolyzing Mylar disks.
Viscous Flow in Cracks
The flow rate, q, for viscous flow, can be related to the
average crack thickness, h, by assuming that q is propor-
tional to h 3 This is only strictly true for cracks of con-
stant thickness (parallel planes, concentric spherical
surfaces, etc.), but the errors introduced by nonuniform-
ity of h in the range of interest to us is not large. It can
be shown, for example, that if a channel of rectangular
cross section is pinched in the center to form a straight-
sided figure with central thickness equal to h o/2 and
average thickness equal to 3h o/4, the error in assuming
that the flow should be 04)3 qO is approximately 10%.
Alternatively, if the crack is initially of thickness 2h at
the center and h at the edge, for reduction in central
thickness down to h/2, the error in estimating q from
average thickness does not exceed 10% for up to an eight-
fold reduction in q. Thus, the mechanism by which the
crack changes its average thickness is secondary to the
manner in which the average change affects flow behavior.
If it were possible to measure the effects of flow
behavior in well-connected penny-shaped cracks, a link
between flow and compressibility would be obtained.
Assuming that the volume of a crack at pressure p is
7rh or c 2 (qp/qo) 'I" we obtain the relation

Eq. 1 will fail at pressures so high that opposite faces

of the crack come into contact. However, while additional Combining Eqs. 1 and 3 gives
surface-to-surface contacts may occur during compres-
sion of sheet pores, these probably will involve asperities,
and the crack area will remain essentially unchanged. A
16(1-a2)csr
q /qo= [ 1-----------
cP] 3 ............ (4)
model in which crack closure is controlled by elastic p 9(1-2a) 7rh o
deformation of a distribution of surface asperities is treated
in detail by Ostensen. 19 While this is a likely mechanism Eq. 4 has the same form as one proposed by Jennings et
for control of crack width, we will present evidence that al. 2o but differs in having no adjustable parameters. As
indicates that support between grains is such that tight for compressibility, Eq. 3 will fail if the faces of the crack
sands generally correspond to a pore system in which contact each other. In this region of behavior, the cube
permeability is controlled by high aspect ratio sheet pores. root of the permeability should not be linear in p but rather

APRIL 1985 195


SHIMS
(ALUMINUM FOIL)
I
CRACK
Fig. 4B-Artificial cracks: crack formed by glass hemicylinders and shims.
some more slowly varying function such as the logarithm
of pressure as proposed by Jones and Owens. 21 It should
be emphasized, however, that in tying pressure to flow
rate by means of their relationship to pore thickness we
are concerned only with the early stages of compression
and only about an order of magnitude reduction in flow
rate. Any of the idealized models proposed to date would
be unsatisfactory beyond this point. It might place mat-
ters in perspective to mention that formation pressures
and the pressures involved in our experiments seldom ex-
ceed 10 % of the pressure at which opposite faces of a
crack will touch for either form of the idealized crack cor-
responding to Eqs. I and 2. Obviously, predictions of flow
behavior in penny-shaped cracks cannot be tested by
experiment, since the cracks are not connected.
Pore Size From Klinkenberg Plots
Measurement of the contribution to gas flow b~ diffusion
derived from the slope of a Klinkenberg plot 2 offers an
indirect method of estimating a characteristic crack
thickness. A number of writers have shown that the
number of molecules per second flowing through a
capillary by diffusion is given by
Z r 3 ilp
q'= L.JMkBT ' .......................... (5)
where r is the radius, I1plL is the pressure gradient, M
is molecular mass, Z is a numerical constant which is
slightly different for different derivations, k B is the
Boltzmann constant, and T is temperature. The highest
and lowest values of Z we have seen are 3.34 (Knudsen
cited by Youngquist 23 ) and 1.97 (Dullien 24 ). An exact
treatment is not important to the present work and a value
of three has been adopted somewhat arbitrarily.
The diffusive contribution to flow through a crack can
be found by following Knudsen's25 analysis (see also
Klinkenberg22) of flow through a circular capillary by
consideration of so-called molecular slip at the surface.
The slip velocity is h"ACl1pI2IlL, and the additional flow
resulting from slip is bh 2 "ACpilpl2pk B TL where band h
are the width and thickness of the crack, respectively, "A
is the mean free path, C is a dimensionless constant near
unity, k B is the Boltzmann constant, and T is temperature.
196
GLASS
HEMI- CYLINDERS
By setting C= 1 and using the kinetic theory of gases to
evaluate "A and p" we obtain
................... (6)
This is similar in form to Eq. 5 with bh 2 in place of r3.
The detailed treatment, such as discussed by Matson and
Quinn,26 of pure diffusion through a rectangular pore
gives a result in which the flow is not simply proportional
to b. The flow increases more rapidly than b owing to
a complex geometric factor that becomes linear in b only
at extremely high aspect ratios. This appears to be caused
by very long flights between collisions by molecules
moving at small angles to the plane of the crack. We
believe that a relationship having the form of Eq. 6 is more
suitable for present considerations because long flights will
be interrupted by collisions between gas molecules when
h is comparable to "A and by collisions with the walls, even
at low gas densities, because real cracks are never likely
to be perfectly smooth and straight as in the rectangular
model.
Viscous flow is given by Eq. 7 for capillaries and Eq.
8 for cracks with edge effects being neglected.
q=r4 ilppI8p,Lk B T ......................... (7)
and
q=bh 3 ilppI12p,Lk B T, ...................... (8)
where p represents mean gas pressure. The apparent
permeability for a given specimen, gas, and temperature
may be represented as follows.
kp =Cx(q+q')/l1pp . ....................... (9)
The limiting permeability, k 00 , is ordinarily obtained by
plotting k p vs. lip and finding the intercept at p = 00. At
this point the relative contribution of diffusive flow is
negligible. By combining Eq. 5 with Eq. 7 and Eq. 6 with
Eq. 8 and using the given definition of kp, we find
24p,(kBTIM) '/2
r= ........................ (10)
7rp(kplkoo -1)
SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS JOURNAL
 1500

CRACK SIZE
1350
666 4200 x 30 f.Lm
HEMI 181181181 6900 x 20f.Lm
M
1200 CYLINDERS 000 9000
I [ x 20f.Lm
0 +++ 9000 x 15f.Lm
X 1.00 MORTAR 000 5000 x 7.2f.Lm
"0 10.50
THEORY AS ABOVE
E
~
090
900
>-
I-
::J 0.80
ro
<:
7.50
o-[t
UJ w 0.70
~ 6.00
I-
ex: <:
UJ
$$$ HELIUM a:
0- XXX HYDROGEN ~ 0.60
4.50 0
..J
U.
CRACK SIZE w 0.50
3.00 FROM FLOW RAT[ 6.5 I'm >
FROM SLOPE OF } 5.4 I'm ~..J
KliNKENBERG PLOT 5.1 I'm UJ 0.40
150 a:
0.30
o.oo~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
0.00 0.60 1.20 1.80 2.40 300 3.60 4.20 4.80 5.40 6.00

_L, bar -1
p
Fig. 5-Klinkenberg plots for crack between hemicylinders
propped by 7-p.m shims (see Fig. 48).
and
h = 2 '/2 48p,(k BTl M) '/,
57r Y'p(k Ik 00 -1)' .................... (11)
p
Comparison of the numerical coefficients, 7.64 and 7.66,
shows that a circular capillary of radius r will give essen-
tially the same result as a crack of thickness, h=r.
Pore sizes obtained from measurements using Eq. 10
for mortar and Eq. 11 for two sandstones were compared
with pore sizes determined from pressures required for
mercury injection. The respective sizes were 0.20 and
0.29 p,m for mortar, 0.45 and 0.52 p,m for the first sand-
stone, and 0.50 and 0.73 p,m for the second sandstone.
The mercury injection values correspond to 20% mercury
saturation. Considering that both 'measurements are
weighted averages, which are weighted in different ways,
and that each method has a distinctly different physical
basis, the agreement is satisfactory. The determined values
for the sandstones are also consistent with crack
thicknesses observed for pore casts.
Experiments on Flow in Rectangular Cracks
The foregoing theory was also tested for a variety of ar-
tificial cracks, most of which were formed with a pair
of glass hemicylinders of 1.25-cm diameter and 2.5-cm
length. The hemicylinders were fabricated by pressing
together the polished faces of two pieces of plate glass
and cutting with a diamond core drill, aligned with and
centered over the joint. A crack of known width and
thickness was formed by placing aluminum shims at each
edge of the joint as shown in Fig. 4B. The average
thickness of the shim was calculated from the weight of
0.20
0.10
+ 0
0.00 ~~~~~""'---'"---I.._"""'_J..--..I._.....L..~
o 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
PRESSURE,BAR
Fig. 6-Comparison of theory with experiment for the effect of
pressure on flow in artificial cracks.
a measured area. The assembly was mounted in a rubber
sleeve and placed in a permeameter under light load to
seal the edges. Flow rates were measured for helium and
hydrogen, which have high values of p,1./ii. Shims
having a thickness of 7.0 p,m before loading gave flow
rates that indicated h=6.5 p,m according to Eq. 8. The
values obtained from the slopes in Fig. 5 were 5.1 p,m
for helium and 5.4 p,m for hydrogen.
To extend the test to a thinner crack and larger Klink-
enberg effect, the crack was propped with a light sprin-
kling of zinc dust that covered about 1 % of the area. The
zinc particles were flattened by loading to approximately
200 bar [2,900 psi]. The thickness could no longer be pre-
determined, but Eq. 8 gave a value of h=2.0 p,m. The
slope of the Klinkenberg plot, incorporated in Eq. 11,
gave h=2.80.4 p,m.
A further series of tests on cracks between hemi-
cylinders was carried out using shims to form cracks hav-
ing the following widths and thicknesses expressed in p,m:
9000 x 15, 6900x20, 9000x20, and 4200x30. The
aspect ratios range from 600 to 140. Flow rates were
measured using water with a hydrostatic head of 1 m.
Results are shown in Fig. 6, where relative flow rate,
qlqo, is plotted against p in bars. The calculated value
of 16(1-0 2 )/9(1-20), taking a value of 0 of 0.25 for
glass, is 3.3, but a value of 8.4 gives a better fit to Eq.
3, as shown by the solid lines and associated data points.
Qualitatively, a larger coefficient is appropriate because
the crack is not supported all around its periphery like
the ideal penny-shaped crack.

APRIL 1985 197

 120

it O

100

90

80

'"I
a
x
-0
E
.:.i
~
:J
iii
L5 30
::l:
a:
w
Q.

20

5mm
10
Fig. 7-End view of cylindrical mortar core showing crack formed
by hydrolysis of Mylar ribbon.

0 L---~0~'----~0~.2-----0~.3~--~0 74----~0~5--~
1
A crack having a rough granular surface was formed - - bar- 1
p'
in cement mortar made from fine-grained sand by embed-
ding a Mylar ribbon before setting. The Mylar was (a) Klinkenberg plots for Multiwell Sample MWX1 14 14 (1499
hydrolyzed by heating in water for one hour at 200C m [4,918 It)).
[392 of], and a ribbon-shaped crack remained. An end
view of the specimen is shown in Fig. 7. The thickness
calculated from gas flow rates and use of Eq. 8 was 7.2
#tm; the width was 5000 #tm. The elastic constants of the
mortar were not measured, but a good fit with theory was
obtained with c s =3X 10- 6 bar- J andfia)=8.4, which 4

seems reasonable. The results are included in Fig. 6. o

o
o
3
Experiments in Sandstones-
Consistency of Eqs. 8 and 11
In a test of the consistency of Eqs. 8 and 11, two pressure- o
2
sensitive cores were selected: TIOSR20E (Uinta) 8290 and o
Mobil F31-13-G (Peance) 9998 (supplied by courtesy of
K. Sampath as an example of a highly pressure-sensitive o DRIED

rock). For the Uinta sample, k351k280 =4.6, where the o FLU SHED WITH ACETONE
subscripts 35 and 280 denote the pressure in bars at which
Klinkenberg values of k were measured, h351h280 =0.281
/ AND DRIED

#tm/0.163 #tm, and (h35Ih280)3 =5.1. For the Peance O ~----~OL

sample, k351k3JO = 14, h351h3JO =0. 140 #tm/0.052 #tm,
and (h35Ih3!O)3 = 19. Thus, variation in crack thickness
obtained from Klinkenberg plots predicts the variation in
permeability with reasonable accuracy.
Changes in effective crack thickness with overburden
pressure were determined in detail for Multiwell Sample
MWX-l 14-14 taken from 1498 m [4,917 ft]. One of two
sets of Klinkenberg plots is shown in Fig. 8a. Statistical
analysis shows that all predictions of Klinkenberg
permeability should be reliable to within 1 %. In Fig. 8b
the cube root of permeability is plotted' against the effec-
tive crack thickness determined from both sets of Klinken-
berg plots. Before taking the second set of data, the core
was flushed with acetone and 20 ItL of organic material
'Courtesy of K. Sampath.
198
.I ----~
O.~2----~
O.~
3 ----~O~
. 4----~O~.~
5
CRACK THICKNESS h, I'm
(b) Cube root of Klinkenberg permeability vs. crack size deter-
mined from the slope of the Klinkenberg plot (see Eq. 11).
Fig. 8-Detail of results that provide a test of relationships be-
tween permeability and crack thickness.
was displaced. However, this cleaning procedure did not
.cause any noticeable change in permeability behavior. The
results fall close to theoretical values for flow in cracks.
Simple Crack Model
It has been shown that both permeability and crack
thickness can be evaluated by gas flow measurements. Our
SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS JOURNAL
next purpose is to see whether other properties deter-
minable by experiment, such as pore cast dimensions, pore
aspect ratio obtained from pressure dependence of
permeability, and crack thickness values determined by
mercury injection form a self-consistent set.
A simple model will be adopted in which the nested
polyhedra formed by sheet pores are modeled as a set of
stacked cubes, of width b, separated by a distance, h, be-
tween faces that make random angles with the ends of the
specimen. The sheet pores are assumed to be held apart
at their edges at distance, h, by some means that does not
interfere with flow but is broadly comparable to the glass
and concrete models used in the experiments described
previously.
The permeability of this model can be expressed as
k = FaFbh2 =0.0867 h 2 c' .............. (12)
18
where F a and F b are trigonometric factors correcting for
tortuosity and the projected density of cracks on the sur-
face normal to the flow, for which values of Fa = 1.3 and
F b = 1.2 are assigned, respectively. For the model, all of
the porosity is in the form of crack porosity, c' Other
simple geometric relationships for the model, assuming
b'$>h, are
c=3hlb, ............................... (13)
and for the specific surface per unit volume,
Ac =6Ib. . ............................... (14)
Assuming values of 0.5 pm for hand 100 /-tm for b,
values of c (fraction), A e , and k for the model are
0.015, 600 cm 2 /cm 3 , and 0.65 md, respectively. As
pointed out previously, quantitative estimates of crack
porosity are not yet available, but the model porosity is
less than 0.08, which is typical for low permeability sand-
stones. Furthermore, the magnitude of c is consistent
with the reductions in ~rosity with compression reported
by Jones and Owens. 1 The surface area is almost 200
times less than typical total surface areas as measured by
nitrogen adsorption, but is only about two to five times
larger than sheet pore areas estimated from pore casts.
Change in permeability with pressure for the model can
be estimated with the aid of Eq. 3. Using the same
parameter, fly) = 8.4, that gave good fits for cracks in glass
and concrete gives
(kplk o ) II, =(1-8.01 x 1O- 6 pA R ) ............ (15)
where kp is the permeability at pressure p, ko is the
permeability at ambient conditions, and AR is the aspect
ratio. This predicts an almost lO-fold reduction in
permeability at 345 bar [5,000 psi] of confining pressure.
Relationships for the simple cube model between (kplk o )
and pressure (and equivalent depth) for aspect ratios rang-
ing from 10 to 1,000 are presented in Fig. 9.
It is seen that the simple cube model for flow in cracks
predicts sensitivities that are comparable to those observed
for low-permeability sandstones. While more represen-
tative models of tight sandstone pore structures, such as
APRIL 1985
EQUIVALENT DEPTH, m
4000 6000 8000
1.00~:::--~';""-"';';;F......""';;;':';':;""_~;';;".....,
0.90
o
~
:"- 0.50
0.40
0.20
0.10
o 120 240 360 480 600 720 840 960 1080 1200
OVERBURDEN PRESSURE P. BAR
Fig. 9-Relative reduction in permeability with increase in over-
burden pressure predicted by simple cubic network of
cracks with aspect ratios ranging from 10 to 1,000.
flow in random polyhedra with interspersed solution
pores, can be developed, they probably would not serve
much purpose until more detailed determinations have
been made of crack size distributions, crack closing
mechanisms, changes in the population of cracks effec-
tive for flow, and the role of secondary porosity.
Conclusions
1. The permeability to gases of low-permeability, com-
pacted sandstones is generally controlled by a polyhedral
structure of sheet pores given by spaces between in-
dividual grains.
2. The polyhedral structure usually composes signifi-
cantly less than one-half of the total porosity, the major
part consisting of spaces developed through certain grains
or cements passing into solution. These spaces are filled
to varying extent with matrix material.
3. Sensitivity oflow-permeability sands to overburden
pressure is caused by the effect of stress on high aspect
ratio sheet pores. Significant changes in aspect ratio with
overburden pressure were demonstrated by changes in ap-
pearance of pore casts formed at different levels of over-
burden.
4. Surface areas measured by nitrogen adsorption are
typically about 200 times greater than sheet pore areas.
The latter were given by measurements of crack length
per unit cross-sectional area, which translated to areas that
were lower than surface areas determined from sieve
analyses by a factor of about three.
5. Theoretical expressions for compression of high
aspect ratio rectangular and penny-shapeq cracks and flow
in rectangular cracks have been confirmed by experiments
with artificial media.
199
 6. A method of estimating pore size from the diffusive
contribution of permeability gives results that are consis-
tent with pore size measurements obtained by mercury
injection.
7. A simple model of interconnected sheet pores involv-
ing a cubic array of cracks provides results that are broad-
ly consistent with observed behavior of low-permeability
gas sands.
Nomenclature
A = area, cm 2
Ac = crack surface area/unit volume, cm 2 /cm 3
AR = aspect ratio, dimensionless
b = crack or sheet pore width, Jlm
c = compressibility of porous medium, bar - 1
c' = compressibility of medium containing
cracks, bar - 1
C s = compressibility of solid, bar-I
C = constant, dimensionless
d = crack length, cm
Fa = trigonometric factor, dimensionless
F b = trigonometric factor, dimensionless
h = crack or sheet pore thickness, Jlm
ho = crack thickness at ambient conditions, Jlm
k = permeability, md
ko = permeability at low (reference) confining
pressure, md
k p = permeability at confining pressure p, md
k 00 = Klinkenberg permeability, md
kB = Boltzmann constant, I/K
L = length, cm
M = molecular mass, kg
p = pressure, bar
p = mean pressure of flowing gas, bar
Po = ambient pressure, bar
q = flow rate, Lis [or molecules/s]
q' = diffusive contribution to flow rate, Lis [or
molecules/s]
qo = flow rate at ambient conditions (or low
value of confining pressure), Lis [or
molecules/s]
qp = flow rate at confining pressure p, Lis [or
molecules/s]
r = pore radius, cm
r c = radius of penny-shaped crack, cm
T = temperature, C
v = volume of one crack, cm 3
Z = numerical constant
A = molecular mean free path, cm
Jl = viscosity, cp
cp = porosity, fraction or %
cp c = crack porosity, fraction or %
a = Poisson ratio, dimensionless
Acknowledgments
Contributions to laboratory work and photographic
analysis were made by Vijaya Dandge, Deborah Hagen,
Shirleen Bretz, Neal Kilmer, and Richard Spaulding. This
work was supported by the U.S. DOE Contract No. DE-
200
AS19-80BCI0216, and the New Mexico Energy Research
and Development Inst. Project No. 2-69-3305.
References
1. Vairogs, J. et al.: "Effect of Rock Stress on Gas Production from
Low-Permeability Reservoirs," J. Pet. Tech. (Sept. 1971) 1161-67;
Trans., AIME, 251.
2. Thomas, R.D. and Ward, D.C.: "Effect of Overburden Pressure
and Water Saturation on Gas Permeability of Tight Sandstone
Cores," J. Pet. Tech. (Feb. 1972) 120-24.
3. McLatchie, A.S., Hemstock, R.A., and Young, J.W.: "The
Effective Compressibility of Reservoir Rock and Its Effect on
Permeability," J. Pet. Tech. (June 1958)49-51; Trans., AIME, 213.
4. Keighin, C.W. and Sampath, K.: "Evaluation of Pore Geometry
of Some Low-Permeability Sandstones-Uinta Basin, Utah," J. Pet.
Tech. (Jan. 1982) 65-70.
5. Sampath, K. and Keighin, C.W.: "Factors Affecting Gas Slippage
in Tight Sandstones of Cretaceous Age in the Uinta Basin," J. Pet.
Tech. (Nov. 1982) 2715-20.
6. Walls, J.D.: "Tight Gas Sands-Permeability, Pore Structure, and
Clay," J. Pet. Tech. (Nov. 1982) 2708-14.
7. Fatt, I.: "Pore Structure in Sandstones by Compressible Sphere-
Pack Models," Bull., AAPG (Aug. 1958) 1914-23.
8. Fatt, I.: "Compressibility of Sandstones at Low to Moderate
Pressures," Bull., AAPG (Aug. 1958) 1924-57.
9. Wardlaw, N.C.: "Pore Geometry of Carbonate Rocks as Revealed
by Pore Casts and Capillary Pressure," Bull., AAPG (Feb. 1976)
245-57.
10. Gardner, K.L.: "Impregnation Technique Using Colored Epoxy
to Define Porosity in Petrographic Thin Sections," Cdn. J. Earth
Sci. (1980) 17, 1104-07.
11. Morrow, N.R., Brower, K.R., and Kilmer, N.H.: "Relationship
of Pore Structure to Fluid Behavior in Low Permeability Gas Sands, "
1982 Annual Technical Report to the U.S. DOE, Report No.
DOE/BC/10216-14; in press.
12. Brown, J .A. et al.: "NMR Logging Tool Development: Laboratory
Studies of Tight Gas Sands and Artificial Porous Material," paper
SPE 10813 presented at the 1982 SPEIDOE Unconventional Gas
Recovery Symposium, Pittsburgh, May 16-18.
13. Underwood, E.E.: Quantitative Stereology, Addison-Wesley
Publishing Co., Reading, MA (1970).
14. Enustun, B.V. and Enuysal, M.: "Direct Pore Size Measurements
of Porous Glass," Metu J. of Pure and Applied Sci. (Aug. 1970)
81-88.
15. Wyble, D.O.: "Effect of Applied Pressure on the Conductivity,
Porosity, and Permeability of Sandstones," J. Pet. Tech. (Nov.
1958) 57-59; Trans., AIME, 213.
16. Sneddon,LN. and Lowengrub, M.: Crack Problems in the Classical
Theory of Elasticity, John Wiley and Sons Inc., New York City
(1969).
17. Walsh, J.B.: "The Effect of Cracks on the Compressibility of
Rock," J. Geophys. Res. (1965) 70,381-89.
18. Mavko, G. and Nur, A.N.: "Effects of Non-Elliptical Cracks on
Compressibility of Rock," J. Geophys. Res. (1978) 83, 4459-68.
19. Ostensen, R.W.: "Microcrack Permeability in Tight Gas Sand-
stone," Soc. Pet. Eng. J. (Dec. 1983) 919-27.
20. Jennings, J.B., Carroll, H.B., and Raible, C.J.: "The Relation-
ship of Permeability to Confining Pressure in Low Permeability
Rock," paper SPE 9870 presented at the 1981 SPE/DOE Symposium
on Low-Permeability Gas Reservoirs, Denver, May 27-29.
21. Jones, F.O. and Owens, W.W.: "A Laboratory Study of Low-
Permeability Gas Sands," J. Pet. Tech. (Sept. 1980) 1631-40.
22. Klinkenberg, L.J.: "The Permeability of Porous Media to Liquids
and Gases," Prod. Practice (1941) 200-213.
23. Youngquist, G.R.: "Diffusion and Flow of Gases in Porous Solids,"
Flow Through Porous Media, American Chemical Soc. Publications,
Washington, DC (1970) 57-69.
24. Dullien, F.A.L.: "3.1 Macroscopic Pore Structure Parameters,"
Porous Media: Fluid Transport and Pore Structure, Academic Press,
New York City (1979) 81.
25. Knudsen, M.: "Die Gesetze der Molekularstromung und der in-
neren Reibungsstromung der Gase durch Rohren," Ann. Physik
(1909) 28, 75.
26. Matson, S.L. and Quinn, J.A.: "Knudsen Diffusion Through Non-
circular Pores: Textbook Errors," AIChE J. (Sept. 1977) 768-70.
SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS JOURNAL
APPENDIX
Experimental Procedure for
Permeability Measurement
A schematic of a core testing apparatus designed for in-
vestigation of low-permeability sandstones under
hydrostatic loading is shown in Fig. 2. The core samples
were cut with a 1.27-cm diamond core bit. The samples
were approximately 2.54 cm long, but the apparatus can
be adjusted for moderate variation in core length. The
exact size of the core (length and diameter) are measured
before loading for use in permeability calculations.
Core preparation can be handled in a variety of ways.
After saturating a sample with water, the rock is dried
in a vacuum desiccator. Porosity is determined by com-
paring weights before and after drying.
The rock is inserted in a piece of rubber vacuum hose
(0.95 cm ID and 1.59 cm OD) that is 1.9 cm longer than
the sample. A rock sample painted on both ends with
epoxy was loaded to test for leakage between the rubber
and the sides of the sample. After an initial brief time at
138 bar [2,000 psi] confining pressure, the leakage at 17
bar [250 psi] was insignificant. After several hours, the
flow of H2 gas was immeasurable (less than 0.02 JLLls).
In testing core samples, the core was first subjected to
the maximum desired confining pressure. The confining
pressure was then reduced to the lowest of the desired
levels of overburden. Permeability measurements were
then made at increasing levels of confining pressure.
Dow Corning F38RTV is used to ensure a seal be-
tween the rubber sleeve and the stainless steel parts. The
sealant is applied to the bases of the stainless steel bosses.
The rubber hose with the sample inside is then pressed
onto each ofthe two bosses. The 1.27-cm tap hole on the
bottom disk must be directly under the cutout sector on
the top disk.
The supporting studs are inserted and nuts are made
finger tight. The top and bottom plates should be parallel.
The sealant is allowed to dry until set; this takes about
two hours.
The 0.32-cm high-pressure tubing is connected to the
two plates as shown in the diagram. The sample holder
can be placed inside the pressure vessel. The thrust ring
is inserted and tightened. The 0.32-cm tubing connector
attached to the capillar)'. (see Fig. 2) should be parallel
to the base of the pressure vessel. The connector is
APRIL 1985
clamped to the base to stabilize it before the vessel is filled
with water or another pressurizing fluid.
The apparatus then is ready to be connected to a
pressurizing pump for application of overburden pressure.
The external 0.32-cm tubing is connected to a gas cylinder
or to a pressure generating pump filled with an appropriate
liquid. In either case, a precision pressure gauge is used
for measurement of upstream pressure.
Flow rates from 0.05 JLLls to over 5 mLis can be
measured by suitable choice of technique. For liquids, a
small ruler is attached to the capillary and flow in cmls
can be determined. Similarly, slow flow rates of gases
are measured by injecting a liquid marker into the
capillary. With faster rates of gas flow, a bubble
flowmeter is connected to the outlet. By using different
diameters of burettes, flow of varying rates can be ac-
curately measured. Gases and liquids usually are pumped
through the rock at pressures of 1.4 to 20.7 bar [20 to
300 psi] at the inlet and atmospheric pressure at the outlet.
The apparatus, however, has been used to measure
permeabilities with the inlet pressure less than at-
mospheric. This is accomplished by pulling a vacu~m on
one end of the sample with a controlled leak of aIr or a
pure gas into the other end of the sample.
Compressibility of pore space was measured for liquid-
saturated samples by determining change in pore volume
with pressure from meniscus movement in the capillary .
This method was also used to determine injected volumes
of mercury in the measurement of mercury penetration.
SI Metric Conversion Factors
bar X 1.0* E+05 Pa
cp x 1.0* E-03 Pas
OF (OF - 32)/1.8 C
in. X 2.54* E+OO cm
L X 1.0* E+OO dm 3
E-04 2
md X 9.869233 JLm
micron X 1.0* E+OO JLm
psi X 6.894757 E+OO kPa
*Conversion factor is exact. SPEJ
Original manuscript received in the Society of Petroleum Engineers office Feb .. 28,
1983. Paper accepted for publication March 17, 1984. ReVised manusClipt received
April 30, 1984. Paper (SPE 11623) first presented at the 1983 SPE/DOE Symposium
on Low Permeability held in Denver March 14-16.
201