Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Sapa Extrusion Design Manual
Sapa Extrusion Design Manual
Design manual
Production: Sapa Proler AB, Sapa Proles Ltd and Jonsson & Lindn.
1st UK edition: 2000 copies, current as of May 2007.
This manual can be quoted from provided that the source is clearly stated.
Illustrations and pictures may only be reproduced with the consent
of Sapa Proler AB.
Design manual
Sapa Proles Ltd is a part of an international industrial group developing, manufacturing and marketing aluminium products
with high added value. The company has operations throughout Europe and in the USA and China. The building, automotive
and engineering industries are the companys largest customer segments. For further details, see www.sapagroup.com.
1
CONTENTS
1. Aluminium proles the possibilities 45 Methods MIG, TIG and robot welding 65
Welding economy 66
2. Aluminium the properties 69 Filler metals 66
Physical properties of some of the most Strength 67
commonly used metals and plastics 8 Prole design with regard to
3. From bauxite to recycled metal 10 11 fusion welding 67
10.10 Friction Stir Welding 68 73
4. Environmental impact 12 17 An established technology 68
4.1 The environmental impact of extrusion, The principle of FSW illustrations 69
surface treatment and machining 13 FSW welds a comparison with MIG 70
4.2 Product examples 14 16 Strength, Leakproofness, Repeatability,
4.2.1 Cars 14 15 Corrosion resistance, Limitations 71
4.2.2 Underground railway carriages 15 16 Strength of FSW joints, Comparison
4.2.3 Window frames 16 17 with MIG and TIG
4.3 Health 17 Reference: The Royal
Institute of Technology, Sweden 72 73
5. Aluminium proles the applications 18 19
Statistics use by industry 18 11. Prole tolerances 74 86
Statistics total consumption 19 Tolerances on dimensions EN 755 -9 75 78
Cross-sectional dimensions 75
6. Extrusion principles 20 21
Alloy groups 75
Solid proles and hollow proles 21
Tolerances on dimensions other
7. Choosing the right alloy 22 27 than wall thickness 76
Alloying elements, alloy codes and types 22 Tolerances on wall thickness of
At-a-glance alloy selection 24 solid and hollow proles 77
Heat treatment recommendations 25 Length 78
Common construction alloys 26 Squareness of cut ends 78
Special alloys 27 Tolerances on form 78 81
Straightness 79
8. Wide proles with tight tolerances 28 29 Convexity Concavity 79
Contour 80
9. General design advice 30 34
Twist 80
Recommended wall thickness guidelines 30
Angularity 81
9.1 Uniform wall thickness 31
Corner and llet radii 81
9.1.1 Exceptions 31
EN 12020-2 82 86
9.2 Soft lines 31
Cross-sectional dimensions 82
9.3 Solid proles if possible 32
Tolerances on dimensions other
9.4 Fewer cavities in hollow proles 32
than wall thickness 82
9.5 Proles with deep channels 32 33
Tolerances on wall thickness of
9.6 Heat sinks 33
solid and hollow proles 82
9.7 Decorate! 34
Length 83
10. Jointing 35 73 Squareness of cut ends 83
10.1 Screw ports 35 36 Length offset for proles with
10.2 Jointing nuts and bolts 37 a thermal barrier 83
10.3 Snap-t joints 38 39 Tolerances on form 83 86
10.4 Jointing prole to prole 39 51 Straightness 83
10.4.1 Longitudinal jointing 39 40 Convexity Concavity 84
10.4.2 Telescoping 41 42 Contour 84
10.4.3 Latitudinal jointing 42 44 Twist 85
10.4.4 Hinges 44 46 Angularity 85
10.4.5 T-joints 47 48 Corner and llet radii 86
10.4.6 Corner joints 49 51
12. Surface classes 87 89
10.5 Jointing with other materials 52 53
Visible surfaces important information 87
10.6 Riveting 54 55
Review prole design carefully 88
10.7 End caps 55 56
The effects of surface treatment 88
10.8 Adhesive bonding 57 63
Handling and stocking 88
Essential knowledge 57
Surface classes 1 6, Area of application,
Joint design 58
Suitable Sapa alloys 89
Choice of adhesive 59 62
Pre-treatment operations in bonding 63 13. Thermal break proles 90 91
Literature 63 Sapas method 90
10.9 Fusion welding 64 67 Single or double insulation 90
Most aluminium alloys can be welded 64 Insulated prole design 91
2
CONTENTS
4
1. THE POSSIBILITIES
1. Aluminium proles
the possibilities
Aluminium proles help designers to create unique solutions that
satisfy all expectations, hopes and demands. The tooling costs
are reasonable, there are few technical limitations and a whole
new world of possibilities is opened up for exploration.
It is at the design stage that there are so many opportunities
to incorporate features that will make the prole easier to machine
and easier to t. Low weight combined with high strength, excellent
corrosion resistance and superb nishes are just some of the
properties the designer can ne-tune to ensure that the nal
product meets all specications.
On top of all this, aluminium is easy to recycle and the extrusion
process is simple applying considerable pressure, a heated billet
is forced through a die. The resultant prole is shaped exactly like
the aperture in the die.
This manual is primarily intended for those who would like to
gain further insight into success with aluminium proles.
Whenever there is a need for greater help or guidance, Sapa
is happy to provide advice and expertise. Few manufacturers can
match our depth of knowledge and experience. Contact us and
nd out for yourself!
5
2. THE PROPERTIES
2. Aluminium
the properties
After iron, aluminium is now the second most widely used metal
Low weight,
in the world. This is because aluminium has a unique combination
high strength, of attractive properties.
superior Low weight, high strength, superior malleability, easy machining,
malleability, excellent corrosion resistance and good thermal and electrical
easy machining, conductivity are amongst aluminiums most important properties.
excellent Aluminium is also very easy to recycle.
corrosion
resistance... Weight
With a density of 2.7 g/cm3, aluminium is approximately one third as dense
as steel.
Strength
Aluminium alloys commonly have tensile strengths of between 70 and 700 MPa.
The range for alloys used in extrusion is 150 300 MPa.
Unlike most steel grades, aluminium does not become brittle at low
temperatures. Instead, its strength increases.
At high temperatures, aluminiums strength decreases. At temperatures
continuously above 100C, strength is affected to the extent that the weakening
must be taken into account.
Linear expansion
Compared with other metals, aluminium has a relatively large coefcient of linear
expansion. This has to be taken into account in some designs.
Malleability
Aluminiums superior malleability is essential for extrusion. With the metal either
hot or cold, this property is also exploited in the rolling of strips and foils, as well
as in bending and other forming operations.
Machining
Easy to mill, Aluminium is easily worked using most machining methods milling, drilling,
drill, cut, cutting, punching, bending, etc. Furthermore, the energy input during machining
punch, bend, is low.
weld, bond, Jointing
tape... Features facilitating easy jointing are often incorporated into prole design. Fusion
welding, Friction Stir Welding, bonding and taping are also used for jointing.
6
2. THE PROPERTIES
Aluminium combines low density and high strength. These properties are here being used in the decking
of a bridge.
7
2. THE PROPERTIES
Conductivity
Aluminium is an excellent conductor of heat and electricity. An aluminium conductor
weighs approximately half as much as a copper conductor having the same
conductivity.
Reectivity
Aluminium is a good reector of both visible light and radiated heat.
Screening EMC
Tight aluminium boxes can effectively exclude or screen off electromagnetic
radiation. The better the conductivity of a material, the better the shielding qualities.
Corrosion resistance
The oxide layer Aluminium reacts with the oxygen in the air to form an extremely thin layer of oxide.
is dense and Though it is only some hundredths of a m thick (1 m is one thousandth of a
provides millimetre), this layer is dense and provides excellent corrosion protection. The layer
excellent is self-repairing if damaged.
corrosion Anodising increases the thickness of the oxide layer and thus improves the
strength of the natural corrosion protection. Where aluminium is used outdoors,
protection.
thicknesses of between 15 and 25 m (depending on wear and risk of corrosion)
are common.
Aluminium is extremely durable in neutral and slightly acid environments.
In environments characterised by high acidity or high basicity, corrosion is rapid.
Further details are given in chapter 16, Corrosion.
Non-magnetic material
Aluminium is a non-magnetic (actually paramagnetic) material. To avoid interference
of magnetic elds aluminium is often used in magnet X-ray devices.
Zero toxicity
After oxygen and silicon, aluminium is the most common element in the Earths
crust. Aluminium compounds also occur naturally in our food. For further details,
see chapter 4, Environmental impact.
Physical properties of some of the most commonly used metals1) and plastics
Al Fe Cu Zn Nylon Delrin
(Polyamide 66) (Polyacetal)
1)
Table values are for commercially pure metals.
2)
100% I.A.C.S. (International Annealed Copper Standard) is the conductivity that, at 20C,
corresponds to 58 m/7, mm2.
8
2. THE PROPERTIES
Weight and strength aluminium is approximately one third as dense as steel. Aluminium alloys have
tensile strengths of between 70 and 700 MPa.
9
3. THE RAW MATERIAL
3. From bauxite to
recycled metal
There is plenty of raw material for the production of aluminium.
The Earths In a variety of forms, aluminium compounds make up a full 8%
crust is 8%
of the Earths crust.
aluminium.
Bauxite
Bauxite is the main starting point in the production of aluminium. It has been
estimated that, given the present rate of aluminium production, there is enough
bauxite to last another 200 to 400 years. This assumes no increase in the use
of recycled aluminium and no further discoveries of bauxite.
Bauxite forms when certain aluminium bearing rocks decompose. Its main
constituents are aluminium oxides, iron and silicon.
The largest and most lucrative bauxite deposits are located around the
Equator. Major producers include Australia, Brazil, Jamaica and Surinam.
Alumina (Al2O3)
Normally in close proximity to the mine, bauxite is rened into alumina.
The next stage, production of aluminium by molten electrolysis of the alumina,
is concentrated in countries with good supplies of electricity.
The production of 1 kg of aluminium requires around 2 kg of alumina.
The production of 2 kg of alumina requires about 4 kg of bauxite.
The metal
Due to aluminiums chemistry, relatively large amounts of energy (primarily
electricity) are required to reduce alumina to aluminium. Around 47 MJ (approx.
13 kWh) goes into the molten electrolysis of 1 kg of the metal. However, this
investment gives excellent dividends.
The energy expended in aluminium production is often recouped several
times over. By reducing the weight of vehicles, the use of aluminium reduces
fuel consumption (see also chapter 4). Similarly, energy losses in aluminium
power lines are comparatively small.
Recycling
Scrap aluminium is a valuable resource that is set to become even more
important. In principle, all scrapped aluminium can be recycled into a new
Aluminium scrap generation of products.
a valuable With appropriate sorting, scrap aluminium can advantageously be recycled
raw material. to produce the same sorts of products over and over again. Furthermore,
recycling requires only 5% of the original energy input.
10
3. THE RAW MATERIAL
In the
E CT R I C A L A P P aluminium
ND EL LI C
I N GA AT I cycle, the metal
L D ON
UI S
B can be reused
THER MECHANICAL for the same
N DO AP
R TA PL
IC purposes
PO A
S over and over
TI
AN
PAC K AG I N G
ON
again. Unlike
TR
many other
materials,
aluminium
does not lose
its unique
PRODUCTS CASTING REMELTING properties.
PRIMARY
ALUMINIUM
Al2O3
Al2O3
So easy to recycle: Aluminium is the perfect eco-metal. Very little aluminium is lost in the remelting
process. Increased recovery, dismantling and sorting of spent products has led to even greater recycling
of aluminium.
11
4. THE ENVIRONMENT
4. Environmental
impact
All industrial activity consumes natural resources and has an
impact on the environment. The aluminium industry is no exception
to this. However, using aluminium in preference to other products
often has a positive impact.
Absolute recycling
Absolute Aluminium collected for recycling enters an almost never-ending eco-circle. This
recycling is because very little metal is lost in remelting. On average, losses through oxidation
repeatable during remelting amount to a few per cent only. Furthermore, the quality of the
remelted material is so high that it can be used for the same product over and
recycling with
over again.
maintained Hence our use of the term absolute recycling repeatability with maintained
quality and quality and high yield.
high yield.
Extrusion
As mentioned in chapter 3, producing aluminium from bauxite requires comparatively
large amounts of energy. The manufacture of aluminium proles, on the other
hand, requires relatively little energy.
At the web site of EAA (the European Aluminium Association) you can obtain
further information on prole manufacturing and a number of other subjects
connected with the use of aluminium and proles. The address: www.aluminium.org
12
4.1 EXTRUSION ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
13
4.2 ENVIRONMENT ALUMINIUM IN EVERYDAY USE
More and more car manufacturers are using aluminium in preference to steel. It is
perfectly possible to replace 182 kg of steel components with 82 kg of aluminium
100 kg less strain on the engine.
If no recycled metals are used, aluminium components require 2,740 MJ more
energy to produce than the steel parts they replace. However, with a typical lifetime
of use, the lighter car will require 640 litres less fuel. This is the equivalent of
23,000 MJ.
Furthermore, when the content of recycled metal reaches 90%, an aluminium
component actually consumes less production energy than its steel counterpart.
Environmental benets
Assuming no recycled steel or aluminium is used:
During the cars lifetime, the extra energy used in producing aluminium is
recouped a good eight times over.
Production of the aluminium components emits 100 kg more CO2 than is
the case for steel. This higher impact on the environment is made good many
times over during the cars lifetime the reduced petrol consumption reduces
CO2 emissions by 1,500 kg.
14
4.2 ENVIRONMENT ALUMINIUM IN EVERYDAY USE
Space Frame
One of the modern technologies used in the manufacture of car bodies is the
Space Frame, a skeleton of aluminium proles. Covering the frame with aluminium
sheets gives weight reductions of up to 200 kg per car. This is double the saving
cited on the previous page.
As in other applications, replacing steel with aluminium reduces weight. Here,
this leads to reductions in petrol consumption and emissions. Other plus points
are improved crash-safety, reduced risk of corrosion and decreased environmental
load.
4.2.2 Underground railway carriages
Nearly all modern underground railways use carriages with bodies constructed of
longitudinally welded aluminium proles.
In Japan, analyses of real energy consumption have been carried out on the
Chiyoda line. The analyses compared the lines steel-carriaged trains with those
having aluminium-bodied carriages. In the latter, 9,450 kg of steel is replaced by
4,000 kg of aluminium.
3)
Energy consumption in Aluminium 4,000 x 37.2 2) = 148,800 kWh
the production process 1) Steel 9,450 x 9.5 2) = 89,775 kWh
Difference 59,025 kWh
1)
No recycled 2)
Consumption as estimated by Sapa Technology.
metal used. 3)
1 kWh = 3.6 MJ.
15
4.2 ENVIRONMENT ALUMINIUM IN EVERYDAY USE
16
4.3 HEALTH ASPECTS
Conclusion
The use of aluminium in products such as window frames has clearly demonstrable
benets for the environment.
4.3 Health
All normal forming and cutting of aluminium has no consequences for human
health. However, if worksite ventilation is inadequate, lengthy periods of gas welding
can have an effect on the respiratory organs. Before undertaking gas welding,
current recommendations and regulations should be studied. Local health and
safety bodies are usually able to provide help here.
Friction Stir Welding (see pages 68 73 of this manual) does not use ller
metals or shielding gases. This avoids the problem outlined above.
Aluminium is non-toxic
All life on Earth is adapted to its presence aluminium has always been a natural
part of the environment. The soil contains, on average, 7% aluminium (by weight).
The use of aluminium products, whether untreated or anodised, presents no
Aluminium
health hazards. As an illustration of this, aluminium has been used for decades
in kitchen pots and pans. At one time, aluminium was cited as a possible cause in the diet:
of Alzheimers disease. However, the leading medical scientists of today consider 97% from
that there is no such link. foodstuffs,
It is also worth mentioning that our normal diet includes aluminium. Food 3% from food
and food additives account for roughly 97% of our daily intake of approximately preparation.
12 mg. The remaining 3% comes from aluminium products such as kitchen foil
and cooking vessels.
17
5. THE APPLICATIONS
5. Aluminium proles
the applications
The purpose of this manual is to give its readers an insight into
optimum design using aluminium proles. Further details and concrete
advice are readily available from Sapa.
18
5. THE APPLICATIONS
MIO Tonnes
30
World Production of
Primary Aluminium
25
1950 2002
20
15
10
0
1950 2002
19
6. EXTRUSION PRINCIPLES
6. Extrusion principles
Extrusion starts with aluminium alloy logs. These are cut into
billets, which then go into an induction furnace for heating to
the right extrusion temperature of 450 500C. Next, applying
considerable pressure, each heated billet is forced through a die,
the prole emerging rather like toothpaste from a tube.
The prole emerges at a speed of 5 50 metres per minute
and length is normally between 25 and 45 metres. Cooling in air
or water commences immediately the prole leaves the die.
After cooling, the prole is stretched. This is both to relieve any
stress and to give the prole the desired straightness. At the same
time, all functionally important dimensions and surface quality
are checked. The prole is then cut to a suitable length or to the
exact length requested by the customer.
The nal strength of the material is controlled through natural
or articial ageing.
Dies
Dies are made of tool steel (normally SIS 2242). The die aperture, which
corresponds to the desired cross section of the prole, is produced by spark
erosion. Sapa both makes its own dies and buys in from independent
manufacturers.
20
6. EXTRUSION PRINCIPLES
A prole emerging onto the cooling table. Stretching relieves proles of any stress or twisting.
21
7. ALLOYS
7. Choosing the
right alloy
Pure aluminium is relatively soft. To overcome this, the metal can
be alloyed and/or cold worked. Most of the aluminium reaching
the marketplace has been alloyed with at least one other element.
Sapa uses a long-established international system for
identifying aluminium alloys (see the table below). The rst digit
in the four-digit alloy code identies the major alloying element.
The European standard uses the same codes.
The table below gives the broad outline of the systems.
As cold working is the only way to increase the strength of the alloys that cannot be
hardened, most of these go for rolling. In extrusion, on the other hand, hardenable
alloys are the most commonly used.
The 6000 series, which has silicon and magnesium as the alloying elements, is
by far the most widely used in extrusion.
In Sapas 7021 alloy, zinc and magnesium are responsible for the hardening
effect.
Some alloys use manganese, zirconium or chrome to increase toughness.
Iron, which is found in all commercial aluminium, can have a negative effect on
toughness and nish (amongst other things) if present in high quantities.
22
7. ALLOYS
Heat treatment
Apart from 1050A, all Sapa alloys are hardenable. Their nal strength is thus
determined by solution heat treatment and ageing (precipitation hardening).
Solution heat treatment is normally carried out during extrusion by carefully
controlling the temperature of the emerging prole. Precipitation hardening, which
takes a few hours, occurs afterwards in special furnaces. In some circumstances,
it may be necessary for the customer to carry out heat treatment. Sapas recom-
mendations in these cases are given in the table on page 25. Natural ageing is
the spontaneous hardening of solution treated aluminium at room temperature
(refer to the table on page 25).
23
7. ALLOYS
High-strength
constructions
Common
conductors
anodising
Electrical
Property construction alloys
Bright
Sapa Sapa Sapa Sapa Sapa Sapa Sapa Sapa Sapa Sapa
6060 6063 6063A 6005 6005A 6082 7021 1050A 6101 6463
Tensile strength 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 0 1 1
Impact strength 3 3 3 1 2 2 2 3 3 3
Surface nish 3 3 3 2 2 2 1 3 3 3
Suitability for
decorative anodising 3 3 3 2 2 1 1 2 3 3
Corrosion resistance 3 3 3 2 2 2 1 3 3 3
Machinability:
cutting 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 0 2 2
forming 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3
Weldability 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Price 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 3 3 3
24
7. ALLOYS
A
60
63
63
05
05
82
63
50
21
01
60
60
60
60
60
60
64
70
10
61
pa
pa
pa
pa
pa
pa
pa
pa
pa
pa
Sa
Sa
Sa
Sa
Sa
Sa
Sa
Sa
Sa
Sa
Soft annealing: Rapid full through heating, followed
by approx. 30 min. at stated temperature. Cooling 380- 380- 380- 380- 380- 380 400- 380- 380- (380-
should be slow and, down to 250C, preferably in a 420 420 420 420 420 420 420 450 420 420)
furnace. After that, free cooling. a) b) c)
Articial ageing: Heat to the stated age hardening 175 175 175 175 175 175 175 175
temperature (C). Hold there for approx. 8 hours.
5 5 5 5 5 5 f) g) 5 5
After that, free cooling.
a) Cool to 220 230C in a furnace. Hold at this temperature for 4 6 hours. After that, free cooling.
b) Coarse grain structure may form (a coarse-grained structure decreases strength and gives a poorer nish after anodising).
c) Sapa 6463 should not be soft annealed and subjected to solution heat treatment. This lessens the materials suitability
for bright anodising.
d) To be cooled quickly (usually in water). When cooling, the material must be moved quickly from furnace to water
(approx. 10 sec.).
e) The cooling rate in the critical range, 400 200C, should be at least 1C per sec. It must not exceed 5C per sec.
Rates above this may cause stress corrosion.
f) Articial ageing can be 100C ( 5C) for 4 hours + 150C ( 5C) for 8 hours.
g) For maximum strength, a break of at least 72 hours between solution heat treatment and articial ageing is required.
Heat treatment alters alloy properties. The picture above shows temperature control during
solution heat treatment.
25
7. ALLOYS
Sapa 6060 Sapa 6063 Sapa 6063A Sapa 6005 Sapa 6005A
Alloy designations
European standards:
numerical notation EN-AW-6060 EN-AW-6063 EN-AW-6063A EN-AW-6005 EN-AW-6005A
chemical notation 1) AlMgSi AlMg0.7Si AlMg0.7Si(A) AlSiMg AlSiMg(A)
USA: Aluminum Association AA 6060 AA 6063 AA 6063A AA 6005 AA 6005A
Swedish standards: SS-EN-AW- SS-EN-AW- SS-EN-AW- SS-EN-AW- SS-EN-AW-
6060 6063 6063A 6005 6005A
Alloy data
Temper T4 2) T6 T4 2) T6 T66 T4 2) T6 T6 T6 T6 T6
F25 Solid Hollow Solid Hollow
prole prole prole prole
Tensile strength 3)
t = wall thickness, mm
Yield strength R p0.2 , t a 25 ta3 t a 25 t a 10 t a 10 t a 25 t a 10 ta5 ta5 ta5 ta5
MPa, min. 60 150 65 170 200 90 190 225 215 225 215
3< t 10 < t 10 < t 10 < t 5<t 5 <t 5<t 5<t
a 25 a 25 a 25 a 25 a 10 a 15 a 10 a 15
140 160 180 180 215 200 215 200
10 < t 10 < t
a 25 a 25
200 200
Ultimate tensile strength Rm , t a 25 ta3 t a 25 t a 10 t a 10 t a 25 t a 10 ta5 ta5 ta5 ta5
MPa, min. 120 190 130 215 245 150 230 270 255 270 255
3<t 10 < t 10 < t 10 < t 5<t 5<t 5<t 5<t
a 25 a 25 a 25 a 25 a 10 a 15 a 10 a 15
170 195 225 220 260 250 260 250
10 < t 10 < t
a 25 a 25
250 250
Elongation A, % min. t a 25 t a 25 t a 25 t a 25 t a 25 t a 25 t a 10 t a 25 t a 15 t a 25 t a 15
16 8 14 8 8 12 7 8 8 8 8
10 < t
a 25
5
Hardness
(for guidance)
Webster B, approx. 5 10 5 12 13 7 13 14 14 14 14
Vickers, approx. 40 60 45 70 80 50 80 85 85 85 85
Thermal conductivity
at 20, W/m,C 190 190 190 190 190 190 190 170 170 170 170
Density, kg/dm3 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7
26
7. ALLOYS
Special Alloys
Alloy data as per EN-755-2
Sapa 7021 Sapa 1050A Sapa 6101 Sapa 6463 Sapa 6082
Alloy designations
European standards:
numerical notation EN-AW-7021 EN-AW-1050A EN-AW-6101 EN-AW-6463 EN-AW-6082
chemical notation 1) AlZn5.5Mg1.5 Al99.5(A) AlMgSi AlMg0.7Si(B) AlSi1MgMn
USA: Aluminum Association AA 1050A AA 6101 AA 6463 AA 6082
Swedish standards: SS-EN-AW- SS-EN-AW- SS-EN-AW- SS-EN-AW- SS-EN-AW-
7021 1050A 6101 6463 6082
Alloy data
Temper T6 F 4) T6 T4 T6 T4 2) T6 T6
Solid Hollow
Tensile strength 3) prole prole
t = wall thickness, mm
Yield strength R p0,2 , t a 50 t a 50 t a 50 t a 25 ta5 ta5
MPa, min. 310 20 170 75 160 110 250 250
5 <t 5 <t
a 25 a 15
260 260
Ultimate tensile strength Rm , t a 50 t a 50 t a 50 t a 25 ta5 ta5
MPa, min. 350 60 200 125 195 205 290 290
5 <t 5 <t
a 25 a 15
310 310
Elongation A, % min. t a 50 t a 50 t a 50 t a 25 ta5 ta5
10 25 8 14 10 14 8 8
5 <t 5 <t
a 25 a 15
10 10
Hardness
(for guidance)
Webster B, approx. 16 10 7 10 11 15 15
Vickers, approx. 110 60 50 60 65 95 95
Thermal conductivity
at 20, W/m,C 145 235 190 190 190 170 170 170
Density, kg/dm3 2.8 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7
Version 7
1) The designations must start with EN-AW, e.g. EN-AW-AlMgSi.
2) Stated tensile strength is attained with a minimum of 72 hours
natural ageing after extrusion.
27
8. PROFILE DESIGN WIDE PROFILES WITH TIGHT TOLERANCES
30
300
400
500
620
28
8. PROFILE DESIGN WIDE PROFILES WITH TIGHT TOLERANCES
143,7
220
300
320
50
Important
We continuously develop
techniques and processes
and invest in new production
equipment. It is therefore
important to contact Sapa
before nally deciding
measurements and exact
shape of your prole.
Version 7
29
9. PROFILE DESIGN GENERAL ADVICE
9. General design
advice
Wall thickness
When deciding how thick the walls of a prole should be, strength and optimum
cost-efciency are two of the main considerations.
Proles with a uniform wall thickness are the simplest to produce. However, where
necessary, wall thickness within a prole can easily be varied. For example, a proles
bending strength can be increased by concentrating weight/thickness away from the
centre of gravity.
Cost-efcient production
To optimise cost-efciency, a proles design should always be as production-friendly
as possible. To achieve this, the prole should:
have a uniform wall thickness
have simple, soft lines and radiused corners
be symmetrical
have a small circumscribing circle
not have deep, narrow channels.
5
4.5
4
3.5
Min. wall thickness
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
Version 1
0.5
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Circumscribing circle, mm
30
9. PROFILE DESIGN GENERAL ADVICE
31
9. PROFILE DESIGN GENERAL ADVICE
32
9. PROFILE DESIGN GENERAL ADVICE
Waviness here
increases the
area by 10 15%.
An undulating surface increases the heat
dissipation area of ns.
Reduced channel depth using a step. The step is This prole exemplies technical development at Sapa:
removed during rolling. A large prole with deep channels yet tight tolerances
are respected and there is a high quality surface nish.
33
9. PROFILE DESIGN GENERAL ADVICE
Design advantages
A joint can be elegantly hidden by making it part of a Well designed decoration can also protect proles from
uted design. handling and machining damage.
34
10.1 JOINTING SCREW PORTS
10. Jointing
10.1 Screw ports
60
The screw port can be threaded in the normal way for Here, a component is being tted by screwing through a port
machine screws. at right angles to the prole. In such cases, the port should
have a shoulder (see illustration).
35
10.1 JOINTING SCREW PORTS
36
10.2 JOINTING NUTS AND BOLTS
W
Using special nuts/bolts, fastening can take place without
having to slide the nut/bolt in from the end of the track.
There are no accepted standards, but various solutions are
G available from screw and fastener manufacturers.
37
10.3 JOINTING SNAP-FIT JOINTS
38
10.4 JOINTING PROFILE TO PROFILE
B
Reinforcement to avoid
Plate A has a punched, rectangular hole. Mounting deformation of visible
prole B is pushed into the hole until a snap-t joint is surface areas.
formed. Lamella prole C is then pushed into prole B
to form another snap-t joint. Exploiting the space under
the plate makes it possible to have sufciently long
hooking arms.
39
10.4 JOINTING PROFILE TO PROFILE
Torsionally stiff
tube joint with
wall reinforcement
to accommodate
a thread.
Anchoring joined proles by welding the illustration shows Longitudinal jointing using the spring and friction in
solutions with a solid prole and a hollow prole respectively. a snap-t design.
40
10.4 JOINTING PROFILE TO PROFILE
10.4.2 Telescoping
41
10.4 JOINTING PROFILE TO PROFILE
Plastic wheels used as part of the fastening in the Using a at bar, bracket or similar to join proles together
outer prole serve as spacers and give smooth, play-free gives good atness.
telescoping.
42
10.4 JOINTING PROFILE TO PROFILE
43
10.4 JOINTING PROFILE TO PROFILE
10.4.4 Hinges
44
10.4 JOINTING PROFILE TO PROFILE
Chamfering the ball enables hinge disassembly as Both parts of this hinge are made from a single prole.
shown above.
45
10.4 JOINTING PROFILE TO PROFILE
46
10.4 JOINTING PROFILE TO PROFILE
10.4.5 T-joints
47
10.4 JOINTING PROFILE TO PROFILE
The Sapa tie, stocked by Sapa, is a simple and stable In the furniture and interior decoration industry, special
solution for T and corner jointing of square tubes. fasteners are used where joints must be easy to take apart.
The fasteners often run in a nut track and there is thus a
stepless t with the mounting prole.
48
10.4 JOINTING PROFILE TO PROFILE
Screw
ports
Stamping
tool (punch)
49
10.4 JOINTING PROFILE TO PROFILE
Tie using sprung steel clips. A simple corner joint using a relatively easily machined
standard prole and a special prole cut at 90 degrees.
50
10.4 JOINTING PROFILE TO PROFILE
51
10.5 JOINTING WITH OTHER MATERIALS
52
10.5 JOINTING WITH OTHER MATERIALS
53
10.6 JOINTING RIVETING
10.6 Riveting
Press nuts: These are tted from the back using, for example,
an excentric press.
In a long prole, it is
often uneconomic to Sliding pop riveting in a longitudinal prole channel.
build in extra thickness
simply to provide
longer threads.
54
10.7 JOINTING END CAPS
If the end cap and the prole have the same nominal outer
dimensions, any departures from tolerance specications
Riveting without rivets: This method, which is highly are clearly visible. The places where metal has been cut
suitable for long runs, can join different materials of become particularly prominent if the prole is surface treated.
different wall thicknesses. A crimping press is used. One solution is to make the end cap slightly bigger
than the main prole.
55
10.7 JOINTING END CAPS
Cast metal or plastic end caps are suitable for long runs
where the shape of the main prole is complex or where a
highly rounded end cap is required.
This end cap wedges into the main prole. There is a strong
press-t between the end caps arms and the channels
in the main prole.
Two end caps can be held together using long screws or draw
bars. Screw ports with adequate clearance are a suitable way
Channels in the main prole for the tting of an end cap of guiding the screws. The result is one end cap with no
with a sprung arm. visible screws. This is a good solution in, for example, fascias.
56
10.8 JOINTING ADHESIVE BONDING
Essential knowledge
The intermolecular forces that determine whether bonding is possible exert their
pull over a maximum range of 0.5 nm (one half of a millionth of a millimetre).
If the surface is contaminated or is made up of low strength oxides exceeding For good and
this critical thickness, there will be no attraction between the adhesive and the consistent
aluminium prole. bonds, the joint
For good and consistent bonds, the joint surface must be known, reproducible surface must
and clean. be known,
The adhesive must wet the entire surface that is to be bonded. To do this, it reproducible
has to have a lower surface tension than the material being bonded. Otherwise,
and clean.
the adhesive will form droplets rather than spread evenly over the surface.
All adhesives wet aluminium. To bond aluminium to another material, the
adhesive must be able to wet this material too. If the other material is a plastic,
it can sometimes be difcult to nd an adhesive with a lower surface tension.
57
10.8 JOINTING ADHESIVE BONDING
Tongue and groove with a channel into which the locking hook
can be hammered or rolled.
Joint design
Adhesive bonding involves the formation of a plastic or rubber load-carrying
Adhesives element. The material in the cured adhesive bond is not as strong as the aluminium.
This can be compensated for by designing prole solutions that provide large contact
cope best
surfaces.
with shearing Aluminium proles can be easily worked into a wide range of shapes. Where
forces. tongue and groove type bonded joints are a possibility, they may be the best solution.
The illustrations above give some ideas and guidance on joint design.
Adhesives cope best with shearing forces. Joints subjected to tensional forces are
often unsuitable for high loads. Peeling and cleaving forces concentrate stress on a
small part of the joint and should be avoided whenever possible.
58
10.8 JOINTING ADHESIVE BONDING
Choice of adhesive
Bonded joints distribute stress relatively well. However, very rarely is stress evenly
distributed across the entire surface area of a bonded joint. As a rule, stress is
greatest at the edges of the joint.
The stiffer the chosen adhesive, the greater the concentration of any subsequent
stress. This leads to (sometimes unnecessarily) high stress on the adhesive and the
surface that has been bonded to.
Thus, never choose an adhesive that is stiffer than necessary. Thicker bonded
joints also reduce the concentration of stress at the edges of the joint.
The choice of adhesive is determined by the way in which the adhesive works and
what is required of the bonded joint (lling/sealing, heat resistance, toughness, etc.).
To be able to mould itself to the surface structure of the prole, the adhesive
must have good liquid properties. It must also harden into a material that can transfer
stress in the environment where it is used. Furthermore, it is important that the
adhesive has time to mould itself to the surfaces micro-prole. Fast setting,
high-viscosity adhesives rarely permit this. In such cases, it may be advisable to Stress distribution in a
rst apply a low-viscosity primer. simple overlap joint as
The change from liquid to solid is effected in three different ways. seen using tension
spectrometry.
Drying Cooling Curing by
Solvent The adhesive Mixing
or water is liquid when Heating
vaporisation. it is hot. Exposure to moisture
Illumination (UV or blue light) Never a stiffer
In the absence of oxygen
Contact between adhesive adhesive than
and hardener (without is necessary.
preliminary mixing).
Drying
Solvents and water vaporise. Thus, adhesives containing solvents or water are
unsuitable where:
gap lling is required Strength data
both the materials are unable to let the solvent escape.
for a structural
Double-sided PSA tape should be regarded as a drying adhesive that never dries.
The material forming the joint is the same as that in the roll. However, if the stress PSA tape:
is low, double-sided structural PSA tape may prove suitable for joining aluminium Creep strength:
proles together. 0.1 N/mm2
(100 kg/dm2)
Double-sided PSA structural tapes formed entirely of the adhesive substance
1 week at 22C.
itself are available in thicknesses from 0.1 to 6 mm.
There are also double-sided PSA tapes that can be heat cured. The tape holds Peel strength:
90: 2 N/mm
the components even during curing other forms of clamping are unnecessary.
(at 22C).
Testing of a simple overlap joint has shown a strength after curing of around
10 N/mm2.
Cooling
Some thermoplastic adhesives have good plasticity when hot. Hot-melt adhesives
are the most widely used. However, the thermoplastic hot-melt adhesives usually
set too quickly on aluminium. This results in poor contact with the aluminium
surface. Hot-melt adhesives also have very low creep and heat strengths. Many
thermoplastic hot-melt adhesives become brittle in cold environments.
Moisture-curing hot-melts are applied at lower temperatures and, compared to
thermoplastic hot-melts, have excellent properties after curing. They are used for,
amongst other things, applying foil coatings to aluminium proles.
59
10.8 JOINTING ADHESIVE BONDING
Curing
Curing adhesives make up the large group of structural adhesives. They cure (often
with negligible contraction) in one of the following ways:
Curing by heating
Here, the most common adhesives are the 1-component epoxies. These require
heat curing at a minimum of 100C. With induction heating of aluminium proles,
curing times of approx. 60 seconds are possible.
The aero-industry makes extensive use of heat-hardening adhesive lms.
These require at least 30 minutes to harden at a minimum of 125C.
One-component polyurethane elastomers can be heat cured at 70C 90C
(in 10 30 minutes).
60
10.8 JOINTING ADHESIVE BONDING
Curing in UV light
There have long been 1-component acrylate adhesives that cure in tenths of
a second when exposed to UV light (wavelength approx. 350 nm) or blue light
(wavelength > 400 nm). Acrylate adhesives are often limpid and very suitable for
bonds between aluminium proles and glass (most of them perform less well with
transparent plastics).
Epoxy adhesives that harden in UV light have also been developed. There are
many types of these - limpid, lled, low-viscosity, hard, elastic, etc. Some of these
adhesives can be irradiated prior to bonding and will then cure relatively quickly.
Temperature limits
With many adhesives, the practical maximum temperature at which stressed bonded
joints can be used is between 60 and 80C. The highest heat-resistance (approx.
150 250C) is achieved with heat-curing adhesives and heat-curing adhesive
lms. However, silicon adhesives can give heat-resistance of around 250C without
heat curing.
61
10.8 JOINTING ADHESIVE BONDING
Long-term strength
Bonds to aluminium are as strong and durable as the aluminium oxides with
which the bond is formed. Aluminium that has had no surface treatment has
a large percentage of magnesium in its surface. Aluminium surfaces should
normally always be treated in some way.
Used in a dry environment, an untreated aluminium prole can give an
excellent bond. The same bond outdoors in a coastal climate may have a far
shorter life.
Aluminium surface at Bond lifetime depends on the synergistic effects of stress, temperature and
x 25,000 magnication environment.
(the red bar is 1 m).
Normally, the problem is not the degradation of the adhesive or the failure
of adhesion, but the effects of changes in the underlying aluminium.
Any good microscope will show that there are no completely at or even
surfaces. Highly viscous (slow owing) and fast setting adhesives will, therefore,
most probably only come into limited contact with the surface. This results in a
bond with in-built weak points (air pockets) where the adhesives properties are
not being exploited. In humid environments, this air will eventually be replaced
by water. Where the water is salty, the need for surface treatment is even greater.
Aluminiums durability can be improved by, for example, anodising.
Requirement specication
It is advisable to draw up a requirement specication for the properties of the
nal bond and the use-related aspects of the adhesive. This helps crystallise the
demands really being placed on the adhesive. It also makes it easier to specify
exactly what is required to the adhesive manufacturer.
62
10.8 JOINTING ADHESIVE BONDING
Fine grinding/ Removes weak surface layers Highly stressed joints in dry
blast cleaning e.g. oxides. Safer than environments. Unstressed
degreasing. joints in fresh water.
Boiling water for Gives resistant, but moderately Lightly stressed joints using
5 10 min. strong oxides. exible adhesives in humid,
after pickling corrosive environments.
Phosphating/ Corrosion resistant, but weak, Lightly stressed joints using elastic
chromating porous oxides. or very low-viscosity adhesives in
corrosive environments.
Hydrochloric acid Quick, can impart a dark-colouring Moderately stressed joints, even
at 20C for to the aluminium surface. in corrosive surroundings. Relatively
30 seconds uncommon process.
Etching in Thin, strong oxides. Long used Highly stressed joints outdoors.
chrome/ in the American aero-industry. However, cannot withstand strongly
sulphuric acid corrosive environments.
Anodising in Porous, very resistant oxide. Is used Optimum pre-treatment for highly
phosphoric acid together with low-viscosity primer. stressed joints in corrosive
environments.
Literature
Limning av aluminium, Sapa Technology 2001. Readily available publication on aluminium bonding. Includes
examples of adhesives and bonded joints (28 pages). In Swedish.
Limhandboken, Casco Nobel, Helsingborg 1991, ISBN 91-630 0608-1. Easy-to-read introduction to bonding
(108 pages). In Swedish.
Industrial Adhesives Handbook, Casco Nobel, Helsingborg 1992, ISBN 91-630 1007-0. Easy-to-read introduc-
tion to bonding (108 pages).
Adhesion in Bonded Aluminium Joints for Aircraft Construction, W. Brockman, O-D Henneman, H. Kollek and C.
Matz, International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives, volume 6, no. 3, July 1986. Discusses the phenomena
associated with stressed bonds to aluminium in corrosive environments (28 pages).
Handbook of Aluminium Technology and Data, J. Dean Minford, Marcel Dekker Inc, New York, Basel, Hong
Kong, ISBN 0-8247 8817-6. Collated ndings and data on aluminium bonding. Contents include 4,686 references
(744 pages).
Hrdplaster, AFS 1996:4, Arbetarskyddsstyrelsens Frfattningssamling, Publication service, Solna. Regulates the
use of hardening plastics and adhesives in Sweden (78 pages). In Swedish.
63
10.9 JOINTING FUSION WELDING
Oxide formation
When welding aluminium, the metals reaction with oxygen, and the oxide rapidly
generated therein, have to be taken into account. The oxide is strong, has a high
melting point (approx. 2,050C) and can easily cause welding defects. The oxide
is heavier than the weld pool and may form inclusions. Thus, before all welding
of aluminium, it is important to remove oxides from the joint surfaces. This may
suitably be done using a stainless steel wire brush.
Thoroughly cleaned, oxide-free joint surfaces are a basic requirement for
faultless welded joints.
64
10.9 JOINTING FUSION WELDING
Methods
Nowadays, gas arc welding methods, MIG and TIG in particular, dominate.
Argon (Ar) and helium (He) are used as the shielding gases in the MIG and
TIG welding of aluminium. Argon and helium are inert gases and do not, therefore,
form chemical compounds with other substances.
Where there is a high penetration requirement, e.g. in a llet weld or when
welding very thick work pieces, an argon-helium mixture can be used in MIG
welding. The economic threshold for using mixed gases is a material thickness
of 10 12 mm.
As welds in aluminium are prone to the formation of oxide inclusions and
voids, the shielding gas must also meet certain purity requirements. The minimum
requirement is 99.5% argon or helium.
Besides playing a part in the electrical processes in the arc, the gas also has
the jobs of protecting the electrode and the weld pool from oxidation and of
cooling the electrode.
MIG welding
As a rule, MIG welding is used for material thicknesses from 1 mm upwards. In
special cases, thicknesses under 1 mm can be welded using a pulsed MIG arc. MIG:
Filler metal is added in the form of a wire fed through the welding torch. From 1 mm
MIG welding can be performed in any position and for all joint types. upwards.
A higher current density than in TIG welding gives higher welding speeds.
The high welding speed has a positive effect on distortion and shrinkage
(narrower heat-affected zone).
TIG welding
TIG welding is suitable for material thicknesses down to under 1 mm. In practice,
TIG:
there is an upper limit of around 10 mm, but edge preparation is then necessary.
Filler metal is normally used and is introduced from the side. Materials under
TIG welding can be performed in any position and, when performed correctly, 1 mm thick.
gives the most fault-free welds.
The welding speed is relatively high, and even higher in mechanical TIG
welding.
TIG welding can be recommended where the gap width varies.
Robot welding
Robotised MIG welding can be used with advantage in long production runs.
This method noticeably increases productivity and is also advantageous from
a work environment point of view.
The position of the work piece is easy to control. This facilitates welding from
the optimum position and gives good results.
Certain problems may arise with very thin materials and uneven gap widths.
65
10.9 JOINTING FUSION WELDING
Welding economy
Measured on cost per length, MIG welding is normally cheaper than TIG welding.
Equipment costs are identical.
Filler metals
The table below gives recommendations for appropriate ller metals. AIMg5
generally gives the greatest strength. AISi5 is more stable as regards cracking and
easier to use when welding hardenable alloys.
If the welded assembly is to be anodised, Si alloyed ller metals cannot be
used. When anodising, the silicon is precipitated and imparts a dark grey, almost
black, colour.
In order not to compromise weld quality, ller metals should be stored so that
the risk of oxidation and the formation of other coatings is avoided.
Parent metal A
Swedish
standard Chemical
Sapa
SS-EN- designation Recommendations for
EN-AW
AW choice of ller metals
1090 Al99.90 Al99.8 Where several ller metals are listed
1080A Al99.8(A)
1070A Al99.7(A)
in the same box, any of them can be
used for all the alloys in question.
1050A 1050A Al99.5(A) Al99.5 Al99.5
1200 Al99.0 Al99.5Ti Al99.5Ti
3103 AlMn1 Al99.5Ti Al99.5Ti AlMn1
AlMn1 AlMn1 AlSi5
5005 AlMg1(B) AlMg52) AlMg52) AlMg52) AlMg3
5251 AlMg2 AlMg5
5052 AlMg2.5
5754 AlMg3
5083 AlMg4.5Mn0.7 AlMg52) AlMg52) AlMg52) AlMg5 AlMg5
AlMg4.5Mn AlMg4.5Mn
6060 6060 AlMgSi AlSi5 AlSi5 AlSi5 AlMg3 AlMg5 AlSi51)
6063 6063 AlMg0.7Si AlMg51) AlMg4.5Mn AlMg3
6063A 6063A AlMg0.7Si(A) AlMg5
6005 6005 AlSiMg
6005A 6005A AlSiMg(A)
6082 6082 AlSi1MgMn
7021 7021 AlZn5.5Mg1.5 AlSi5 AlSi5 AlSi5 AlMg4.5Mn AlMg4.5Mn AlMg4.5Mn AlMg4.5Mn
AlMg5 AlMg5 AlSi5 AlMg5
AlMg5
AlMg4.5Mn0.7
AlZn5.5Mg1.5
AlMg0.7Si(A)
AlSi1MgMn
AlSiMg(A)
AlMg0.7S
AlMg1(B)
1080A Al99.8(A)
AlMg2.5
Al99.90
Chemical
AlMgSi
AlSiMg
AlMg2
AlMg3
AlMn1
Al99.0
designation
Parent EN-AW
metal B
6063A
6005A
Swedish standard
5005
5052
5083
6060
6063
6005
6082
1090
1200
5251
7021
3103
5754
SS-EN-AW
6063A
6005A
6060
6063
6005
6082
7021
Sapa
66
10.9 JOINTING FUSION WELDING
Strength
Solution heat treated zone
In welding, the heat treatment to which the material is
aged zone,
Unaffected
structure
annealed
Articially
subjected affects the structure locally around the weld.
500C
300C
130C
Weld
zone,
zone
The illustration is a schematic
Soft
representation of how strength
and hardness vary with distance
from a weld in a hardenable alloy. N/mm2
With aluminium proles,
it is easy to compensate for fu
300
decreased joint strength by
increasing the wall thickness
200
locally. Furthermore, f wu
edge preparation can be 100 r = 0,6
directly incorporated into
the proles design.
Number of welds reduced from 12 to 4 butt welds rather than the weaker
In-built fastening used in dry llet welds (which are also harder to x-ray). Fewer components, reduced welding
environments. (consequently fewer heat-affected zones) and straightening minimised.
67
10.10 JOINTING FRICTION STIR WELDING
An established technology
FSW is an established technology. It was developed by The Welding Institute
(TWI) in Cambridge, England. Sapa has actively participated in the process of
converting theory and laboratory experimentation into full-scale production.
Sapa started series production using FSW in 1996. We are now the world
leaders in the use of FSW and can supply FSW joined panels up to 3 metres
wide and 14.3 metres long.
Several leading classication societies have, after extensive testing,
approved FSW as a jointing method for demanding uses in railway and marine
applications.
68
10.10 JOINTING FRICTION STIR WELDING
A rotating tool is pressed into the metal and moved along the line of the joint. No ller metals
or shielding gases are used. FSW takes place at a temperature below the metals melting
point. The results include very little thermal deformation, hence the at surfaces.
69
10.10 JOINTING FRICTION STIR WELDING
MIG FSW
7.4 mm 4.7 mm
The MIG weld rises above the surface. The FSW weld is, in principle, ush with
Furthermore, its chemical composition the welded material. No ller metals
differs from that of the welded material. are used.
To give a fair
comparison,
the adjacent
pictures are
of very high
quality fusion
welds.
A MIG weld viewed from above. An FSW weld viewed from above.
70
10.10 JOINTING FRICTION STIR WELDING
Strength
Experience and extensive testing have shown that an FSW weld is usually stronger
than a fusion weld. The table below shows the standardised values for arc welded
butt joints as per SS-EN 288-4 (see also the tests carried out by the Royal Institute
of Technology, pages 72 73).
The values given for FSW joints are based on a large number of measurements
and should be regarded as guideline values.
Since there are, as yet, no standards for FSW joints, the values for fusion welded
joints are used in calculating the strength of standardised designs.
Weld factor for the ultimate tensile strength of butt welds, ALMgSi alloys
Leakproofness
The pictures on the right are of heat sink units based on solid
proles that are then CNC machined by Sapa. The machined
interior is closed with a cover, welded in place by FSW.
Helium leak testing was used to assess leakproofness.
The result was no loss of impermeability owing to weld failures.
FSW joints have also been tested using the water pressure test.
The results are unambiguous FSW gives a joint that can be used
in components with the severest demands for leakproofness.
Repeatability
The experience Sapa has gained in series production since
1996 shows:
Very small variations from joint to joint throughout a production cycle.
Very small variations from joint to joint in repeat customer orders.
This is true of all variables the joints structure, its strength,
leakproofness and atness.
Corrosion resistance
The chemical composition of the material in the joint is identical
to that of the original material. Thus, in principle, corrosion
resistance is unaltered.
Limitations
FSW requires the work piece to be held securely in place. This All 25,000 units passed helium
means, amongst other things, that repair welding of nished testing for leakproofness.
constructions is rarely possible with FSW. Repairs can, of course,
be carried out using traditional methods.
71
10.10 JOINTING FRICTION STIR WELDING
100
Hardness (HV 10)
90
80
70
60
0
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
Distance from the weld centre (mm)
The graph shows the variations in Vickers hardness across a cross section
of an FSW joint (green) welded at a speed of 1,400 mm/min. and across
a MIG weld (grey).
Comments: In both welds, hardness in the heat-affected zone decreases.
This is clearly more marked in the MIG weld. Hardness is lowest (just under
60 HV) around the centre of the MIG weld. This is because fusion welding
involves higher working temperatures, foreign ller metals and a less
favourable structure in the weld.
More heat is supplied in TIG welding than MIG welding. Consequently, the
HAZ is a little wider.
No signicant difference was observed between the HAZs of the two
FSW welds carried out at different speeds.
72
10.10 JOINTING FRICTION STIR WELDING
Yield Tensile
SS-EN AW strength strength Elongation Reference
6082 R p0,2 (MPa) R m (MPa) A 50 mm (%)
1) Mats Ericsson and Rolf Sandstrm, averages of the results in the report
in question.
2) Speed A, 700 mm/min. Speed B, 1,400 mm/min.
Fatigue strength
120
110
Stress range (MPa)
100
Same MIG weld as above (x 2,500 magnication):
90 Fatigue striation in the area close to the root edge.
80
70
60
50
0 1 10 5 1 10 6 1 10 7
Number of cycles to failure
73
11. PROFILE TOLERANCES
74
11. PROFILE TOLERANCES EN 755-9
EN 755-9
E H E
B
C
B
A
H
H
H
H
Version 1 75
11. PROFILE TOLERANCES EN 755-9
10 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.50 0.40 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.70
10 25 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.50 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.1
25 50 0.50 0.60 0.80 0.90 1.0 0.80 0.90 1.0 1.2 1.3
50 100 0.70 0.90 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.0 1.2 1.3 1.6 1.8
100 150 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.5 1.7 1.8 2.0
150 200 1.3 1.5 1.8 2.0 1.9 2.2 2.4 2.7
20 30 0.15
30 40 0.25
40 60 0.40
60 80 0.50
80 100 0.60
250 1.8
76 Version 1
11. PROFILE TOLERANCES EN 755-9
1.5 3 0.15 0.25 0.25 0.40 0.30 0.50 0.35 0.40 0.60 0.80 0.75 1.0
3 6 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.60 0.50 0.75 0.40 0.50 0.80 1.0 1.0 1.2
6 10 0.25 0.35 0.60 0.80 0.75 1.0 0.45 0.55 1.0 1.2 1.2 1.5
10 15 0.30 0.40 0.80 1.0 1.0 1.2 0.50 0.60 1.2 1.5 1.5 1.9
15 20 0.35 0.45 1.2 1.5 1.5 1.9 0.55 0.65 1.7 2.0 2.0 2.5
20 30 0.40 0.50 1.5 1.8 1.9 2.2 0.60 0.70 2.0 2.5 2.5 3.0
30 40 0.45 0.60 2.0 2.5 0.70 0.80 2.2 2.7 2.7 3.3
1) For seamless hollow proles the tolerances given for wall thickness C shall apply.
1.5 3 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.50 0.45 0.65 0.45 0.50 0.70 0.90 0.90 1.2
3 6 0.30 0.35 0.55 0.70 0.60 0.90 0.60 0.60 0.90 1.0 1.2 1.3
6 10 0.35 0.45 0.75 1.0 1.0 1.3 0.65 0.70 1.2 1.5 1.5 1.9
10 15 0.40 0.50 1.0 1.3 1.3 1.7 0.70 0.80 1.5 1.8 1.9 2.3
15 20 0.45 0.55 1.5 1.8 1.9 2.2 0.75 0.85 2.0 2.5 2.5 3.1
20 30 0.50 0.60 1.8 2.2 2.2 2.7 0.80 0.90 2.5 3.0 3.1 3.7
1) For seamless hollow proles the tolerances given for wall thickness C shall apply.
Version 1 77
11. PROFILE TOLERANCES EN 755-9
Length
If xed lengths are to be supplied, this shall be stated on the order.
The tolerances on xed length shall be specied in table 8.
Circumscribing
circle diameter Tolerances on xed length L
CD
Over Up to L 2 000 5 000 10 000 15 000
and a 2 000 <L <L <L <L
including a 5 000 a 10 000 a 15 000 a 25 000
100 +5 +7 + 10 + 16 + 22
0 0 0 0 0
100 200 +7 +9 + 12 + 18 + 24
0 0 0 0 0
200 450 +8 + 11 + 14 + 20 + 28
0 0 0 0 0
450 800 +9 + 14 + 16 + 22 + 30
0 0 0 0 0
Tolerances on form
General
Tolerances on form for O and T x 510 tempers shall be subject to
agreement between purchaser and supplier.
78 Version 1
11. PROFILE TOLERANCES EN 755-9
Straightness
Deviations from straightness, hs and ht , shall be measured as shown in Figure 2 with
the prole placed on a horizontal baseplate so that its own mass decreases the deviation.
The straightness tolerance ht shall not exceed 1.5 mm/m length. Local deviations hs
from straightness shall not exceed 0.6 mm/300 mm length.
W1
Key Key
hs
30 0 mm 1 Baseplate 1 Baseplate
F1
2 2 Ruler
ht
F
L 1 W
1
Figure 2: Measurement of deviation from straightness Figure 3: Measurement of convexity concavity
Convexity Concavity
The convexity concavity shall be measured as shown in Figure 3. The maximum allowable
deviation on convexity concavity for solid and hollow proles shall be as specied in Table 9
as a function of prole thickness width W and thickness t.
Version 1 79
11. PROFILE TOLERANCES EN 755-9
80 Version 1
11. PROFILE TOLERANCES EN 755-9
Z 80 120 1.4
Table 13: Maximum allowable corner Table 14: Maximum allowable deviation
and llet radii from specied corner and llet radii
Maximum
allowable Maximum
Wall radius Specied allowable
thickness radius deviation
A, B or C 1) mm from specied
Alloy Alloy radius
group I group II 2)
Version 1 81
11. PROFILE TOLERANCES EN 12020-2
EN 12020-2
The information below applies only to the alloys EN AW-6060 and EN AW-6063.
Note: All dimensions in this chapter are in millimetres.
E
A
Cross-sectional dimensions
General
The tolerances of the following dimensions B
(see Figure 1) are specied in the relevant A
C
Tables 1 and 2.
H
A wall thicknesses except those enclosing B
the hollow spaces in hollow proles; H
A
B wall thicknesses enclosing the hollow
A
spaces in hollow proles, except those
between two hollow spaces;
C wall thicknesses between two hollow H
spaces in hollow proles;
Figure 1: Denition of dimensions A, B, C, E, H
E the length of the shorter leg of proles
with open ends;
H all dimensions except wall thickness. Tolerances on wall thickness
of solid and hollow proles
Tolerances on dimensions The tolerances on wall thickness (see Figure 1)
other than wall thickness of solid and hollow proles shall be as specied
in Table 2.
The tolerances for dimension H shall be
as specied in Table 1. Table 2: Tolerances on wall thickness
Tolerances on wall thickness
Table 1: Tolerances on cross-sectional dimensions Nominal
wall thickness A B and C
Tolerances on H A, B or C
Dimension H Tolerances Circumscribing circle
on H (open ends)
(except Over Up to CD 100 CD 100
Over Up to open E 60 < E and a 100 < CD a 100 < CD
and ends) a 60 a 120 1) including a 300 a 300
including
1.5 0.15 0.20 0.20 0.30
2)
10 0.15 0.15
1.5 3 0.15 0.25 0.25 0.40
2)
10 15 0.20 0.20
3 6 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.60
2)
15 30 0.25 0.25
6 10 0.25 0.35 0.60 0.80
30 45 0.30 0.30 0.45
10 15 0.30 0.40 0.80 1.0
45 60 0.40 0.40 0.55
15 20 0.35 0.45 1.2 1.5
60 90 0.45 0.45 0.65
20 30 0.40 0.50
90 120 0.60 0.60 0.80
30 40 0.45 0.60
120 150 0.80 0.80 1.0
150 180 1.0 1.0 1.3 When, for functional reasons, tolerances are
specied for both the outside and inside
180 240 1.2 1.2 1.5
dimensions of hollow sections, then the
240 300 1.5 1.5 1.8 deviations given in Table 2 shall not apply as a
wall thickness tolerance, but as a tolerance on
1) Tolerances for values of dimension E over 120 mm shall be
subject to agreement between purchaser and supplier. the difference in wall thickness. This difference
2) Shall be subject to agreement between purchaser and shall be determined by measuring the maximum
supplier. and minimum wall thickness in the same plane.
82 Version 1
11. PROFILE TOLERANCES EN 12020-2
agreement
0 0 0
Subject to
be delivered in random lengths. The 100 200 +7 +9 + 12
0 0 0
length range and the tolerances on
200 300 +8 + 11 + 14
the random lengths shall be subject 0 0 0
to agreement between purchaser and
supplier.
Key
Tolerances on form
hs
mm 1 Baseplate
300
2 2 Ruler
Straightness
Deviations from straightness, hs and ht ,
ht
Version 1 83
11. PROFILE TOLERANCES EN 12020-2
30 60 0.30
W W
F
60 100 0.40
5b
84 Version 1
11. PROFILE TOLERANCES EN 12020-2
Twist
Twist T shall be measured as shown in
Figure 6 by placing the prole on a at Key
baseplate, the prole resting under its 1 Baseplate
own mass and measuring the maximum
distance at any point along the length
between the bottom surface of the prole 1 L
and the baseplate surface. Tolerances
shall be specied in Table 7 as a function
of the width W and the length L of the Figure 6:
prole. Measurement of twist
T
W
Angularity
The deviation from a specied angle shall be measured Table 8: Angularity
tolerances for right angles
as shown in Figures 7 and 8.
The angulary tolerances for right angles shall be as Width W
Maximum
allowable
specied in table 8 as a function of prole width W. deviation,
The maximum allowable deviation A for angles other Over Up to Z from
and a right
than a right shall be 1 (see Figure 8). including angle
In the case of unequal side lengths the tolerances on
30 0.3
angularity shall apply to the shorter side of the angle, i.e.
it is measured starting from the longer side. 30 50 0.4
50 80 0.5
Z
80 100 0.6
A
100 120 0.7
Version 1 85
11. PROFILE TOLERANCES EN 12020-2
6 10 0.8
10 20 1.0
20 40 1.5
86 Version 1
12. SURFACE CLASSES
Visible surface:
Less visible surface:
Invisible surface: (no marking)
Less visible surfaces are those which are not normally exposed in the nal product.
Examples include the returns on door and window frames, the underneaths of
table surfaces and the backs of cabinets. Surface
A proles surface class relates to its visible surfaces. Less visible class relates
surfaces are classed one step lower and invisible surfaces two steps lower to visible
(though never higher than surface class 5). Proles with no visible surfaces surfaces.
at all are classied as surface class 6.
Any changes in surface class requirement must be clearly stated when
ordering. In some cases, it is impossible to achieve a higher surface class using
the specied die. Always contact Sapa for advice.
87
12. SURFACE CLASSES
88
12. SURFACE CLASSES
Proles with extremely high surface quality requirements 6060, 6063, approx. 0.6 m
Proles with very high surface quality requirements 6060, 6063, approx. 1 m
Version 1
89
13. THERMAL BREAK PROFILES
Sapas method
Glass bre reinforced polyamide (nylon) strips
In Sapas solution, rolling is used to join two aluminium proles via glass bre
reinforced polyamide strips.
Insulating strip width is normally 14 30 mm. Sapa keeps the most common
widths in stock (check with Sapa).
Rolling can be used on lengths from 4.5 7.5 m.
Degree of insulation depends on strip width and prole design.
90
13. THERMAL BREAK PROFILES
91
14. MACHINING
14. Machining
At the design stage, it is possible to create a prole that needs
a minimum amount of post-extrusion machining. However, some
form of further processing is often necessary after extrusion.
Machining aluminium proles is, comparatively speaking,
inexpensive. The metals malleability means that die costs are,
as a rule, highly competitive.
The cutting speeds attainable with aluminium are far higher
than those with steel.
Machining can take place both before or after anodising.
The choice is determined by the demands made on the product.
Protective anodising is a good way of preventing damage to
proles during machining.
92
14. MACHINING
High-speed machining
In recent years, machines and equipment for machining aluminium have seen
relatively rapid development. High machining speeds have made it possible to
achieve reduced wall thicknesses and tighter tolerances. This has further increased
aluminiums competitiveness.
As regards the high-speed machining of aluminium, it is cutting speeds of
3,500 m per minute and over that are most interesting. At this point, the cutting
forces diminish and, with increased cutting speed, fall to a very low level. This
allows feed speeds to be increased. As a result, machining times are reduced.
Lower cutting forces also reduce burr formation and increase tool service life.
Machines capable of exploiting these higher feed speeds require signicantly
improved dynamics, and considerably more efcient control systems, than
conventional machines.
Shorter lead times
In todays market, there is a constant demand for ever shorter lead times. Amongst
other things, this has led to the development of the product workshop concept
of production.
The demand for shorter lead times makes it highly desirable to avoid transfers
of materials between independent machining centres and areas of responsibility.
The solution is a concept in which operations are integrated there is a single centre
of responsibility and, very often, a single supplier.
Series sizes
The size of a product series is often a crucial factor in deciding which production
methods are to be used. Thus, as early as possible, it is vital that an assessment
is made of the series sizes of all the necessary parts.
Machining methods
Machining methods are classied by the way in which they give shape to the work
piece plastic deformation, stock cutting and stock removal. The following
pages examine some of the methods that are suitable for machining aluminium.
93
14.1 MACHINING STOCK CUTTING
Punch
Material
Die
The punch penetrates the material. Deformation is at rst elastic and then plastic.
This is followed by fracture initiation, rst at the punch edges and then at the die
edges. Cutting is completed by these fractures propagating through the material
and then joining.
94
14.2 MACHINING STOCK REMOVAL
14.2.1 Turning
Turning in automatic lathes is only possible with alloys that produce short chips.
As a rule, an alloy should be worked at its highest possible temper. Furthermore,
if possible, a hardenable alloy should be chosen.
With the metal in a soft condition, problems such as build-up on the blade, long
chips, chip blockages, extreme burr formation and difculty in meeting tolerances
may arise.
It is important to choose the correct cutting settings (e.g. cutting speed and
feed) so that, amongst other things, the chips fall away from the point of cutting.
Cutting uid (mineral oil or, in some cases, a water-based emulsion) is used
to cool the cutting tool and wash chips away.
Cutting tools are most usually made of hard metals or high-quality high-speed
steel. To give good turning results and surface quality, the cutting tool should have
high surface neness and a good edge.
In CNC lathes with several tool arms, drilling, tapping and milling can be
carried out at the same time as turning.
95
14.2 MACHINING STOCK REMOVAL
14.2.2 Drilling
Drill bits suitable for extruded aluminium have a tip angle of around 130, a spiral
angle of approx. 40 and provide ample room for chips.
14.2.3 Milling
Extruded aluminium can be milled in everything from simple milling machines to
high-speed machines.
High-speed machining makes it possible to achieve very good tolerances,
surface nishes and processing speeds.
Sapa has high-speed machines that operate from 20,000 to 40,000 rpm.
96
14.3 MACHINING FORMING
97
14.3 MACHINING FORMING
Very high
three-
dimensional
shape
accuracy.
Stretch bending.
Press bending.
98
14.4 5 MACHINING THREADING, TOLERANCES
14.4 Threading
Cutting and forming methods can both be used to make threads. When cutting
using taps, a chipping angle of 35 40 is recommended. Cutting speed should
be 30 40 m/min.
When producing a thread by rolling, the so-called oil groove method is
recommended. Speed should be 40 70 m/min.
The milling of threads gives good results all the way down to, in some
cases, M3.
Thread
14.5 Tolerances milling
even down
Machining is normally to ISO 2768-1 (middle), but tighter tolerances normally
to M3.
present no problem.
In high-speed machining, channels and holes can be milled to, for example,
H7. This does away with the need for subsequent reaming.
99
14. MACHINING EXAMPLE PRODUCTS
g
nin sing,
chi
C ma anodi
N ng), NC g,
h, C i h, C illin
l e ngt thread l e ngt ng, dr
g to ling, y. to milli ing,
tin ril
Cut ling, d ssem
bl ting ( is
l a Cut hining , anod bly.
(mi ding, a c ng)
m adi e m
ben ass
thre ding,
b e n
NC ling, ,
h, C il g
l e ngt tour m odisin
g t o c o n , a n
tt i n g ( g )
Cu hinin readin bly.
c
ma ing, th assem
l
dril ding,
ben
g, ng),
illin i
n g , dr (blast
i l l i n g
i
g (m eburr
inin d
m ach hing, ly.
C N C b rus emb
, nd , ass
ting ), e
Cut ading ashing
re
th line w
alka
,
d ing
ben
, d raw .
th shing
eng
g to l nd bru
t i n , e
Cut ching
pun ,
ring
d e bur e
th, fac
eng at
g to l ning ( , CNC ),
ttin hi ing ng
Cu C mac nodis e bori
, CN ing), a (lath .
l g g
gth mil hinin ashin
len ading c
ng, ing. t o ma line w
shi ttin
g , thre nd a
d bru punch Cu ping ds), e sing. alk
n
, e ling), m
a a di
gth
len g (mi
l st thre ano
g t o i n (ten shing,
n i n
t i
Cut mac
h bru
C
CN
in a line
ing a
t a mp g, alk
s n
a nd brushi
th nd
eng e
g to l hine,
t ti n a c
g u
C cial m
inin spe hing.
m ach nd
NC ), e was
h, C ding g),
gth
, e ngt threa lastin g, .
len g
l , b pin
t o g to rilling ring ( t am nding
i n ttin th,
s be
g
ttin achin , at ), Cu ling, d debur . eng ess
Cu l g to l ng, pr
N C m oring rilling (mi hing, ashin g
C b g, d s
bru line w tin rri
he
(lat millin ashin
g.
a Cut debu
c e w alk end
fa line
a
alk
100
14. MACHINING EXAMPLE PRODUCTS
g,
illin ng),
i n g (m (blasti
in
ach rring
N C m debu ting.
, C g , a
gth hin om
t o len brus ite chr
d wh
CN
C g, ting ), en ,
th, , millin , Cut ading shing
n g re wa
le ling ing e th line
g to (dril brush lkalin alka
ttin g a
Cu hinin ), end ing),
c t
ma ading (blas
g,
thre urring illin
,m
deb hing. ling
wa
s ( dril ng),
g i
inin entr
m ach ing, c
NC read
h, C , th
l e ngt ming ths.
a g
g to ng, re g len
ttin i
Cu e bor in lon
lath dising
ano
g ng. g,
inin i illin
m ach wash n g (m
N C alin e in i
, C ), alk ach .
gth C m dising
o len utting N
C an o
t
ting ole
c th, ,
Cut ling, h eng ng)
l g to l e bori
( i
m t t i n ath
Cu cial l
spe C )
, CN lling
e n gth ce mi C
to l at fa g, CN g).
ting ( in llin
Cut hining nodis g, dri
a c g, a l l i n
. m din (mi
n ing grin hining
Tur m a c
g,
g hin
g (lon g to , p unc
i n n
dis cutti eng
th
Ano ths), ning, to l shing
.
, g u r g
ring n
le th, t t t i n w a
bur ), g
len ching
. , cu kaline
th,
d e g mbly. hs) l
llin pun ngt ing, a
o l eng g (mi , asse n g l e
i n k
g t hinin ising lo rs
ttin g ( ounte
c
Cu C ma , ano
d sin
n odi ing, c
CN ching A ad
pun thre
C ),
CN ing
n g th, e mill
le fac , CNC ).
g to at g g
u ttin ing ( disin , drillin gth
,
C
ch i n ano
i n g o len g,
ma ding, (mill g t i n
hin line
g ttin
grin hinin Cu C mac , alka
c N g
ma C urr i n
deb hing.
s
wa
101
14. MACHINING HYDROFORMING
14.6 Hydroforming
Our starting point is an extruded aluminium pipe. Hydroforming allows us to
Complex shape it three-dimensionally in a single operation. The process offers as yet
unexplored possibilities.
parts with
All, or parts, of a proles cross section can be tailored using hydroforming.
very good In a single operation, complex parts can be created with very good dimensional
dimensional accuracy.
accuracy. In a single hydroforming operation, it is also possible to make local changes
such as domes or holes. By eliminating several machining operations, lead times
can be shortened.
Hydroforming of aluminium proles is a competitive choice at yearly volumes
of around 20,000 units upwards.
The principle
The prole is placed in a die that has an inner geometry exactly replicating
the shape of the nished component. The die is locked securely in position and
hydrostatic pressure is then set up in the pipe (prole). As the prole is pressed
against the die, it takes up the shape of the die.
Example product:
Side beam for a Space Frame
.
pipe
inium
alum
ded
xtru
an e
om
ts fr
star
ction
rodu
1. P
gh
hrou
g oes t
hen
pe t .
The pi ending Cross-sectional change so that the
2. aw b
dr prole can t into a narrow passage.
103
15. SURFACES
104
15.2 SURFACES MECHANICAL SURFACE TREATMENT
Grinding
Grinding is one of the methods used for improving surface quality. The process
leaves a ne striation in the direction of grinding. The resultant surface can be
very ne, medium or coarse.
Grinding is most commonly used for furnishing and interior design products.
Ground surfaces are often anodised. Grinding before painting can further
improve the surface nish.
Polishing
Polishing smoothes the surface. Quality and gloss are determined by customer
specications. Polished surfaces normally go on to be anodised. To achieve a
high-gloss nish, polishing is followed by bright anodising.
A B C
105
15.3 SURFACES ANODISING
15.3 Anodising
25 m Where surfaces are exposed to severe stress in the form of corrosion or abrasion.
20 m Great or normal stress outdoors (e.g. transport and construction industries).
Indoors great stress arising from the use of chemicals (e.g. the foodstuffs industry).
15 m Severe abrasion, indoors and outdoors in dry and clean atmospheres.
10 m Normal stress indoors.
3 5 m Protective anodising before machining, short period of etching.
Sapa alloy 6060 6063 6063A 6005 6005A 6082 7021 1050A 6101 64633)
Decorative anodising
(natural, coloured, Hx)1) x x x x x
Protective anodising
2)
(natural) x x x x x x x x (x)
1) Using the same anodising process, gloss and shade vary between different alloys.
2) Anodising should be avoided as it contaminates the process bath.
3) Specically intended for bright anodising (prior protective anodising should be avoided).
There are normally four stages in the process: pre-treatment, anodising, colouring
(where required) and sealing.
The most frequent type of anodising is natural anodising. The electrolytic
process takes place once the metal surface has received the appropriate
mechanical or chemical pre-treatment and has been thoroughly cleaned.
106
15.3 SURFACES ANODISING
The prole is connected to a direct current source and becomes the anode
(hence anodising). An electrolytic cell is formed. Dilute sulphuric acid at room
temperature is normally used as the electrolyte. During electrolysis, the surface
of the metal is oxidised. The process continues until the desired layer thickness
(usually 5 25 m) is reached.
Sealing
The oxide layer contains a large number of pores, approx. 1011/cm2 (i.e. around
a hundred billion). The diameter of the pores is between 120 and 330 .
To obtain an impermeable surface, the pores have to be sealed. Sealing is
achieved by treating the surface in de-ionised water at 95 98C. This changes
the aluminium oxide into bohemite, the attendant increase in volume closing
the pores.
Sealing.
The oxide layer formed in natural anodising is transparent. Coloured oxide
layers are also possible (see pages 108 and 109). Natural anodised proles
are delivered with matt or semi-matt surfaces.
Maintenance cleaning
The anodic oxide layer has good corrosion resistance in most environments.
With the proviso that the surface is cleaned, anodised proles are virtually
maintenance-free. The surface cleans easily in both water with a little neutral
detergent and in white spirits. Although solvents do not affect aluminium, strong Virtually
alkaline solutions should be avoided. maintenance-
Resistance to corrosion, discoloration and abrasion increases with layer free.
thickness. Recommendations for suitable thicknesses are given in the table on
the previous page.
As the anodic oxide layer has poor cold formability, forming should take
place before anodising. Cutting and drilling can be carried out after anodising
but the exposed surfaces will, of course, be untreated. Welding is to be carried
out before anodising.
107
15.3 SURFACES ANODISING
The reectivity of bright etched aluminium is high. The gloss value is 90 units
(ISO 7599, 60 viewing angle). This decreases slightly with anodising.
The oxide layer is an electrical insulator. A sealed, 15 m oxide layer has a
breakdown voltage of 500 600 V.
An anodised prole can be recycled with no pre-treatment. Before remelting,
painted proles must rst have the paint removed.
Electrolytic Hx colouring
Like the dyeing process, electrolytic colouring is also a separate stage after
anodising.
Under the inuence of an alternating current, pigment is precipitated at the
bottom of the oxide layers pores. The pigmenting agent is tin salt and the colour
scale ranges from champagne to black. The colours, designated from Hx 10 to
Hx 50, are highly resistant to fading. After colouring, proles are sealed.
Outdoor colourfastness
The colourfastness of an anodised layer depends on the pigments and colouring
Colourfastness technique used.
depends on Dyeing: Some coloured layers have limited outdoor colourfastness.
the pigments Electrolytic Hx colouring: Limited choice of colours, very good lightfastness,
and colouring suitable for outdoor use.
technique
used. Sapas colour designations
See the colour guide on page 122.
All colours are delivered with a matt or semi-matt nish.
108
15.3 SURFACES ANODISING
Colour guide
on page 122.
1 2
1 Reector panels emerging from the anodising bath. This prole, produced for Infrardteknik AB,
is GD-20-l, semi-matt anodised.
2 Combined casings-heat sinks for compact modules using hybrid technology from Ericsson Components.
Protective anodising before treatment, then BL-20-I, semi-matt anodising in short lengths.
109
15.4 SURFACES PAINTING
15.4 Painting
Painting offers a limitless choice of colours and very good colour matching
(repeatability). Powder coating is now easily the most widespread method of painting
aluminium proles.
GSB certication
Since 1994, Sapa Lackering has been certied to the German GSB standards. It is
the only company in Sweden to have this certication. To qualify for certication, our
products and processes must meet stringent requirements. Continued compliance is
monitored by inspectors who make a number of unannounced visits every year.
Besides continous checks during production, we have also undertaken to,
amongst other things, carry out some 15 tests a day in shielded rooms. To ensure
Chrome-free, traceability, the tests are archived for 5 years.
GSB approved
alternative. Pre-treatment
To ensure the right adhesion for the paint, it is important that pre-treatment, paint
application and subsequent curing are all carried out correctly.
As maximum adhesion and durability are prime goals, pre-treatment is of crucial
importance. Pre-treatment normally comprises degreasing and pickling of the
surface, followed by a chemical treatment.
The chemical treatment (chrome-free or chrome-based) gives good adhesion
and effective corrosion resistance. The chrome-free titanium based process is GSB
approved and is now our standard method. It has undergone extensive testing.
Rinse water from the chromating process is treated in efcient cleaning plants.
The sludge is drawn off and sent away for appropriate disposal.
Pre-treatment is the same for both powder coating and wet painting.
110
15.4 SURFACES PAINTING
Sapa has a number of powder coating plants, each of them specialising in different products. We also
have a Decoral production unit and one for wet painting. The picture shows a vertical powder coating
line proles up to 7 metres long are suspended vertically rather than horizontally, thereby giving a
manifold increase in capacity.
Left: Powder coatings are applied via triboelectric (friction) or electrostatic charging.
Proles emerging from the powder box.
Right: Proles on their way to the curing oven (temperature is approx. 180C).
Curing takes about 15 minutes, the time depending on the design of the prole.
Both these pictures are taken from one of our horizontal coating lines.
111
15.4 SURFACES PAINTING
Exact colour
matching easy
with paint.
Picture 1.
DHL Worldwide 1
Express, Helsinkis
Vantaa airport
powder coating
in a red colour to
match that specied
in DHLs manual
(Pantone colour
scale).
Picture 2.
The proles in this
grille (Scania 4 series)
are powder coated.
Picture 3.
Shower cubicle from
IDO white powder
coating in a special
tint to blend with 2 3
IDOs other ranges.
Picture 4.
Renault roof rail
a special
anthracite-grey,
powder coating.
Picture 5.
Outdoor play
equipment from
Kompan powder
coated handles. 4 5
112
15.4 SURFACES PAINTING
No risk of
running or
blistering.
Picture 6.
Detail of a glass facade
light-oak Decoral in
combination with a
powder coating.
Picture 7.
Stockholm II folding
stool, designed by Hans
Ehrich of A & E Design
9 and produced by Lectus
Ofce powder coated.
Picture 8.
Aluminium doors
replacing worn out
wooden doors Decoral
light-oak nish.
Picture 9.
Interior from the Bo01
home exhibition, Malm
powder coated window
frames.
Picture 10.
Cables and leads hidden
by Thorsmans FrontLine
installation system
8 10 powder coated.
113
15.4 SURFACES PAINTING
15.4.2 Decoral
Key properties
Before After
The Decoral system has
been used in series
production since 1996.
This has given us a wealth
of experience regarding
how Decoral surfaces work
in practice in, amongst other
countries, Italy and Germany.
Extensive testing in
laboratories has also
provided comprehensive
documentation.
114
15.4 SURFACES PAINTING
115
15.5 SURFACES SAPA HM-WHITE
Perfect for
structural
proles.
HM-white coating at approx. x 20,000 magnication. A hinge HM-white has a great advantage here as
One third of the coating is the anodic oxide layer, the coating thickness is even on all prole surfaces
2/3 is the paint itself. This picture was taken by and there is thus no build-up at the edges.
a scanning electron microscope (SEM).
116
15.5 SURFACES SAPA HM-WHITE
Good chemical
resistance,
very good
corrosion
resistance and
an impermeable,
dirt-repellent
surface.
1
2 3
Pictures 1 and 2, HM-white in use. Picture 3. Coloured proles emerging from the process bath.
Unanodised surfaces on
anodised proles
A masking technique is also used when parts of a prole are to emerge unanodised
from the anodising process. This preserves the surfaces electrical and thermal
conductivity (the anodic oxide layer is insulating).
118
15.6 SURFACES SCREEN PRINTING
Screen
printing can
also be used
on painted
and HM-
white
surfaces.
119
15.7 SURFACES FUNCTION-SPECIFIC SURFACES
Abrasion-resistant surfaces
These surfaces have to be anodised.
Four height adjustable legs made from telescoping aluminium proles slip surfaces direct
from the press (no machining). The product: Control cabinet lift columns from MPI.
120
15.8 SURFACES AT-A-GLANCE GUIDE
MECHANICAL
SURFACE
TREATMENT
Embossing Patterning. Design purposes. Marking.
ANODISING
General Very good corrosion protection. The surface Both indoors and outdoors.
retains its as-new appearance, is dirt-repellent A base for application of adhesives
and resistant to mechanical abrasion. Colour and or printing inks.
gloss resist fading. An electrically insulating coating.
Bright anodising Intense gloss, high reectivity. Where there are high demands as
regards surface nish.
Colour anodising
Colouring Huge choice of colours, some of them with Primarily indoors some outdoor
very high lightfastness. applications.
PAINTING Unlimited choice of colours. A range of painting Both indoors and outdoors.
systems to meet different requirements. Very good
corrosion resistance.
ELECTROPHORESIS UV-resistant colour with a more durable gloss than Both indoors and outdoors.
Sapa HM-white traditional paints. Very good corrosion resistance.
Coating thickness the same over the entire surface.
SCREEN PRINTING
Printing on the surface Wide choice of colours. Limited abrasion resistance. Design purposes. Logos.
121
15.9 SURFACES COLOUR GUIDE FOR ANODISING
Max Max
Designation length Designation length
(mm) (mm)
122
16. CORROSION
16. Corrosion
16.1 Aluminiums
corrosion resistance
Untreated aluminium has very good corrosion resistance in most
environments. This is primarily because aluminium spontaneously
forms a thin but effective oxide layer that prevents further oxidation.
Aluminium oxide is impermeable and, unlike the oxide layers
on many other metals, it adheres strongly to the parent metal. Corrosion
If damaged mechanically, aluminiums oxide layer repairs itself rates
immediately. aluminium
(m/year)
This oxide layer is one of the main reasons for aluminiums
good corrosion properties. The layer is stable in the general 2500
2000
123
16. CORROSION
A small cathode surface and a large anode In the reverse situation (large cathode,
surface results in negligible corrosion. small anode), attack can be serious in difcult
environments.
124
16. CORROSION
Electrical insulation
Where different metals are used in combination, galvanic corrosion can be prevented
by electrically insulating them from each other. The insulation has to break all
contact between the metals.
The illustration shows a solution for bolt joints.
Insulation
Aluminium
Steel
Cathodic protection
Cathodic protection can be gained in two ways. The most common is to mount
an anode of a less noble material in direct metallic contact with the aluminium Cathodic
object to be protected. The less noble material sacrices itself (i.e. corrodes) for
protection
the aluminium. It is thus referred to as a sacricial anode.
For the above to work, there also has to be liquid contact between the surface can be
to be protected and the sacricial anode. gained in
Zinc or magnesium anodes are often used for aluminium. two ways.
Another way of obtaining cathodic protection is to connect the aluminium
object to the negative pole of an exterior DC voltage source.
The illustration below shows the cathodic protection of an outboard motor.
Sacricial
anode
125
16. CORROSION
16.2.3 Pitting
For aluminium, pitting is by far the most common type of corrosion. It occurs only in
the presence of an electrolyte (either water or moisture) containing dissolved salts,
usually chlorides.
The corrosion generally shows itself as extremely small pits that, in the open air,
reach a maximum penetration of a minor fraction of the metals thickness. Penetration
may be greater in water and soil.
As the products of corrosion often cover the points of attack, visible pits are rarely
evident on aluminium surfaces.
126
16. CORROSION
127
16. CORROSION
Aluminium
in soil
protection is
recommended.
Bitumen coating (here of a fence post and a telephone pole) prevents corrosion.
129
16. CORROSION
d = k3 t
The rate of pitting in fresh water decreases strongly with time and has been
Pots and pans proven to obey the above formula, where d is maximum pit depth,
k a constant determined by the alloy and water composition and t is time.
can be used
The formula indicates, for example, that a doubling of the pit depth that
for decades has developed by the end of the rst three years can only be expected after
without there a total of 24 years.
being any In sea water, AlMg alloys with over 2.5% Mg (and AlMgSi alloys) show
pitting. particularly good durability.
Copper containing alloys should be avoided. Where they are used, they
must be given effective corrosion protection.
When correct attention has been paid to design, especially as regards
use with other materials (and the risk of galvanic corrosion), aluminium is an
excellent material in a marine context. One example of this is the extensive
use of aluminium in many types of ships and boats. Cathodic protection
against corrosion is widely used here.
130
16. CORROSION
131
16.9 ALUMINIUM AND FASTENERS
Zinc/iron-coated steel nut and bolt. The fastener Dacrolit-coated steel nut and bolt. The fastener
is completely rusted. In the aluminium, 0.43 mm has not been attacked. No pits have formed in
deep pits have formed. the aluminium.
132
16.9 ALUMINIUM AND FASTENERS
Atmospheres
Substrate Surface Comments
material treatment Marine Industrial Rural
Carbon steel Electroplated (Zn/Ni) ++ +++ +++ Used in the automotive industry.
approx. 7 10 m Good protection against galvanic
+ yellow chromating. corrosion.
Stainless steel, Electroplated, ++ +++ +++ Used primarily in the building industry.
18/8 approx. 7 10 m The Zn coating is principally to reduce
Zn + yellow or bright friction (bolt threads).
chromating.
Stainless steel, Dacrolit Zn and Al akes +++ +++ +++ Used primarily in the building industry.
18/8 in an organic binder The Dacrolit coating is used to reduce
containing, amongst friction (bolt threads) and the risk of
other things, chromate. galvanic corrosion.
Stainless steel, Electroplated (Zn/Fe) + +++ +++ Used primarily in the building industry.
2302 7 10 m + yellow or
bright chromating.
Carbon steel Dacrolit Zn and Al akes ++ +++ +++ Used primarily on vehicles and, in some
in an organic binder cases, buildings. Withstands 12 weeks
containing, amongst VICT (Volvo Indoor Corrosion Test)
other things, chromate.
Carbon steel Geomet Zn and Al akes ++ +++ +++ Very good corrosion resistance shown in
in a matrix of Si, Zn and tests in the automotive industry. Suppliers
Al oxides. Chrome-free. state that it withstands 1,000 hours in a
neutral salt spray (ISO 9227).
Evaluations: +++ = very good; ++ = good; + = acceptable with moderate demands as regards lifetime (up to 10 years)
and surface nish.
References:
1) Korrosionshrdigheten hos fstelement marknadsinventering avseende nya produkter.
Swedish Corrosion Institute report 1983:5. In Swedish.
2) Korrosionshrdigheten hos fstelement. Slutrapport. Swedish Corrosion Institute report 1995:7. In Swedish.
3) Discussions with Sapa customers and suppliers of fasteners and coatings.
133
16.10 CORROSION CHECKLIST
Environments
Corrosion problems
can be overcome
Prole design The design should promote drying, e.g. good drainage.
Avoid having unprotected aluminium in protracted contact
with stagnant water.
Avoid pockets where dirt can collect and keep the material
wet for protracted periods.
Closed systems (liquid) In closed, liquid containing systems, inhibitors can often
be used to provide corrosion protection.
Severe, wet environments In difcult, wet environments, the use of cathodic protection
should be considered.
134
17. COST-EFFICIENCY
17. Cost-efciency
When compared with other design solutions, aluminium proles are
almost always competitive. Though the price per kg is higher than that of,
for example, steel, this is counterbalanced by advantages such as:
very great freedom in creating exactly the shape that solves the design
problem and contributes to the high quality of the end product
aesthetically pleasing surfaces
low die costs
low machining costs
low weight combined with high strength
long lifetime, minimum maintenance
high recycling value.
The balance sheet comes out in favour of products based on
aluminium proles!
Shape
Exploit the potential to create a shape that reduces the need for further machining and
simplies the assembly of the nal product. Simplify the cross section as much as possible.
Refer back to chapters 9 and 10, General design advice and Jointing.
Surface class
The choice of surface class affects price. The ner the surface, the higher the production
cost (greater monitoring of dies, lower extrusion speed, increased handling costs).
Surface classes 5 and 6 are the most economical to produce.
Think carefully about which surfaces really need to be classed and marked as visible
(refer to chapter 12, Surface classes).
135
17. COST-EFFICIENCY
Tolerances
Tight tolerances decrease productivity and, consequently, increase production costs.
Thus, special tolerances should be restricted to the dimensions that are most important
for the proles functionality.
See also chapter 11, Prole tolerances.
Surface treatment
Choosing the right surface treatment has a positive impact on appearance, function and
durability.
See also chapter 15, Surface treatment.
Machining
At the design stage, it is important to create a shape that requires a minimum amount
of subsequent machining. Extrusion provides many possibilities for including a number of
functional features (screw ports, tracks, snap-t joints, etc.) in the prole solution. Refer to
chapters 9 and 10, General design advice and Jointing.
Carefully considered machining (tolerances, deburring, machining before or after
surface treatment, etc.) can also have a positive impact on the products nal price.
See also chapter 14, Machining.
Recycling
The recycling of aluminium consumes relatively little power. It must be borne in mind that
bolt joints, and other solutions involving the use of materials other than aluminium, can
complicate recycling.
See also chapter 4, Environmental impact.
136
17. COST-EFFICIENCY
Reduced administration
For you, having Sapa as the single centre of responsibility, means (amongst other things):
reduced work in connection with tenders
reduced ordering and organising of transport
simplied monitoring of deliveries
simplied quality assurance
fewer invoices
minimal work in connection with claims.
Simplicity itself
You have a single supplier, a single point of contact, one order, one delivery, one invoice
and one telephone number to ring. It really is that simple!
137
17. COST-EFFICIENCY
It is all about co-ordination general and specic, large and small, chalk and cheese, strategic and tactical.
Business development, research and development, quality assurance, logistics, market analyses, materials science,
mechanical engineering, assembly, production planning, product development, prole optimisation, project management,
technical development, technical calculation, monitoring and inspection, training, surface treatment
and much, much more.
138
18. KNOWLEDGE BANKS
Participants opinions
The Prole Academy covers a wide area for example, materials science, prole design,
jointing and machining. The course provided a good basis for further study of areas that,
not least for those of us in the vehicle industry, are both interesting and essential. I have
been made aware of the great possibilities offered by the material and prole technology.
My visit to the Academy gave me interesting insights into the potential for constructing
with aluminium proles. The course covered the technology and also provided many ideas
for applications. To sum up, my understanding was both widened and deepened.
I think the Prole Academy course is very good. Efcient, concentrated and
comprehensive with a good balance between theory and practical application.
Since the beginning of 1994, each participant has given a thorough evaluation of the
full course. Amongst other things, the results show that over 99% would recommend it
to their colleagues.
139
18. KNOWLEDGE BANKS
STs equipment, the hardware, is often particularly advanced in some cases, unique.
Most important amongst its array of instruments are those for analyses, structure inves-
tigations and mechanical testing.
However, instrument time is not the essence of what ST supplies. At heart, the
most important thing ST offers is its software the way it solves problems and devel-
ops potential, the expertise of its employees, etc.
STs metallurgists, chemists, metallographers, physicists, designers, mechanics and
engineering technicians all have aluminium as their speciality.
140
18. KNOWLEDGE BANKS
141
19. DESIGN
19. Design
This section was compiled by Torsten Hglund 19.2 Design literature
(Dr. Tech. and Professor at the Royal Institute of
Technology, Stockholm, Sweden) and Peter Benson Boverkets handbok fr stlkonstruktioner, BSK 94,
(Dr. Tech., Sapa). Boverket. In Swedish.
Design Regulations, BKR, of the Swedish Board
of Housing, Building and Planning, June 2000.
19.1 General
Eurocode 9: Design of Aluminium Structures ENV
Extrusion enables the production of aluminium proles
1999-1-1, European Committee for Standardisation,
that, to the widest possible extent, meet all a designers
Brussels, 1999.
function-related demands.
Proles can have almost any cross section. European Recommendations for Aluminium Alloy
Consequently, much is demanded of the designer. Structures Fatigue Design, ECCS no. 68, 1992.
Furthermore, there are no standard tables to turn to for Kapitel K18, Utdrag ur Handboken Bygg, Fritzes, 1994.
data on cross-sectional properties. In Swedish.
This section is intended as an aid for all those SBN 80 avd 2A, Brande konstruktioner med
interested in using aluminium proles in load-bearing kommentarer, Statens Planverk, 1979. In Swedish.
constructions.
StBK-N5, Swedish Code for Thin Gauge Steel
The section contains advice and views on cross-
Structures 79, Statens Stlbyggnadskommitt, 1980.
sectional design as well as formulae and tables for
dimensions. The sections contents mirror those of TALAT Training in Aluminium Application
the Swedish Building Code (BKR). In many ways, this Technologies, F. Osterman and others, 1995.
is similar to the proposals for Eurocode 9, Design
of Aluminium Structures, on which the European
Committee for Standardisation, CEN, is working at 19.3 Key considerations
present. in aluminium design
For information on more complex structures and
phenomena, refer to the literature cited in 19.2. Low weight (density = 2,700 kg/m3)
Low weight is important not only where the structures
own weight dominates, but also in transport and
assembly.
142
19. DESIGN
143
19. DESIGN
The SC of a prole with two planes lies in the 19.4.2 Solid or hollow proles?
point of intersection (gure 19.4.1.a-b). The SC of a It is almost as easy to extrude a hollow prole (closed
hollow prole often lies inside the cross section cross section) as it is a solid prole (open cross
(gure 19.4.1.c-d). For solid proles, it often lies section). However, which is the right solution for the
outside (gure 19.4.1.e-f). application in question?
With large openings, the SC lies further from the In structures where proles are subjected to torsion,
prole than is the case with small openings. a closed cross section has the edge.
To prevent undesired torsion, every attempt should The torsional rigidity of a hollow prole is considerably
be made to place the SC in the load plane (gure greater than that of the corresponding solid prole.
19.4.1.g). Alternatively, a hollow prole should be used. To illustrate this, gure 19.4.2.a compares a selection
To calculate SC position, refer to the appropriate of proles having the same width, height and cross-
literature (see 19.2, Design literature) and the sectional area. In this example, the hollow prole is
computer programmes that are now available. 290 times stiffer than the corresponding solid proles.
Hollow proles can be used in structures that are
subjected to direct torsion.
Concentrated loading of plate structures is a different
= SC (Shear centre) = CG (Centre of gravity) area. In gure 19.4.2.b, a plate is constructed of
transversally joined hollow proles. In principle, the
joints transfer shearing forces only. To achieve torsional
rigidity, the ends of the proles are joined to support
structures. When a concentrated load is applied, it is
transferred to the supports by the bending and torsion
between adjacent proles.
= SC t1
= CG
h
Kv = 7
t2
h
K v = 3.4
t2
h
K v = 1,000
Figure 19.4.1.g. The shear centre and centre of gravity for Figure 19.4.2.a. Comparison of torsional rigidity (K v) in a selection
various proles. of solid and hollow proles having the same width, height and
cross-sectional area (w = 200 mm, h = 300 mm, t 1 = 17.2 mm,
t 2 = 12 mm).
144
19. DESIGN
P
a
design value for the structures resistance and is the
2.6 mm
result of characteristic strength (Rk) divided by the
product of the partial coefcients Gm and Gn . Rd is also
referred to as design resistance. The allowable value
corresponding to that in the allowable stress method
b
is obtained by dividing the design resistance (Rd) by
2.3 mm the load coefcient (Gf ).
Design here takes into account the structures
resistance in the serviceability limit state and in the
c
ultimate limit state.
In the serviceability limit state, i.e. the demands
1.8 mm made on the structure in normal use, deformation may
be one of the crucial factors.
In the ultimate limit state, demands are put
d on the structures ultimate load-bearing capacity.
1.1 mm
This includes material fractures, instability, toppling,
deformations that make the structure unusable, etc.
The rules given in the following are based on the
partial coefcient method.
Figure 19.4.2.b. Four examples of a plate structure constructed
from hollow aluminium proles (prole width = 250 mm,
height = 150 mm, wall thickness = 5 mm, span = 2,000 mm
19.6 Material
and load = 10 kN). 19.6.1 Material values
In example a, the proles are not joined. The loaded prole has The design value for strength is determined from
to bear the entire load.
In example b, the proles are connected and have low torsional fyk
rigidity. fyd = Gm Gn
In examples c and d, the cavities are larger and, consequently,
torsional rigidity is greater. Through torsion, the load is distributed
across several proles.
where fyk is the characteristic value at the materials
0.2% proof strength. The design value for the
materials ultimate strength is determined from
19.5 Design using
the partial coefcient fuk
fud =
1.2 Gm Gn
method general
Two methods are used for designing load-bearing where fuk is the characteristic value of the materials
structures the allowable stress method and the ultimate tensile strength. The factor 1.2 provides an
partial coefcient method. In the allowable stress additional safety margin against material fracture.
method, In welding, the heat input affects the material
nearest the weld. The result is a local reduction in
strength
S a = Sallowable strength. The design value for material affected by
s welding is determined from
where s is a safety factor providing a margin for
uncertainty and Sallowable is the allowable stress value. fwuk
fwud =
This method is increasingly being dropped in favour 1.2 Gm Gn
of the partial coefcient method.
When designing with the partial coefcient where fwuk is the characteristic value of the materials
method, the conditions below have to be satised. ultimate tensile strength in the heat-affected zone.
The design value for the modulus of elasticity is
Sd a Rd determined from
Sd = Sk Gf Ek
Ed = G G
m n
Rk
Rd = where Ek is the characteristic value of the modulus
Gm Gn
of elasticity.
Sd is the design load, i.e. the characteristic load Characteristic material values are given in table
multiplied by the partial coefcient Gf . This latter 19.6.1.a (next page).
provides a margin for load uncertainties. Rd is the Partial coefcient values are given in section 19.6.2.
145
19. DESIGN
* Contact Sapa.
146
19. DESIGN
Initially at plate
Figure 19.7.3.a.
tef = t if L a 0.67
1 0.22
tef = t if L 0.67
Initially L L2
buckled plate
Flat internal
Figure 19.7.2.b. elements
Constant compressive stress
Buckling load
b fyk
L = 0.526
Resistance t Ek
Load
Slenderness
Figure 19.7.2.c.
b fyk
L =
(2.67 0.77 Y) t Ek
Stress distribution for
the gross cross section
147
19. DESIGN
bc fyk
L = 0.375
t Ek
Stress distribution for a b
the gross cross section
lc fyk
Lc =
P i Ek
148
19. DESIGN
The deformation is a
combination of bending and
torsion. When designing for
torsional buckling and
lateral-torsional buckling,
refer to BKR or Eurocode 9.
tdef = 12 t2 / b a t
19.7.6 Bending moments
The resistance of a prole subjected to a bending
Wc
moment is determined from the lower of the two values
1
0.9 Md = fyd W H compressed edge or edge
0.8 subject to tensile forces
0.7 Md = fud Wnet edge subject to tensile forces
0.6
0.5 where W is the proles exural resistance and H is a
0.4 shape factor that takes the slenderness of elements
0.3 into consideration. Where the prole has compact
0.2 elements, H is set at 1.0. This gives conservative results.
0.1 For a more nely detailed method, refer to BKR. For
0
proles with slender elements, H = Wef / W, where
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 Lc 2.0
Wef is exural resistance for a prole composed of
elements with effective thickness. Wnet is the exural
Figure 19.7.5.c. Factor Wc as a function of Lc . Curve 1 is for sym- resistance of a prole with local weakening, e.g. a
metrical cross sections and curve 2 for asymmetrical hole.
cross sections.
Lateral buckling
Torsional buckling and Lateral buckling is a failure mode occurring in a beam
lateral-torsional buckling that, under the inuence of a bending moment and/or
Torsional buckling is the type of stability failure transversal loading, bends away at right angles to the
demonstrated when a bar, under compression, twists load plane and, at the same time, twists, see gure
around its longitudinal axis, see gure 19.7.5.d. 19.7.6.a.
Torsional buckling occurs in cross sections with Lateral buckling is a particular problem of beams
point or double symmetry and limited torsional rigidity. that have little torsional rigidity and little exural rigidity
Lateral-torsional buckling is a form of stability perpendicular to the load plane.
failure that can occur in a compressed bar where the A great deal of calculation is required to determine
loading falls outside the axis of the proles shear the design bending moment in respect of lateral
centre. Lateral-torsional buckling can arise when, buckling in beams with a cross section deviating
for example, a simple or asymmetric prole is loaded from the common I or U-prole. Thus, designs should
along the axis of its centre of gravity, or when a normally seek to eliminate lateral buckling.
symmetrical prole is subjected to an off-centre load. If the compressed ange (or the edge of the
rectangular beam) is supported laterally, or if the beam
is prevented from twisting throughout its length, the
149
19. DESIGN
Fork or hinge
support Lw Wv
0.65 0.67
Figure 19.7.6.a. Lateral buckling in a simply supported beam. 0.65 2.37 0.435 / Lw
150
19. DESIGN
0.8
where tw is web thickness.
NSd MSxd
+ a 1.00
NRxcd MRxd
Where L a 15d F
FS = n
1 F
Where 15d < L a 65d FS =
L n
1.075
200d
151
19. DESIGN
e1
Pulling out of the base FRbd = 1.2 0.5 d t fud
d
Figure 19.8.3.a.
where d is the bolts diameter, t is the thickness of the
structural element transferring the force to the bolt and
e1 is the distance from the hole centre to a free edge
Table 19.8.4.a. Characteristic ultimate tension resistance FRtk in a bolt/screw (as per BSK). Load in [kN].
1) 2)
SS 2332, SS 2343. Maximum hole diameter.
152
19. DESIGN
(or the centre of an adjacent hole) measured in the For the effects of combined loads, the following
direction of the force. If e1 > 2d , then e1 = 2d is used. conditions are to be checked:
The simultaneous effect of tensile force and
shearing force is FStd
2
FSvd
2
+ a 1.00
2 2 FRgd FRhd
FStd FSvd
+ a 1.00
FRtd FRvd 2 2
FStd FSvd
+ a 1.00
FRtd FRvd
where FStd is the tensile force and FSvd the
shearing force.
where FStd is the tensile force and FSvd is the shearing
force.
19.8.5 Self-tapping screws
Self-tapping screws can thread into drilled holes or, as
in gure 19.8.5, be given a drill tip. The tip on the left
can be used in thin materials. The one on the right is
suitable for thicker materials.
The shear resistance of a screw subjected to
shearing forces is determined from Figure 19.8.5.a. Self-tapping screws the screws can be given drill
tips for thin material (left) or thick material (right).
Shear strength depends on the direction of the The following load capacity values apply to shear
force. With a force acting against the opening of the resistance in rivets:
port, the allowable force is determined from
800 S
FRvd = Gm Gn
FRvd = (2t + 0.16a) fyd
where S is a value read from table 19.8.8.a.
where t is the thickness of the material in the screw Bearing resistance the same as for self-
port (t and a in mm and fyd in MPa give FRvd in N). tapping screws of identical diameter, d.
The formulae have been veried for screw Pull through resistance and punched through
diameters 3 a d a 7 mm. resistance (FRgd): 0.4 times the value for self-tapping
Where the force acts in towards the port, the screws.
screws strength is determinative refer to 19.8.5, Tension resistance in the rivet: 1.5 times the value
Self-tapping screws. for shearing fracture.
With a force acting perpendicularly into the opening, Pulling out from the base (FRud): 0.3 times the
resistance is determined by material thickness. FRvd value for self-tapping screws.
can be used as described above. Greater thickness, t,
leads to increases in both pull-out and shearing force.
Values can be determined by testing. Table 19.8.8.a. Rivet with mandrel.
Characteristic shearing fracture force (S) in [kN]/rivet.
154
19. DESIGN
Build edge preparation into your design at the products, offshore structures and similar structures
drawing board stage see gure 19.8.9.b. using semi-nished products in the form of proles,
The calculation of forces and stresses in the weld plates and drawn or forged tubes. The methods used
is the same as for steel constructions. in the recommendations are not valid for cast alloys.
For the design of longitudinal welded beams and The operating temperature of components has an
beams with transverse welds, see BKR. upper limit of 70C. The environmental class is M3.
Component thickness is limited to 25 mm. For
Solution heat
treated zone
thicker material, testing should be carried out. If testing
Articially aged
is not possible, fatigue strength is to be reduced as
zone, 300C
zone, 130C
Unaffected
annealed
500C
Weld
zone
Soft
N/mm2
155
19. DESIGN
Figure 19.9.3.a. Standardised stress spectra. Structural detail A2, components in alloy 7020, detail class 85
156
19. DESIGN
Structural detail A4, components in alloy 5000/6000, Structural detail B2, simple elements with transverse
detail class 70 butt welds, detail class 50
157
19. DESIGN
Structural detail B5, proles with transverse butt welds, The overll angle is greater than 130. Members must
detail class 45
have edges as extruded or machined/ground in the
direction of the stress. Welds must be fully fused,
fully penetrated and free of cracks. Full penetration
must be veried by inspection from both sides.
Transverse splices in ats must be tapered (in width
or in thickness) with a slope not exceeding 1:4.
158
19. DESIGN
Structural detail B10, built-up components with transverse Structural detail C1, longitudinal, ground ush butt welds,
butt welds, detail class 35 detail class 60
Beams built up from several proles joined together Members with continuous, full penetration, longitudinal
by full penetration, transverse butt welds made butt welds. The overll is ground ush with the surface
from both sides. The transverse welds are made (nished by machining in the direction of the applied
before nal assembly of the beam by longitudinal stress). As set out in specied quality control requirements,
web-to-ange welds. The overll angle is greater than the welds must be proven free of signicant defects.
150. Welds must be fully fused, fully penetrated and The members must have edges as extruded or carefully
free of cracks. Full penetration must be veried by machined/ground in the direction of stress.
inspection from both sides. Transverse splices must
be tapered (in width or in thickness) with a slope
not exceeding 1:4. The design stress must make Structural detail C2, longitudinal butt welds, detail class 45
allowance for misalignment induced stress raisers.
Beams built up from several proles joined together Structural detail D1, longitudinal, continuous llet welds
by full penetration, transverse butt welds made without interruptions, detail class 45
from one side only without permanent backing.
The transverse welds are made before nal assembly
of the beam by longitudinal web to ange welds.
Welds must be fully fused, fully penetrated and free
of cracks. Full penetration must be veried by
inspection from the root side. Transverse splices
must be tapered (in width or in thickness) with a
slope not exceeding 1:4. The design stress must
make allowance for misalignment induced stress
raisers.
Members with continuous longitudinal llet welds.
Welding must be uninterrupted throughout the root
pass and the nal pass, i.e. stop-start positions
and/or tack welds are not allowed.
159
19. DESIGN
Structural detail D2, longitudinal llet welds with Structural detail E2, attachment to the web of a beam,
interruptions, detail class 40 detail class 23
r
Gusset plate welded to the edge of a plate or a
beam ange transition radius q 50 (mm). Smooth
transition radius, r, achieved by machining the gusset
plate before welding and then grinding the weld area
parallel to the direction of stress.
160
19. DESIGN
Structural detail E5, vertical attachment (with a transition Structural detail F1, cruciform joint, transverse,
radius) on ange, detail class 35 toe crack failure, detail class 30
Details llet welded (transverse to the direction of End zones of cover plates on beams built up
stress) on the ange of a beam built up from several from several proles (cover plate ends attached by
proles. transverse or longitudinal llet welds).
161
19. DESIGN
Table 19.9.5.a. Characteristic fatigue strength Table 19.9.5.b. Characteristic fatigue strength
for standardised stress spectra, details A1 A4. for standardised stress spectra, details B1 B4, C, D and F.
K log nt C K log nt C
70 85 90 130 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
1 3 207 252 281 385 1 3 116 145 174 203 232 261 290 320 349
4 149 181 203 277 4 68 85 102 119 136 153 170 188 205
5 107 130 146 199 5 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
6 77 94 105 144 6 23 29 35 41 47 53 59 65 70
7 70 85 95 130 7 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 49
5/6 3 242 294 327 448 5/6 3 136 169 204 238 272 305 338 372 407
4 176 213 238 326 4 81 100 121 140 161 181 200 220 241
5 127 154 172 235 5 48 60 72 84 95 107 119 131 143
6 92 112 125 171 6 29 36 42 49 57 63 70 76 83
7 66 80 89 122 7 16 20 24 29 33 37 41 45 49
8 48 58 65 88 8 13 15 19 21 24 28 30 34 36
2/3 3 287 347 388 532 2/3 3 161 203 243 283 323 363 404 444 485
4 211 256 286 392 4 97 122 145 169 193 217 242 266 290
5 153 187 209 286 5 58 73 87 101 116 130 144 159 173
6 111 136 152 208 6 35 43 52 60 69 77 86 94 103
7 81 98 109 150 7 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
8 59 71 80 108 8 15 19 22 26 30 34 38 41 45
1/2 3 343 416 465 634 1/2 3 198 248 297 347 396 445 495 544 593
4 260 316 353 483 4 122 152 182 212 243 273 303 333 364
5 194 235 263 359 5 73 92 110 128 146 165 183 201 219
6 142 172 193 264 6 43 55 66 77 87 98 110 120 131
7 103 126 140 192 7 26 32 39 45 52 58 64 71 77
8 75 92 102 140 8 19 25 29 34 39 43 48 52 57
1/3 3 402 488 546 746 1/3 3 248 309 372 434 495 557 618 681 742
4 322 391 438 599 4 159 199 238 278 317 357 396 436 475
5 250 305 339 465 5 98 123 148 172 196 221 246 269 295
6 189 230 257 352 6 61 76 90 105 120 134 150 164 180
7 141 171 192 262 7 36 45 54 63 72 81 90 99 108
8 103 125 139 190 8 27 34 41 47 54 61 67 74 81
1/6 3 451 547 612 837 1/6 3 308 384 461 538 615 692 769 846 923
4 383 465 520 712 4 214 267 320 373 426 479 533 586 639
5 318 386 431 590 5 142 177 212 247 283 318 353 387 423
6 256 311 347 475 6 90 113 135 158 180 203 225 248 271
7 201 244 273 374 7 58 72 86 100 115 129 143 157 172
8 150 182 203 278 8 41 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
0 3 485 589 658 901 0 3 364 455 546 637 728 819 909 1000 1091
4 428 519 581 794 4 273 342 410 478 546 614 682 750 818
5 372 452 505 691 5 199 248 297 347 396 445 495 544 594
6 317 385 431 589 6 140 174 209 244 278 313 348 382 417
7 265 322 360 493 7 96 120 143 167 191 214 238 262 287
8 216 262 292 400 8 66 82 99 115 131 147 163 179 197
162
19. DESIGN
K log nt C
18 23 30 35 40 45
163
This design manual draws on the expertise Sapa has acquired through its many years of work with aluminium structures. It is
emphasised that the prole solutions presented in the manual are based on general principles and theoretical calculations. Thus,
the manual is not in any way intended as a substitute for the specic analyses necessary in each design project. Conditions vary
from case to case and allowance has to be made for this.
The information, advice and comments in this manual are based on data gathered from a number of different sources. The
data was judged to be correct at the time of printing. However, Sapa accepts no liability whatsoever for the correctness and/or
completeness of the details in this manual. Sapa reserves the right to alter technical specications.
Sapa Profiles UK Limited
Saw Pit Lane Industrial Estate, Tibshelf, Derbyshire, DE55 5NH.
Tel: +44 (0) 1773 872 761. Fax: +44 (0) 1773 874 389.
Tewkesbury Road, Cheltenham, Gloucestershire , GL51 9DT.
Tel: +44 (0) 1242 521 641. Fax: +44 (0) 1242 513 304
Email: info.profiles.uk@sapagroup.com
www.sapagroup.com/uk/profiles Shaping the future