Focus: Chemical Thermodynamics: Competencies

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SPECIALIZATION: PHYSICAL SCIENCES

Focus: Chemical Thermodynamics
By: Prof. Ruel A. Avilla
Competencies:
1. Differentiate heat from temperature.
2. Identify the methods of heat transfer in various systems.
3. Differentiate exothermic and endothermic reactions.
4. Distinguish specific heat, heat of vaporization, heat of fusion, heat capacity and
heat of reaction and combustion.
5. Identify environmental phenomena which use the concepts of entropy and
enthalpy.
PART I CONTENT UPDATE

Chemical reactions that take place often involve energy changes. Almost all chemical
reactions either release or absorb energy. These reactions involving heat changes would have an
impact to some environmental phenomena.
Thermodynamics
The study of energy and its transformation is known as thermodynamics (Greek: therme,
heat; dynamis, power).
This area of study began during the Industrial Revolution as the relationships among work,
heat and energy content of fuels were studied in an effort to maximize the performance of
steam engines.
Thermochemistry
Chemical reactions involve changes in energy. Some reactions such as the burning
gasoline releases energy and splitting of water into hydrogen and oxygen requires energy.
This relationship between chemical reactions and energy changes is known as
thermochemistry.
The Systems and Its Surroundings
In the study of energy changes, attention is focused on a limited and a well-defined part of
the universe. The portion where attention is singled out is called the system and everything
outside the system is the surroundings as shown in Figure 1.
There are three types of systems. An open system can exchange mass and energy,
usually in a form of heat with its surroundings. A closed system allows the transfer of
energy but not mass while an isolated system does not allow the transfer of either mass
or energy.
Figure 1. The Universe is the sum total of all

matter, fields and energy that exists. The
system is the piece of the Universe under
study. The surroundings are everything else.
SOURCE: http://owl.cs.umass.edu/extapps/chemistry/ebook/ch3/Sec01.htm
If two systems are made to contact with each other at different temperatures, the two
systems will approach a common new temperature that is somewhere between the initial
temperatures of the two systems to attain equilibrium.
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Considering an ideal gas, the energy is being exchanged between the two systems
because the internal energy of the warmer system decreases while that of the cooler
system increases. It is clear that energy is exchanged between the two systems.
Heat and Temperature
The flow of energy from a body at higher temperature to one at lower temperature when
are placed in thermal contact is known as heat.
The measure of how hot or cold a substance is relative to another substance is referred to
as temperature.
Temperature is the indicator of thermal equilibrium in the sense that there is no net flow of
heat between two systems in thermal contact that have the same temperature.
Temperature plays a significant role in almost all fields of science, including physics,
geology, chemistry, and biology.
Many physical properties of materials including the phase (solid, liquid, gaseous or
plasma), density, solubility, vapor pressure, and electrical conductivity depend on the
temperature.
Temperature also plays a role in determining the rate and extent to which a chemical
reaction occurs. This is why the human body maintains the temperature at 37C, since
temperatures only a few degrees higher can result in harmful reactions with serious
consequences.
In addition, temperature also controls the type and quantity of thermal radiation emitted
from a surface. For instance, when the tungsten filament in an incandescent bulb is
electrically heated to a certain temperature, significant quantities of visible light are emitted.
Methods of Heat Transfer in Various Systems
Conduction
The flow of heat by conduction happens through collisions between atoms and
molecules in the substance and the subsequent transfer of kinetic energy.
Consider two substances at different temperatures separated by a barrier which is
subsequently removed, as shown in Figure 2.
Fast (hot) atoms Slow (cold) atoms Common temperature
Figure 2. Heat transfer by conduction
Collisions take place between the fast (``hot'') atoms and the slow (``cold'') ones
when the barrier is removed. In such collisions, the faster atoms lose some speed
and the slower ones gain speed; thus, the fast ones transfer some of their kinetic
energy to the slow ones. This transfer of kinetic energy from hot to the cold side is
called a flow of heat through conduction.
Convection
A good example of the transfer of heat by convection is heating a pot of water on

a stove. When the stove is turned on, heat is transferred first by conduction through
the bottom of the pot to the water. However, when the water starts bubbling - these
bubbles are portions of hot water rising to the surface, thereby transferring heat
from the hot water at the bottom to the cooler water at the top by convection. At
the same time, the cooler, more dense water at the top will sink to the bottom,
where it is subsequently heated. These convection currents are illustrated in the
following Figure 3.
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SOURCE: http://theory.uwinnipeg.ca/mod_tech/node74.html
Figure 3. Convection currents in boiling water
Radiation
Energy is transferred by electromagnetic radiation.
For example: heat felt when standing away from a bon fire during camping.
Everything that has a temperature above absolute zero radiates energy. Radiation
is not "felt" until it is absorbed by a substance.
It does not require a medium to transfer energy unlike in conduction and

convection.
Calorimetry
Calorimetry is the quantitative measurement of the heat required or evolved during a

chemical process. A calorimeter is an instrument for measuring the heat of a reaction
during a well defined process.
There are two types of calorimetry. First, the constant volume calorimetry and the constant
pressure calorimetry.
Constant Volume Calorimetry
In constant volume calorimetry, it measures the internal energy change between

reactants and products. This is only used for combustion reactions.
Figure 4 shows the constant-volume or 'bomb' calorimeter:
SOURCE: http://www.chem.ufl.edu/itl/2045/lectures/lec_9.html
Figure 4. Constant-Volume Bomb Calorimeter
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In a constant-volume bomb calorimeter, the heat given off by the sample is absorbed by
the water and the bomb calorimeter itself. This assumes that no heat is lost to the
surroundings. Thus, the calorimeter is an isolated system.
Because no heat enters or leaves the system, qsystem is:
qsystem = qcal + qrxn = 0
To calculate qrxn:
qrxn = -qcal
Constant Pressure Calorimetry
In constant pressure calorimetry measures directly the enthalpy change during the
reaction. This is only used for noncombustion reactions like measuring the heat
change in an acid-base reaction, as well as heat of solution and heat of dilution.
Figure 5 shows an improvised constant-pressure calorimeter.
SOURCE: http://www.chem.ufl.edu/itl/2045/lectures/lec_9.html
Figure 5. Constant-pressure calorimeter
Both the constant-volume bomb and constant pressure calorimeters use the heat
evolved from the reaction when the temperature of a working substance changes
with a known heat capacity. Thus, a measurement of the temperature rise in the
surroundings determines the heat crossing the boundary between the system and
the surroundings.
Specific Heat and Heat Capacity
The specific heat (s) of a substance is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature
of one gram of the substance by one degree Celsius. Table 1 shows the specific heats of
some common substances.
Table 1.The specific heats of some common substances
Specific Heat
Substance
(J/goC)
Al 0.900
Au 0.129
C (graphite) 0.720
C (diamond) 0.502
Cu 0.385
Fe 0.444
Hg 0.139
H2O 4.184
C2H5OH (ethanol) 2.46
The heat capacity (C) of the substance is the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of a given amount of the substance by one degree Celsius.
Specific heat is an intensive property whereas heat capacity is an extensive property.
Heat capacity and specific heat of a substance are given by the equation:
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C = ms
where m is the mass of the substance in grams. For example, the specific heat of water is
4.184 J/goC and the mass 50.0 g, thus the heat capacity of water is:
(4.184 J/goC) (50.0 g) = 209 J/oC
Note that specific heat has units J/goC and heat capacity has the units J/oC
Knowing the specific heat and the amount of the substances, then the change in the
samples temperature tells the amount of heat (q) that has been absorbed or released
during the process. This is given by the equation:
q = mst or q = Ct
where t is the change in temperature: t = t final t initial
Endothermic and Exothermic Reactions
Endothermic reaction is a process that absorbs heat from the surroundings. Figure 6 shows
the endothermic profile.
Considering the decomposition on mercury (II) oxide (HgO) at high temperature:
energy + HgO(s) Hg(l) + O2(g)
If solid mercury (II) oxide must take energy away from the environment in order to form the
products, then the reaction is said to be endothermic, and the environment will feel colder
after the reaction.
SOURCE: http://www.emsb.qc.ca/laurenhill/science/exo.html
Figure 6. Endothermic profile
The combustion of hydrogen gas in oxygen is one of the many chemical reactions that
release considerable amount of energy:
2 H2(g) + O2(g) 2 H2O + energy
The reaction (reactants and product) serves as the system and the rest of the universe is
the surroundings. Because energy cannot be created nor destroyed, any energy lost by
the system must be gained by the surroundings. Thus, the heat generated by the
combustion process is transferred from the system to its surroundings. This reaction is
called exothermic process. Figure 7 shows the exothermic profile.
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SOURCE: http://www.emsb.qc.ca/laurenhill/science/exo.html
Figure 7. Exothermic profile
What is that little hill labeled, Ae? Ae means activation energy. This is the energy that
reactants must absorb in order to form products, even if the products will not need the energy to
store within their bonds. So Ae = Hmaximum - Hreactants
In exothermic reactions, the total energy of the products is less than the total energy of the
reactants. The difference is the heat supplied by the system to the surroundings. This is
opposite in an endothermic reaction. Table 2 enumerates some examples of exothermic
and endothermic processes.
Table 2. Some examples of exothermic and endothermic processes
Exothermic processes Endothermic processes

Making ice cubes melting ice cubes
formation of snow in clouds conversion of frost to water vapor
Condensation of rain from water vapor Evaporation of water
forming a cation from an atom in the gas
a candle flame
phase
mixing sodium sulfite and bleach baking bread
rusting iron cooking an egg
Burning sugar producing sugar by photosynthesis
Forming ion pairs separating ion pairs
Combining atoms to make a molecule in the
splitting a gas molecule apart
gas phase
SOURCE: http://antoine.frostburg.edu/chem/senese/101/thermo/faq/exothermic-endothermic-
examples.shtml
Thermochemical Equations
Consider the following equations:

(1) H2O(s) H2O(l) H = 6.01 kJ
(2) CH4(g) + O2(g) CO2(g) + H2O(l) H = -890.4 kJ
In reaction 1, 6.01 kJ of energy is absorbed by the system (ice). Since the change in
enthalpy is positive, this means the reaction is an endothermic process. On the other hand,
reaction 2 describes that burning methane gas releases energy to the surroundings. This
further means that the reaction is an exothermic process and the change in enthalpy must
have a negative sign.
Melting of ice and combustion of methane gas are examples of thermochemical

equations showing the changes in enthalpy and its mass relationships.
Guidelines in Writing and Interpreting Thermochemical Equations
The stoichiometric coefficients always refer to the number of moles of a substance.
Reversing the equations means changing the roles of reactants and products. The
magnitude of H remains the same but the sign changes.
Multiplying both sides of a thermochemical equation by a factor n means changing as well

the H by the same factor.
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Always specify the physical states of the all the reactants and products when writing
thermochemical equations.
Enthalpy and Chemical Reactions
Most physical and chemical changes occur in a constant-pressure condition. To quantify

the heat flow out and into the system, another thermodynamic quantity called enthalpy
(H).
Enthalpy is an extensive property where its magnitude depends on the amount of

substance present.
Similarly with energy, it is impossible to determine the enthalpy of the substance, but
actually it is the change in enthalpy (H) being measured. The enthalpy of reaction, H, is
the difference between the enthalpies of the products and the enthalpies of the reactants:
H = H(products) H(reactants)
For an endothermic reaction, H is positive while H is negative for an exothermic reaction.
Example Problem. The major source of aluminum in the world is bauxite (mostly aluminum
oxide). Its thermal decomposition can be represented by:

Al2O3(s) 2Al(s) + 3/2 O2(g) H = 1676 kJ
How many grams of aluminum can form when 1.000 x 103 kJ of heat is transferred?
Solution: From the balanced equation, 2 mol of Al forms when 1676 kJ of heat is absorbed.
2 mol Al 26.98 g Al
Mass of Al = (1.000 x 103 kJ) x x = 32.20 g Al
1676 kJ 1 mol Al
Heat of Solution
The heat change is equal to the enthalpy change at constant pressure. The heat of solution,
Hsoln, is defined as the heat generated or absorbed when a certain amount of solute
dissolves in a certain amount of solvent. This is given by the equation:
Hsoln = Hsoln - Hcomponents
Heat of Dilution
Preparing a diluted solution, that is, when more solvent is added to lower the concentration
of the solute, means additional heat if absorbed or released.
The heat of dilution is the heat change associated with dilution process.
For an endothermic reaction, more heat will be gained by the same solution from the
surroundings. For an exothermic process and the solution is diluted, more heat will be given
off if additional solvent is added to dilute the solution.
Heat of Vaporization
The heat of vaporization of molar heat of vaporization (H vap) is defined as the energy
required to vaporize 1 mole of a liquid. Usually, heat of vaporization is the measure of
strength of intermolecular forces in a liquid.
The intermolecular force in a liquid is directly related to the molar heat of vaporization.
Accordingly, if the intermolecular attraction is strong, it takes a lot of energy to free
molecules from the liquid phase.
Heat of Fusion
Molar heat of fusion, Hfus, refers to the energy required to melt 1 mole of a solid. When a
liquid evaporates, the molecules separate from one another and more energy is required
to overcome the attractive force holding the molecules.
Hesss Law of Heat Summation
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There are some reactions that proceed too slowly. To determine the change in enthalpy of
the desired reaction, Hesss law is applied.
Hesss law of heat summation states that when reactants are converted to products, the
change in enthalpy is the same whether the reaction takes place in one step or in as series
of steps. This means that when the reaction breaks down into a series of reactions for
which the change in enthalpies of these reactions are measured, thus the change in
enthalpy of the overall reaction can be calculated.
Entropy
The measure of randomness or disorder of a system is called entropy (S).
This means the greater the entropy, the more disorder the system is. On the other hand,
the more ordered a system is, the smaller its entropy. This is further illustrated in Figure 8.
Figure 8. Entropy
SOURCE: http://abyss.uoregon.edu/%7Ejs/images/total_entropy.gif
For any substance, solid are more ordered than in a liquid which in turn more ordered than
a gaseous substance. Thus, the entropy of the three states is:
Ssolid < Sliquid < Sgas
Global Warming and Energy Dependence
Energy consumption increased enormously during the Industrial Revolution and again after
the World War II, and it continues to increase today. The fossil fuels that include coal,
petroleum, and natural gas remain our major sources of energy but posts pollution from
combustion products and global warming.
Carbon dioxide plays a major role in regulating the temperature of the atmosphere. Much
of the sunlight that shines on earth is absorbed by the land and oceans and converted into
heat but atmospheric carbon dioxide does not absorb visible light from sun but absorbs
heat.
For the past years, the level of carbon dioxide increases due mainly to these fossil fuels
being burned. These caused the more trapping of heat called greenhouse effect and
begun to cause global warming.
Entropy and Life
In the popular 1982 textbook Principles of Biochemistry by noted American biochemist

Albert Lehninger, for example, it is argued that the order produced within cells as they grow
and divide is more than compensated for by the disorder they create in their surroundings
in the course of growth and division. In short, according to Lehninger, "living organisms
preserve their internal order by taking from their surroundings free energy, in the form of
nutrients or sunlight, and returning to their surroundings an equal amount of energy as heat
and entropy."
PART II ANALYZING TEST ITEMS
1. Which of the following best describes temperature?

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A. Temperature measures of the total kinetic energy contained in an object.

B. Temperature measures the total energy in something.
C. Temperature measures the kinetic energy in a substance.
D. Temperature measures the average molecular kinetic energy in a substance.
The correct letter is D. Temperature is defined as the measure of the average

molecular kinetic energy in a substance.
2. In which of the following occurs heat transfer by convection?

A. gases only C. both in liquids and gases only
B. liquids only D. solids, liquids and gases
Convection is the transfer of thermal energy through the mass movement of particles over
considerable distances. This only occurs in all fluids which include gases and liquids. The
correct letter is C.
3. A reaction takes place endothermically. Which of the following statements best describes
endothermic reactions?
A. The temperature of the system drops.
B. The temperature of the surrounding drops.
C. The temperature of the surroundings rises.
D. The temperature of the surroundings remains the same.
Endothermic reaction gains heat thereby releasing heat from the surroundings while the
system absorbs heat. The correct answer must be letter B.
4. The heat of solution of NH4NO3 is + 26.2 kJ/mol. What change in heat will take place when
a solution of NH4NO3 is diluted by addition of more water?
A. absorbed C. released
B. evolved D. unchanged
Positive sign for the heat of solution indicates that the process is an endothermic reaction.
This means heat is absorbed. Thus, the correct answer is letter A.
5. Tremendous heat changes occur when warm air is trapped leading to global warming. This
is mainly due to some greenhouse gases. Which of the following is NOT considered as a
greenhouse gas?
A. CO2 C. SO2
B. He D. O3
The correct letter is B. Helium is a noble gas and considered as inert gases as well in the
atmosphere while options A, C and D are all greenhouses gases that contribute to global
warming.
6. What happens to the temperature of boiling water when sufficient amount of heat is added?
A. increases C. increases then decreases
B. decrease D. remains the same
7. The earth receives tremendous heat coming from the sun which could be beneficial at one
point and harmful to a large extent. Which of the following methods of transferring heat is
being illustrated?
A. conduction C. radiation
B. convection D. transduction
8. Which of the following processes is endothermic?

A. O2(g) + 2 H2(g) 2 H2O(g)
B. H2O(g) H2O(l)
C. 3O2(g) + 2CH3OH(g) 2 CO2(g) + 2 H2O(g)
D. H2O(s) H2O(l)
9. Which of the following best illustrates when 1 mol of a substance combines with O 2?
A. heat of combustion C. heat of reaction
B. heat of fusion D. heat of vaporization
10. Which of the following environmental conditions does NOT immediately involve heat
changes?
A. air pollution C. global warming
B. flash flood D. volcanic eruption
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11. Which of the following changes is exothermic?

A. frying of fish C. drying of clothes
B. melting of lard D. burning of gasoline
12. Which of the following is NOT an endothermic process?

A. breaking a covalent bond C. decomposition of limestone
B. photosynthesis D. forming a covalent bond
13. What is the currently adapted SI unit for heat energy?

A. calorie C. kilocalorie
B. joule D. all of the above
14. The amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance by 1 oC is
____.
A. heat capacity C. heat energy
B. specific heat D. molar heat capacity
15. The heat capacity of the substance is usually expressed in unit of ____.
A. J/g oC C. J/gK
B. J/K D. J/oC
16. When the heat (q) involved in a particular process is assigned as (+), this means that ____.
A. the process is spontaneous
B. the process is exothermic
C. the process involves the release of heat
D. the process involves the absorption of heat
17. In a calorimetric experiment using a bomb calorimeter, the increase in temperature of the
system is 5.5oC. If the heat capacity of the bomb calorimeter is 2.0kJ/K, how much heat
is absorbed by the calorimeter?
A. 1512.5 kJ C. 11.0 kJ
B. 284.0 kJ D. 2.75 kJ
18. A 500-g iron rod is cooled from 90oC to 30oC. How much is the amount of heat released
by the metal? Specific heat of iron = 0.451 J/g K
A. 1.35 kJ C. 13.5 kJ
B. 75.1 kJ D. 751 kJ
19. Most fuels contain small amounts of sulfur. When they burn, a gas which pollutes the
atmosphere and causes acid rain is formed. What is the gas formed?
A. carbon monoxide C. sulfur monoxide
B. carbon dioxide D. sulfur dioxide
20. Four pieces of iron are heated in a furnace to different temperatures. Which of the following
will appear at the highest temperature?
A. white C. orange
B. yellow D. red
21. The natural direction of heat flow is from a high-temperature reservoir to a low temperature
reservoir regardless of their respective internal energy. This fact is incorporated in the
_____.
A. first law of thermodynamics C. law of conservation of energy
B. second law of thermodynamics D. law of conservation of entropy
22. What should be done to increase the rate of evaporation of a liquid?

A. increase the temperature C. increase the pressure on the surface
B. decrease the surface area D. all of them
23. Cold packs, whose temperatures are lowered when ammonium nitrate dissolves in water,
are carried by athletic trainers when transporting ice is not possible. Which of the
following is true of this reaction?
A. H < 0, process is exothermic
B. H > 0, process is exothermic
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C. H < 0, process is endothermic

D. H > 0, process is endothermic
24. Given the thermochemical equation:
2SO2 + O2 2SO3 H = -198kJ
What is the enthalpy change for the decomposition of one mole of SO 3?
A. 198 kJ C. 99 kJ
B. -99 kJ D. 396 kJ
25. What way of transferring heat is illustrated when you feel the warmth when you place your
finger at the side of flame of a burning candle?
A. conduction of heat C. radiation of heat
B. convection of heat D. transduction of heat
PART III ENHANCING TEST TAKING SKILLS

1. What will happen to the boiling point of a liquid when the atmospheric pressure decreases?
A. decreases C. cannot be determined
B. increases D. not affected
2. Heat is associated in the formation of a cool breeze from the sea to the land during sunny
day. Which method of heat transfer is exhibited?
A. conduction C. radiation
B. convection D. transduction
3. The burning of charcoal is a spontaneous process, yet heat must first be applied to start a
charcoal fire. Why?
A. The reaction is endothermic and requires heat.
B. Heat causes the bonds to break immediately.
C. Heat is needed to disperse the atoms.
D. Heat supplies the necessary activation energy of the molecules.
4. The chemical system in a constant-volume bomb calorimeter can be best described as a/an
____.
A. closed system C. open system
B. isolated system D. adiabatic system
5. Entropy measures randomness or disorder of a system. Which of the following has the
greatest entropy value for a gaseous carbon dioxide?
A. 1 mol C. 3 mol
B. 2 mol D. 4 mol
6. Why does a piece of metal feel colder than a piece of wood at the same temperature?
A. Metal is colder than wood.
B. Metal allows heat to flow through it easily.
C. Metal has higher specific heat capacity than wood.
D. None of the above.
7. Combustion of methane gas, CH4, liberates 890 kJ of heat. Which of the following
statements is NOT correct?
A. The reaction is an exothermic process.
B. The reaction produces carbon dioxide and water.
C. The reaction absorbs 890 kJ of heat.
D. The reaction releases 890 kJ of heat.
8. Which of the following is NOT allowed to use the constant-pressure calorimeter?

A. heat of combustion C. heat of neutralization
B. heat of solution D. heat of vaporization
9. Which of the following describes what happens when you hold an ice cube in your hand?
A. Heat flows from the ice to your hand; the melting of the ice is endothermic.
B. Heat flows from the ice to y our hand; the melting of the ice is exothermic.
C. Heat flows from your hand to the ice; the melting of the ice is endothermic.
D. Heat flows from your hand to the ice; the melting of the ice is exothermic.
10. Which among the following has the smallest entropy value?
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A. boiling water C. melting ice

B. crystallizing salt D. vaporizing iodine crystals
11. Which process is NOT an endothermic process?

A. baking a bread C. cooking an egg
B. making an ice cube D. melting ice cubes
12. Which of the following materials with the highest heat conductivities?
A. gases C. metals
B. liquids D. nonmetals
13. Two metal strips of equal lengths were tied together. When heated, the strips bend. Which
statements below best explains this?
A. One metal is more elastic than the other.
B. One metal conducts heat better than the other.
C. The heat is not evenly distributed on the strips.
D. One metal expands more than the other for the same increase in temperature.
14. An endothermic reaction causes the surroundings to __________.

A. warm up. C. condense.
B. become acidic. D. decrease in temperature.
15. An exothermic reaction causes the surroundings to ______.

A. warm up. C. expand.
B. become acidic. D. decrease its temperature.
16. A glass containing 200. g of H2O at 20C was placed in a refrigerator. The water loses
11.7 kJ as it cools to a constant temperature. What is its new temperature? The specific
heat of water is 4.184 J/gC.
A. 0.013C C. 6C
B. 4C D. 14C
17. A piece of copper with a mass of 218 g has a heat capacity of 83.9 J/C. What is the
specific heat of copper?
A. 0.385 J/gC C. 2.60 J/gC
B. 1.83 104 J/gC D. 1.32 J/gC
18. As atmospheric pressure increases, the boiling temperature of a liquid ____.

A. increases C. remains the same
B. decrease D. no change
19. What will happen when a vapor condenses into a liquid?

A. It will absorb heat. C. The temperature will rise.
B. It will evolve heat. D. The temperature will drop.
20. Suppose a 50.0 g block of silver (specific heat = 0.2350 J/gC) at 100C is placed in
contact with a 50.0 g block of iron (specific heat = 0.4494 J/gC) at 0C, and the two
blocks are insulated from the rest of the universe. The final temperature of the two
blocks
A. will be higher than 50C. C. will be exactly 50C.
B. will be lower than 50C. D. is unrelated to the composition of the blocks
21. The heat of solution of NH4NO3 is +26.2 kJ/mol. What will happen to the heat when a solution of
NH4NO3 is diluted by addition of more water?
A. absorbed C. released
B. gave off D. remains the same
22. Which of the following refers to the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of a
substance by one degree Celsius?
A. heat C. specific heat
B. heat capacity D. enthalpy
23. Table salt is made to dissolve with sufficient amount of water to produce a solution. During this
process, the change in heat is noted. Which of the following best describes the change in heat?
A. heat of dilution C. heat of vaporization
B. heat of solution D. heat of fusion
24. Which of the following has the highest entropy at 25oC?

A. CH3OH (l) C. MgCO3 (s)
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B. CO (g) D. H2O (l)
25. The heat of combustion of ethane gas burned in the presence of oxygen is -198 kJ.
Which of the following are the correct products of combustion?
A. CO2 C. CO and H2O
B. H2O D. CO2 and H2O
223

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SPECIALIZATION: PHYSICAL SCIENCES

PART I CONTENT UPDATE

The Systems and Its Surroundings

Figure 1. The Universe is the sum total of all

Heat and Temperature

Methods of Heat Transfer in Various Systems

Fast (hot) atoms Slow (cold) atoms Common temperature

Figure 2. Heat transfer by conduction

A good example of the transfer of heat by convection is heating a pot of water on

Figure 3. Convection currents in boiling water

Energy is transferred by electromagnetic radiation.

It does not require a medium to transfer energy unlike in conduction and

Calorimetry is the quantitative measurement of the heat required or evolved during a

Constant Volume Calorimetry

In constant volume calorimetry, it measures the internal energy change between

Figure 4 shows the constant-volume or 'bomb' calorimeter:

Figure 4. Constant-Volume Bomb Calorimeter

Because no heat enters or leaves the system, qsystem is:

qsystem = qcal + qrxn = 0

Constant Pressure Calorimetry

Figure 5 shows an improvised constant-pressure calorimeter.

Figure 5. Constant-pressure calorimeter

Specific Heat and Heat Capacity

Table 1.The specific heats of some common substances

Specific heat is an intensive property whereas heat capacity is an extensive property.

(4.184 J/goC) (50.0 g) = 209 J/oC

where t is the change in temperature: t = t final t initial

Endothermic and Exothermic Reactions

Considering the decomposition on mercury (II) oxide (HgO) at high temperature:

energy + HgO(s) Hg(l) + O2(g)

Figure 6. Endothermic profile

2 H2(g) + O2(g) 2 H2O + energy

Figure 7. Exothermic profile

Table 2. Some examples of exothermic and endothermic processes

Exothermic processes Endothermic processes

Consider the following equations:

Melting of ice and combustion of methane gas are examples of thermochemical

Guidelines in Writing and Interpreting Thermochemical Equations

The stoichiometric coefficients always refer to the number of moles of a substance.

Multiplying both sides of a thermochemical equation by a factor n means changing as well

Enthalpy and Chemical Reactions

Most physical and chemical changes occur in a constant-pressure condition. To quantify

Enthalpy is an extensive property where its magnitude depends on the amount of

For an endothermic reaction, H is positive while H is negative for an exothermic reaction.

Hsoln = Hsoln - Hcomponents

Hesss Law of Heat Summation

The measure of randomness or disorder of a system is called entropy (S).

Ssolid < Sliquid < Sgas

Global Warming and Energy Dependence

Entropy and Life

In the popular 1982 textbook Principles of Biochemistry by noted American biochemist

PART II ANALYZING TEST ITEMS

1. Which of the following best describes temperature?

A. Temperature measures of the total kinetic energy contained in an object.

The correct letter is D. Temperature is defined as the measure of the average

2. In which of the following occurs heat transfer by convection?

8. Which of the following processes is endothermic?

11. Which of the following changes is exothermic?

12. Which of the following is NOT an endothermic process?

13. What is the currently adapted SI unit for heat energy?

22. What should be done to increase the rate of evaporation of a liquid?