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 Writing correctly
G Grammatical Sentences
G1 Subject-verb agreement
G2 Verb forms, tenses, and moods
G3 Pronouns
G4 Adjectives and adverbs
G5 Sentence fragments
G6 Run-on sentences
Writing with sources
R Researching
R1 Thinking like a researcher;
gathering sources
R2 Managing information;
takingnotes responsibly
R3 Evaluating sources

M Multilingual Writers and MLA Papers

ESLChallenges MLA-1 Supporting a thesis
M1 Verbs MLA-2 Citing sources;
M2 Articles avoidingplagiarism
M3 Sentence structure MLA-3 Integrating sources
M4 Using adjectives MLA-4 Documenting sources
M5 Prepositions and idiomatic MLA-5 Manuscript format;
expressions sample research paper
M6 Paraphrasing sources effectively

P Punctuation and Mechanics

APA and CMS Papers
P1 The comma (Coverage parallels MLAs)
P2 Unnecessary commas
P3 The semicolon and the colon APA-1 CMS-1
P4 The apostrophe APA-2 CMS-2
P5 Quotation marks APA-3 CMS-3
P6 Other punctuation marks APA-4 CMS-4
P7 Spelling and hyphenation APA-5 CMS-5
P8 Capitalization
P9 Abbreviations and numbers
P10 Italics
I Index
B Basic Grammar Multilingual menu
B1 Parts of speech Revision symbols
B2 Sentence patterns Detailed menu
B3 Subordinate word groups hackerhandbooks.com/writersref
B4 Sentence types How to use this book

00_HAC_6676_FM_i-xviii.indd 1 18/07/14 5:14 pm

 A
Reference
Eighth Edition

Diana Hacker
Nancy Sommers
Harvard University

Contributing ESL Specialist

Kimberli Huster
Robert Morris University

bedford/st. martins
Boston New York

00_HAC_6676_FM_i-xviii.indd 5 18/07/14 5:14 pm

C Composing and Revising
and Revising
Composing
C
 C
1 68
Composing and Revising
C
C1 Planning, 3
a Assessing the writing
situation, 3
b Exploring your subject, 4
c Drafting and revising a working
thesis statement, 9
d Drafting a plan, 13
C2 Drafting, 15
a Drafting an introduction, 15
b Drafting the body, 17
c Drafting a conclusion, 20
d Managing your les, 21
C3 Reviewing, revising,
and editing, 22
a Developing strategies for
revising with comments, 22
b Approaching global revision in
cycles, 28
c Revising and editing
sentences, 30
d Proofreading the nal
manuscript, 31
e Student writing: Literacy
narrative, 32
Writing guide: Literacy
narrative, 37
C4 Preparing a portfolio;
reecting on your
writing, 38
a Understanding the benets
of reection, 38
b Student writing: Reective letter
for a portfolio, 39
Writing guide: Reective letter, 42
C5 Writing paragraphs, 43
a Focusing on a main point, 43
b Developing the main point, 45
c Choosing a suitable pattern
of organization, 46
d Making paragraphs coherent, 51
e Adjusting paragraph length, 56
C6 Document design: A gallery
of models, 57
MLA essay format, 59
MLA works cited page, 60
APA title page, 61
APA abstract, 62
APA essay format, 63
APA list of references, 63
Business report with a visual, 64
Business letter, 65
Rsum, 66
Professional memo, 67
E-mail message, 68
 Assessing the writing situation C 1 -a 3

Writing is a process of figuring out what you think, not a matter of

recording already developed thoughts. Since its not possible to think
about everything all at once, you will find the process more manageable
if you handle a piece of writing in stages. You will generally move from
planning to drafting to revising, but as your ideas develop, you will find
yourself circling back and returning to earlier stages.

C1 Planning
C 1-a Assess the writing situation.
Begin by taking a look at your writing situation. Consider your subject,
your purpose, your audience, available sources of information, and any
assignment requirements such as genre, length, document design, and
deadlines (see the checklist on p. 5). It is likely that you will make final
decisions about all of these matters later in the writing processafter
a first draft, for examplebut you will become a more effective writer if
you think about as many of them as possible in advance.

Purpose
In many writing situations, part of your challenge will be determining
your purpose, or your reason, for writing. The wording of an assignment
may suggest its purpose. If no guidelines are given, you may need to ask
yourself, Why am I communicating with my readers? or What do I want
to accomplish? College writers most often write for the following purposes:
to inform to analyze
to explain to synthesize
to summarize to propose
to persuade to call readers to action
to evaluate to change attitudes

Audience
Analyzing your audience can often help you determine how to accom-
plish your purposehow much detail or explanation to provide, what
kind of tone and language to use, and what potential objections to
address. The choices you make as you write will tell readers who you
think they are (novices or experts, for example) and will show respect
for your readers values and perspectives. The checklist on page 5
includes questions that will help you analyze your audience and develop
an effective strategy for reaching your readers.

hackerhandbooks.com/writersref
C1 Planning>Exercises: C13

02_HAC_6676_chC_003-068.indd 3 17/07/14 5:01 pm

 4 C 1 -b Planning

NOTE: When you write e-mail messages to instructors, classmates, or

potential employers, respect your reader by using a concise, meaning-
ful subject line; keeping paragraphs brief and focused; proofreading for
careless errors; and paying attention to your tone. Dont write some-
thing that you wouldnt feel comfortable saying directly to your reader.
Finally, avoid forwarding another persons message without permission.

Genre
Pay close attention to the genre, or type of writing assigned. Each genre
is a category of writing meant for a specific purpose and audiencean
essay in a writing class, a lab report in a biology class, a policy memo
in a criminal justice class, or a case study for an education class. Some-
times the genre is yours to choose, and you need to decide if a particular
genrea poster presentation, an audio essay, a Web page, or a podcast,
for examplewill help you communicate your purpose and reach readers.

Academic English What counts as good writing varies from culture

to culture. In some situations, you will need to become familiar with
the writing stylessuch as direct or indirect, personal or impersonal,
plain or embellishedthat are valued by the culture or discipline for
which you are writing.

C 1-b Experiment with ways to explore your subject.

Instead of plunging into a first draft, experiment with one or more tech-
niques for exploring your subject and discovering your purpose: talking
and listening, reading and annotating texts, asking questions, brainstorm-
ing, clustering, freewriting, keeping a journal, blogging. Whatever tech-
nique you turn to, the goal is the same: to generate ideas that will lead
you to a question, a problem, or a topic that you want to explore further.

Talking and listening

Because writing is a process of figuring out what you think about a sub-
ject, it can be useful to try out your ideas on other people. Conversation
can deepen and refine your ideas even before you begin to draft. By
talking and listening to others, you can also discover what they find

hackerhandbooks.com/writersref
C1 Planning > As you write: Thinking like a college writer
C1 Planning > As you write: Exploring a subject

02_HAC_6676_chC_003-068.indd 4 17/07/14 5:01 pm

 Exploring your subject C 1 -b 5

Checklist for assessing the writing situation

Subject
Has the subject been assigned, or are you free to choose your own?
Why is your subject worth writing about? What questions would you
like to explore? How might readers benefit from reading about it?
Do you need to narrow your subject to a more specific topic (because
of length restrictions, for instance)?

Purpose and audience

Why are you writing: To inform readers? To persuade them? To call
them to action? Some combination of these?
Who are your readers? How well informed are they about the subject?
Will your readers resist any of your ideas? What possible objections
will you need to anticipate and counter?

Genre
What genretype of writingdoes your assignment require: A
report? A proposal? An analysis of data? An essay?
If the genre is not assigned, what genre is appropriate for your
subject, purpose, and audience?
Does the genre require a specific design format or method of
organization?

Sources of information
Where will your information come from: Reading? Research? Direct
observation? Interviews? Questionnaires?
What type of evidence suits your subject, purpose, audience, and genre?
What documentation style is required: MLA? APA? CMS (Chicago)?

Length and document design

Do you have length specifications? If not, what length seems
appropriate, given your subject, purpose, audience, and genre?
Is a particular format required? If so, do you have guidelines or
examples to consult?
How might visualsgraphs, tables, imageshelp you convey
information?

Reviewers and deadlines

Who will be reviewing your draft in progress: Your instructor? A
writing tutor? Your classmates?
What are your deadlines? How much time will you need for the
various stages of writing, including proofreading and printing or
posting the final draft?

02_HAC_6676_chC_003-068.indd 5 17/07/14 5:01 pm

 APA
CMS
APA and CMS
Papers APA CMS
 APA/
CMS APA and CMS Papers
Directory to APA in-text citation
models, 473
Directory to APA reference list
models, 473
APA Papers
APA-1 Supporting a thesis, 475
a Forming a working thesis, 475
b Organizing your ideas, 476
c Using sources to inform and
support your argument, 476
APA-2 Citing sources; avoiding
plagiarism, 478
a Understanding how the APA
system works, 479
b Understanding what
plagiarism is, 479
c Using quotation marks around
borrowed language, 479
471 576
d Putting summaries and
paraphrases in your own
words, 481
APA-3 Integrating sources, 482
APA CMS
a Using quotations
appropriately, 482
b Using signal phrases to
integrate sources, 484
c Synthesizing sources, 487
APA-4 Documenting sources, 489
a APA in-text citations, 489
b APA list of references, 495
APA CITATIONS AT A GLANCE
Article in a journal or magazine, 502
Article from a database, 504
Book, 509
Section in a Web document, 516
APA-5 Manuscript format; sample
research paper, 521
a APA manuscript format, 521
b Sample APA research paper,
525
Directory to CMS-style notes and
bibliography entries, 535
CMS (Chicago) Papers
CMS-1 Supporting a thesis, 536
a Forming a working thesis, 536
b Organizing your ideas, 537
c Using sources to inform and
support your argument, 537
CMS-2 Citing sources; avoiding
plagiarism, 539
a Using the CMS system for
citing sources, 539
b Understanding what
plagiarism is, 540
c Using quotation marks around
borrowed language, 540
d Putting summaries and
paraphrases in your own
words, 541
CMS-3 Integrating sources, 542
a Using quotations
appropriately, 542
b Using signal phrases to
integrate sources, 545
CMS-4 Documenting sources, 548
a First and later notes, 548
b Bibliography, 549
c Model notes and
bibliography entries, 549
CMS CITATIONS AT A GLANCE
Book, 552
Article in a journal, 556
Article from a database, 558
Letter in a published collection, 562
Primary source from a Web site, 566
CMS-5 Manuscript format;
sample pages, 567
a CMS manuscript format, 567
b Sample CMS pages, 570

Directory to APA in-text citation models
1. Basic format for a quotation,490
2. Basic format for a summary or a
paraphrase, 490
3. Work with two authors, 490
4. Work with three to five authors, 491
5. Work with six or more authors, 491
6. Work with unknown author, 491
7. Organization as author, 491
8. Authors with the same last name,
492
9. Two or more works by the same
author in the same year, 492
10. Two or more works in the same
parentheses, 492
Directory to APA reference list models
General guidelines for listing
authors
1. Single author, 498
2. Two to seven authors, 498
3. Eight or more authors, 498
4. Organization as author, 498
5. Unknown author, 499
6. Author using a pseudonym
(pen name) or screen name, 499
7. Two or more works by the
same author, 499
8. Two or more works by the
same author in the same
year, 499
9. Editor, 499
10. Author and editor, 500
11. Translator, 500
12. Editor and translator, 500
Articles and other short works
13. Article in a journal,500
a. Print, 500
b. Web, 501
c. Database, 501
14. Article in a magazine, 501
Directory to CMS-style notes and bibliography entries is on page 535.
22_HAC_6676_ChAPA_473-534.indd 473
APA directories APA 473
11. Multiple citations to the same
work in one paragraph, 492
12. Web source, 493
a. No page numbers, 493
b. Unknown author, 493
c. Unknown date, 493
13. An entire Web site, 493
14. Multivolume work, 494
15. Personal communication, 494
16. Course materials, 494
17. Part of a source (chapter, figure), 494
18. Indirect source (source quoted in
another source), 494
19. Sacred or classical text, 495
a. Print, 501
b. Web, 501
c. Database, 505
15. Article in a newspaper, 505
a. Print, 505
b. Web, 505
16. Abstract, 506
a. Abstract of a journal article,
506
b. Abstract of a paper, 506
17. Supplemental material, 506
18. Article with a title in its title, 506
19. Letter to the editor, 506
20. Editorial or other unsigned article,
506
21. Newsletter article, 507
22. Review, 507
23. Published interview, 507
24. Article in a reference work
(encyclopedia, dictionary, wiki),
507
a. Print, 507
b. Web, 508
25. Comment on an online article,
508
24/07/14 11:36 am
 474 APA APA and CMS papers
Directory to APA reference list models, continued
26. Testimony before a legislative body,
508
27. Paper presented at a meeting or
symposium (unpublished), 508
28. Poster session at a conference, 508
Books and other long works
29. Basic format for a book, 508
a. Print, 508
b. Web (or online library), 510
c. E-book, 510
d. Database, 510
30. Edition other than the first, 510
31. Selection in an anthology or a
collection, 510
a. Entire anthology, 510
b. Selection in an anthology, 511
32. Multivolume work, 511
a. All volumes, 511
b. One volume, with title, 511
33. Introduction, preface, foreword, or
afterword, 511
34. Dictionary or other reference work,
511
35. Republished book, 511
36. Book with a title in its title, 512
37. Book in a language other than
English, 512
38. Dissertation, 512
a. Published, 512
b. Unpublished, 512
39. Conference proceedings, 512
40. Government document, 512
41. Report from a private organization,
512
42. Legal source, 513
43. Sacred or classical text, 513
Web sites and parts
of Web sites
44. Entire Web site, 513
22_HAC_6676_ChAPA_473-534.indd 474
45. Document from a Web site, 513
46. Section in a Web document, 514
47. Blog post, 514
48. Blog comment, 514
Audio, visual, and multimedia
sources
49. Podcast, 514
50. Video or audio on the Web, 515
51. Transcript of an audio or a video file,
515
52. Film (DVD, BD, or other format),
515
53. Television or radio program, 515
a. Series, 515
b. Episode on the air, 518
c. Episode on the Web, 518
54. Music recording, 518
55. Lecture, speech, or address, 518
56. Data set or graphic representation of
data (graph, chart, table), 518
57. Mobile application software (app),
519
58. Video game, 519
59. Map, 519
60. Advertisement, 519
61. Work of art or photograph,
519
62. Brochure or fact sheet,
520
63. Press release, 520
64. Presentation slides, 520
65. Lecture notes or other course
materials, 520
Personal communication
and social media
66. E-mail, 520
67. Online posting, 520
68. Twitter post (tweet), 521
69. Facebook post, 521
24/07/14 11:36 am
 Forming a working thesis APA- 1 a 475

This tabbed section shows how to document sources in APA style for
the social sciences and fields such as nursing and business, and in
CMS (Chicago) style for history and some humanities classes. It also
includes discipline-specific advice on three important topics: sup-
porting a thesis, citing sources and avoiding plagiarism, and inte-
grating sources.

note: For advice on finding and evaluating sources and on managing

information in courses across the disciplines, see the tabbed section R,
Researching.

APA Papers
Most instructors in the social sciences and some instructors in other
disciplines will ask you to document your sources with the American
Psychological Association (APA) system of in-text citations and refer-
ences described in APA-4. You face three main challenges when writing
a social science paper that draws on sources: (1) supporting a thesis,
(2) citing your sources and avoiding plagiarism, and (3) integrating quo-
tations and other source material.
Examples in this section are drawn from one students research
for a review of the literature on treatments for childhood obesity. Luisa
Miranos paper appears on pages 52634.

APA-1 Supporting a thesis

Most research assignments ask you to form a thesis, or main idea, and
to support that thesis with well-organized evidence. In a paper review-
ing the literature on a topic, the thesis analyzes the often competing
conclusions drawn by a variety of researchers.

APA-1a Form a working thesis.

Once you have read a range of sources, considered your issue from dif-
ferent perspectives, and chosen an entry point in the research conversa-
tion (see R1-b), you are ready to form a working thesis: a one-sentence

hackerhandbooks.com/writersref
APA-1 Supporting a thesis > Exercises: APA 11 and APA 12

22_HAC_6676_ChAPA_473-534.indd 475 24/07/14 11:36 am

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