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A Synergistic Model of Organizational Career Development Kerry Bernes
A Synergistic Model of Organizational Career Development Kerry Bernes
OF ORGANIZATIONAL
CAREER DEVELOPMENT
KERRY R. RERNES
Published by: :ii
Life-Role Development Group Limited A : iii;. ; > y " v '
: r
Kerry B. Bernes
Printed in Canada
ABSTRACT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The writer is deeply grateful to m a n y people w h o have supported the completion of this
project. O f particular significance has b e e n the challenging yet gentle guidance of the
writer's supervisor, Dr. Kris M a g n u s s o n . This brilliant scholar has impressed upon the
writer the importance of not giving u p w h e n external barriers interfere with o n e ' s
passionate pursuits. Although this project had several difficult points, Dr. M a g n u s s o n ' s
empathy, optimism, thoughtful c o m m e n t s , and insights greatly facilitated the m o v e m e n t
toward completion.
Special thanks are also extended to D e a n n a for her attention to detail, optimistic outlook,
and continuous encouragement w h e n the project felt like it w a s never going to get done.
Finally, the author wishes to thank his wife and best friend, Jennifer, for her support and
encouragement not only for this project but for all of the writer's pursuits. H e r
unwavering commitment, dedication, and patience greatly enhanced this achievement.
5
TABLE OF CONTENTS
page
Chapter 1: I N T R O D U C T I O N 11
Chapter 2: I N D I V I D U A L C A R E E R D E V E L O P M E N T 16
H o l l a n d ' s Theory 17
K r u m b o l t z ' s Theory 18
S u p e r ' s Theory 20
T i e d e m a n ' s Theory 21
Summary 27
Chapter 3 : O R G A N I Z A T I O N A L C A R E E R D E V E L O P M E N T 29
Schein's Model 37
Hall's Model 40
Summary 48
er 4: T H E P R O P O S E D M O D E L 50
The E m p l o y e e 54
Example 62
The Organization 63
Organizational Competencies 71
Example 74
Balancing/Interactive Processes 75
Example 79
Summary 80
Chapter 5: A P P L I C A T I O N S O F T H E P R O P O S E D M O D E L 82
Philosophical Level 84
Reciprocal Confirmation 87
Strategic Level 88
Critical Discourse 90
Practical Level 92
Monitoring and M a n a g e m e n t 95
Chapter 6: C O N C L U S I O N ' 98
Summary 98
Global Validity
Model Propositions
Implications
Conclusion
REFERENCES
9
LIST OF TABLES
page
Level 87
LIST OF FIGURES
page
Development 85
K e y Tasks 86
Tasks 89
Tasks 93
11
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Griffith (1980, 1981) adds a third component called 'life p l a n n i n g ' to the above definition
of organizational career development. T h e incorporation of life planning services (e.g.,
family/marital counselling, alcohol/drug counselling) as a component of organizational
career development reflects the view that the w o r k role is significant in the lives of m o s t
people and that organizations have a responsibility to m i n i m i z e the personal p r o b l e m s
that m a y affect the workplace (Herr & Cramer, 1992). Although Griffith (1980, 1981)
12
Current M o d e l s of
Organizational Career D e v e l o p m e n t
Lofquist and D a w i s (1969), Schein (1978), Hall (1986), and Brousseau et al. (1996) have
all proposed m o d e l s of organizational career development designed for use in
organizations. T h e Lofquist and D a w i s (1969) m o d e l is influenced greatly b y the trait-
and-factor theory o f career development, w h i c h emphasizes the use o f n u m e r o u s
standardized assessment instruments to m e a s u r e the degree of correspondence between
the w o r k personality of the individual and the w o r k environment.
Schein's (1978) model proposes a linear sequence of interventions based upon the
assumption that early, mid-, and late career issues follow each other. This assumption
appears valid for the time period in which it w a s written and within the context of static
organizations wherein replicating past successes w a s the goal. However, the idea of
employment over such a long time frame is not as valid within t o d a y ' s world of w o r k or
within the context of changing, dynamic organizations.
Adult career development occurs within larger social and organizational systems.
Therefore, Chapter 3 will begin b y reviewing relevant aspects of general systems theory
as they relate to organizational career development interventions. Conceptualizations of
organizational career development and the current trends and issues facing organizations
are discussed, and current m o d e l s of organizational career development are described and
critiqued. Chapter 3 concludes b y reviewing the practice of organizational career
development. T h e review of the literature, presented in Chapters 2 and 3, provides an
understanding of the individual and organizational issues that are m o s t pertinent to the
design of a n e w m o d e l of organizational career development. B y discussing the
individual/constructivist perspective in Chapter 2 and the organizational/systems ;
Based o n the insights garnered from Chapters 2 and 3, Chapter 4 presents a model of
organizational career development that is designed to balance individual and
organizational needs. T h e m o d e l possesses balancing and interactive processes for each
of three proposed levels o f individual and organizational needs. I n Chapter 5,
applications of the proposed m o d e l are discussed within a three-dimensional framework.
This framework is anchored around central issues, core strategies, and key tasks for each
level of the m o d e l . Also provided is a list of specific strategies and examples for
balancing the needs and goals o f the individual and the organization at each level of the
model.
16
Chapter 2
Krumboltz (1994) cautions readers to avoid choosing one theory as each theory has the
capacity to suit different purposes. B y discussing and remaining open to the strengths of
each theory, w e m a y collectively synthesize ideas for inclusion in a n e w m o d e l of
organizational career development. Therefore, the strengths o f the above four theories
will n o w b e discussed so that their contributions m a y b e highlighted and incorporated
into the proposed model of organizational career development. A critique of the current
models o f organizational career development is presented in Chapter 3 .
17
H o l l a n d ' s Theory
Holland (1985) suggests that individuals can b e classified into o n e o f six basic
personality types: realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional.
Although one of the six types usually predominates in characterizing people, a
compilation of the three m o s t prevalent types results in a ' H o l l a n d profile' or a three-
letter code. These three-letter codes characterize people and occupations.
Holland (1985) believes that special hereditary factors (such as biological predispositions
governing stature, physical abilities, size, intelligence, social class, gender, etc.) and
environmental experiences (such as those within the h o m e , school, c o m m u n i t y , peer
group, etc.) c o m b i n e to reinforce and influence o n e ' s values, personality traits, and
interests. T h u s , the personality type a person b e c o m e s and the vocational environment
one seeks out can b e affected b y the interaction of hereditary and environmental factors.
t
H o l l a n d ' s theory is simple and possesses a great deal of explanatory power. His ability to
m e a s u r e and report the degree of congruence between an individual and the occupational
environment through the use o f his Self-Directed Search (Holland, 1977) remain the
strengths of his theory and represent valuable contributions to the field of organizational
career development. F o r example, the use of his Self-Directed Search can significantly
help individuals in the process of self-assessment and can aid organizations in the
selection of employees.
Y o u n g (1984) and Collin and Y o u n g (1986) argue for a broader understanding of career
choice and development b y suggesting that ecological variables (e.g., political, social,
and technological factors) need to b e considered b y theorists like Holland. S o m e of these
broader factors are emphasized m o r e in K r u m b o l t z ' s social learning approach to career
decision m a k i n g (Krumboltz, 1979; Mitchell & Krumboltz, 1990).
K r u m b o l t z ' s Theory
In order to understand career choice and development, K r u m b o l t z ' s theory considers four
factors: genetic e n d o w m e n t and special abilities, environmental conditions and events,
learning experiences, and task approach skills. T h e theory suggests that the above factors
c o m b i n e to " . . . influence the career decision-making path for any individual" (Mitchell
& Krumboltz, 1990, p . 148).
K r u m b o l t z ' s first factor suggests that genetic endowment and special abilities are " . . .
inherited qualities that m a y set limits on educational and occupational preferences and
skills" (Mitchell & Krumboltz, 1990, p . 148). These include race, sex, and physical
appearance and characteristics such as irreversible physical handicaps. Genetics and
special abilities m a y allow people to benefit, in greater or lesser w a y s , from the
environmental conditions to w h i c h they are exposed.
Environmental conditions and events are generally outside the control of any one
individual. T h e y include the n u m b e r and nature o f j o b opportunities, n u m b e r and nature
o f training opportunities, social policies and procedures for selecting trainees and
workers, rate of return for various occupations, labour laws and union rules, physical
events (e.g., earthquakes, floods, droughts, etc.), availability of and d e m a n d for natural
resources, technological developments, changes in social organization, family training
experiences and resources, educational systems, and neighbourhood and c o m m u n i t y
19
Mitchell and K r u m b o l t z (1990) also suggest that the " . . . development of career
preferences and skills and the selection of a particular career are influenced b y the
individual's past learning experiences" (p. 150). Mitchell and Krumboltz believe that
these experiences m a y or m a y not b e readily retrievable b y m e m o r y d u e to the infinite
and extremely complex patterns of stimuli and reinforcement. However, these learning
experiences, whether instrumental or associative, have a large impact on w h a t individuals
will perceive to b e important in a career. For example, occupational stereotypes often
influence individuals in their choice of a career.
According to Mitchell and Krumboltz (1990), task approach skills are the transferable
skills that are brought to n e w tasks or problems. They include performance standards and
values, work habits, perceptual and cognitive processes, mental sets, and emotional
responses (Mitchell & Krumboltz, 1990). Learning experiences, genetic characteristics,
special abilities, and environmental influences c o m b i n e to influence o n e ' s task approach
skills. These skills can b e enhanced or modified b y individuals to meet n e w demands.
"Task approach skills are used to cope with the environment, to interpret it in relation to
self-observations and world-view generalizations, and to m a k e overt and covert
predictions about future e v e n t s " (Mitchell & Krumboltz, 1990, p . 159).
The above four factors all interact and are actively interpreted b y individuals.
Interpretations are used b y individuals to formulate generalizations and to construct their
o w n sense of reality. These generalizations and constructions result in beliefs about
themselves and the world of work. Ultimately, beliefs influence individuals' aspirations
and actions (Mitchell & Krumboltz, 1990).
Mitchell and Krumboltz (1990) suggest that effective career planning occurs w h e n
individuals: (a) h a v e accurately examined their self-observation generalizations about
their interests, values, and skills; (b) h a v e assessed their world-view generalizations about
the nature of occupations; and (c) possess the decision-making and task approach skills
that are necessary for carrying out their plans and/or goals.
role in interpreting and subsequently acting upon his or her environment. These ideas,
along with K r u m b o l t z ' s emphasis on general counselling interventions such as cognitive
restructuring, help individuals to b e c o m e aware of and even change the effects of prior
learning. These contributions are valuable to the field of organizational career
development because they m a y help individuals to sort out what they truly want. In
addition, the theory does not neglect contextual constraints arising from economic,
political, or social events that m a y b e outside the control of individuals. Unfortunately,
Krumboltz (1979) does not place sufficient emphasis on an individual's other life roles
(outside of a specific occupation) that m a y b e utilized to enhance satisfaction in life and
career. K r u m b o l t z ' s theory also appears to emphasize the process of decision m a k i n g for
one choice and, therefore, does not highlight the p o w e r of decision m a k i n g over the
course o f a life span. Fortunately, S u p e r ' s (1990) theory is very strong in these areas.
S u p e r ' s Theory
Super (1990) describes a career as " . . . the life course of a person encountering a series
of developmental tasks and attempting to handle t h e m in such a w a y as to b e c o m e the
kind of person he or she w a n t s to b e " (pp. 225-226). W h a t o n e w a n t s to be or b e c o m e is
a function of o n e ' s biological, geographical, and social influences combined with
intelligence, needs, aptitudes, values, interests, special aptitudes, personality, and
achievements. All of these variables interact to determine o n e ' s self-concept. Super
(1990) depicts these relationships in his A r c h w a y Model. O n e side o f the model
summarizes the societal/environmental influences while the other side of the m o d e l lists
s o m e of the individual factors that collectively determine o n e ' s self-concept.
Super (1990) claims that society confronts individuals with developmental tasks w h e n
they reach certain levels of biological, educational, and vocational attainment.
Consequently, he places a large emphasis o n career adaptability. Adaptability refers to
an individual's readiness to recognize the developmental tasks h e or she faces or m a y
face in o n e ' s current or next career stage. Adaptability also includes preparing to cope
with such tasks.
S u p e r ' s comprehensive model o f career counselling and his emphasis on a variety of life
roles through w h i c h individuals can obtain satisfaction in life represent great
contributions to the field of career development. These contributions have provided the
field of organizational career development with m a n y useful m e t h o d s of completing self-
assessments and stimulating action planning for individuals. Unfortunately, the role of
decision m a k i n g is less emphasized in S u p e r ' s theory. Miller-Tiedeman and Tiedeman
(1990) fill this gap b y emphasizing the subjective and intuitive elements within career
decision m a k i n g . Consequently, their ideas, along with S u p e r ' s propositions, provide for
a fuller understanding o f career choice and development.
T i e d e m a n ' s Theory
believed that the role and process o f personal choice and decision m a k i n g w a s absent
from the existing theories of career development.
The accommodation phase reflects the stages individuals encounter after beginning to
implement a decision and is comprised of three stages: induction, reformation, and
integration. A s clients begin to implement their choices, they c o m e into contact with
people and the realities of the settings they enter. During the induction stage, they are
receptive to learning from others to ensure their behaviour meets the standards o f the
environment. After successfully m o v i n g through the induction stage, people b e c o m e less
receptive to learning and m o r e assertive. Thus, in the reformation stage, they begin to
influence their environment. In the final stage, people experience an integration or a
synthesis of their goals with the goals of others in the environment. The o u t c o m e is a
sense of equilibrium and a coherent sense of purpose. Tiedeman and O ' H a r a (1963) do
not believe individuals need to go through all steps in order; instead, they suggest that
some steps m a y occur simultaneously and that decisions m a y b e reversed.
Tiedeman and O ' H a r a (1963) believe that the process of career development occurs
through a continual process of differentiation and reintegration. "Differentiating is a
matter of separating experiences; integrating is a matter of structuring t h e m into a m o r e
comprehensive whole. Hierarchical structuring is w h a t happens w h e n a n e w and m o r e
comprehensive w h o l e is formed from the continuous separating and m e r g i n g that go on
daily and momentarily with each o f u s " (Miller-Tiedeman & Tiedeman, 1990, p . 312).
T h e p r o c e s s of occupational change, and change in general, permits opportunities for
differentiation and reintegration.
Miller-Tiedeman and Tiedeman (1990) believe that people are self-organizing systems,
capable o f creating their o w n realities and acting o n their worlds. "Self-construction and-,
career m a k i n g are fashioning life as y o u w a n t itseeing yourself as the designer and
builder of y o u r life" (Miller-Tiedeman & Tiedeman, 1990, p . 329).
A s suggested b y Super (1992) and Krumboltz (1994), the area of career development is
very complex. Fortunately, H o l l a n d ' s theory h a s provided researchers and practitioners
with s o m e m e t h o d s for matching individuals to the world of work. M e a n w h i l e ,
K r u m b o l t z ' s theory h a s highlighted the broader environmental and social influences upon
career choice and development. S u p e r ' s comprehensive m o d e l o f career counselling and
his emphasis o n a variety o f life roles through w h i c h individuals can obtain satisfaction in
life has also helped to reduce the complexity of career development. Miller-Tiedeman
and T i e d e m a n ' s emphasis o n crystallizing personal realities and visions in order to
24
The application of constructivist thought has recently resulted in n e w insights into the
realm of career development. Congruent with S u p e r ' s (1992) and K r u m b o l t z ' s (1994)
notion o f the need for m a n y theories to help explain complex p h e n o m e n a like career
development, Lent (1994) suggests that constructivist thought m a y h a v e something to add
to existing theories of career development and m a y therefore help to expand our ability to
synthesize career development theory. The remainder of this chapter will therefore
provide an overview of the philosophical and historical foundations of constructivism and
constructivist approaches to career development.
Several writers provide a brief account o f the historical and philosophical roots of
constructivist thought. This is usually done for the purpose of painting a philosophical
backdrop for the arguments the authors are attempting to m a k e . Throughout these
accounts, three m a i n philosophers from the 18th and 19th centuries are consistently cited:
Vico (Candy, 1987; M a h o n e y , 1988; Peavy, 1994; Phillips, 1995; V o n Glaserfeld, 1989),
Kant (Gergen, 1985; G r o s s m a n Dean, 1993; M a h o n e y , 1988; Peavy, 1994; Phillips,
1995), and Vaihinger ( M a h o n e y , 1988; Peavy, 1994).
Vaihinger " . . . w a s the first to offer an extensive and formal presentation of s o m e of the
m o s t basic features of m o d e r n constructivism" (Mahoney, 1988, p p . 22-23). His
philosophy of ' a s i f provided t h e basic conceptual framework for A d l e r ' s theory of
personality. " T h e s e ' a s i f notions paved the w a y for therapists to help clients to try
experimenting with n e w w a y s o f perceiving and acting in the w o r l d " (Peavy, 1994, p . 5).
Vaihinger believed that h u m a n thought w a s purposive and that thoughts m a y not
necessarily b e actual or valid representations; however, these representations provide a
25
Cochran (1992) believes that a deeper form of career counselling can be derived from
recovering the meaning o f agents w h o live a career and allowing them to author " . . . life
stories rather than just completing general t a s k s " (p. 196). Essentially, this means-that
individuals need to create personal visions or directions for their lives, balance these
visions with contextual constraints, and act u p o n their visions of h o w things ought to be.
Cochran (1994) states that people are helped to exercise agency through exploring
meaningful motives, setting goals, m a k i n g choices, planning, striving, and reflecting.
Therefore, career counselling, according to C o c h r a n (1994), is about helping a client to
achieve " . . . m o v e m e n t toward the agent o n e w a n t s to b e and the story one w a n t s to l i v e "
(p. 211).
F r o m this quote, one can see that Super (1992), Krumboltz (1994), and Savickas (1993) *
all share the view that multiple theories and m e t h o d s are necessary in helping us to
c o m p r e h e n d the complexities of individual career development. -
Another basic tenet of constructivist thought revolves around the notion of social
responsibility. Constructivists value respectful, collaborative, and e m p o w e r i n g
interactions wherein m e a n i n g s and realities are constantly negotiated (Peavy, 1994;
P e a v y & Gray, 1992). Negotiated m e a n i n g s and realities allow opinions to b e fully
expressed, understood, and respected, and therefore facilitate responsible interactions
between people.
Summary
This review has highlighted s o m e useful ideas for the individual side o f a n e w model o f
organizational career development. In the next chapter, the focus of attention shifts from
understanding individual career development to the larger systems in which individuals
live their careers.
29
Chapter 3
Adult career development occurs within larger social and organizational systems. A
multitude of interconnections potentially influences the career planning of individuals >
and the career m a n a g e m e n t of employees. A systems perspective allows one to consider
and understand the complexity of the interconnections that potentially influence the
career development of individuals within organizational settings. In Chapter 2,
conceptions of individual career development w e r e explored; this chapter begins b y
discussing the relevant aspects of general systems theory as they relate to organizational
career development services. S o m e conceptualizations o f organizational career
development are also provided. Next, the current trends and issues facing organizations
are discussed. Within this context, existing m o d e l s of organizational career development
are critically evaluated, and the practice of organizational career development is
reviewed. Finally, a s u m m a r y o f the strengths and weaknesses of existing approaches is
presented, and a case for the need for a n e w model is m a d e .
General systems theory suggests that for anything to exist it has to b e related to
something else. In other w o r d s , to b e is to b e related (Bowler, 1981). Therefore, an
entity that is related to nothing cannot e x i s t " . . . because there is n o w a y to describe its
presence in any situation" (Bowler, 1 9 8 1 , p . 3). Consequently, G S T is concerned with
h o w things are related to each other (i.e., the patterns of relations). According to G S T ,
things m a y b e related but still possess boundaries. The G S T concept o f ' h o I o n ' expands
upon this idea. A holon refers to an entity that is a w h o l e and a part at the same time,
depending on h o w one looks at it (Koestler, 1967). This concept m o v e s o n e beyond the
'either/or' position of reductionism versus holism b y encouraging the study of
p h e n o m e n a from both reductionist and holistic perspectives. T h e act of being a w h o l e
and a part at the same time is referred to as the 'Janus effect' (Koestler, 1967).
O p e n systems have permeable boundaries. They influence, and are influenced by, their
environment. Closed systems have impermeable boundaries and therefore d o n o t allow
for any input into or output from the system. Consequently, closed systems tend toward
entropy (a lack of order, randomness, disorder, or chaos) (Bowler, 1981). B y being
selectively open, systems can assimilate and/or a c c o m m o d a t e constructive inputs while
rejecting destructive inputs. In the context of organizational career development, an open
system allows for the mutual exchange of growthful inputs between the organization and
its employees. In this manner, mutual growth is fostered w h e n the organization allows
itself to b e influenced b y its employees. Similarly, b y remaining open, employees can b e
stimulated b y the organization. B e i n g selectively open is a key concept within G S T . B y
not being selective, individuals and organizations run the risk of being influenced b y
anythingeven things that are incongruent with their personal visions. A n
organization's vision or an individual's vision provides the m e a n s for regulating the
system and, consequently, preventing the system from information overload, conflict,
and/or confusion. Thus, having a flexible vision or purpose permits individuals* and
organizations to remain selectively open and avoid the state of entropy associated with
closed systems.
T h e G S T concept of multiple causality is another key idea for consideration in the realm
of organizational career development. Multiple causality refers to the view that it m a y
take a n u m b e r of things working together to produce a particular effect (von Bertalanffy,
1968). T h e G S T concept of multiple causality is similar to the Gestalt claim that the
w h o l e is greater than the sum of its parts. In other words, b y combining things w e can
create an impact that is larger than the s u m of all the pieces. This is often referred to as a
synergistic reaction.
The w o r d " s y n e r g y " c o m e s from the field of chemistry and medicine w h e r e it is
used to describe the reality that certain combinations of chemicals or drugs create
a reaction greater than the sum of individual reactions. For example, w h e n a
person combines the intake of alcohol with Valium, the resulting impact on the
physiological system is m u c h greater than the reactions created b y the
independent action of each drug. Because of the p o w e r of this synergistic
reaction, taking the drugs in tandem can bring lethal result. (Carlsen, 1988, p p .
26-27)
31
The above example demonstrates the potential negative results of synergistic reactions.
However, the e x a m p l e speaks to the p o w e r that can b e achieved w h e n multiple events are
intentionally combined. This idea, along with the concept of ensuring systems remain
selectively open, represents some of the m o s t powerful ideas that G S T has to offer the
realm of organizational career development.
A s will b e seen toward the end of this chapter, organizational career development
interventions to date have existed in a state of fragmentation. They are frequently
disconnected from each other and from other h u m a n resources initiatives. In addition,
they are frequently unbalanced in favour of services provided to the benefit of
organizations. Such one-sidedness reflects potentially closed organizations that
underestimate the contribution employees can m a k e to the organization w h e n provided
with the appropriate opportunities for career development.
Miles and S n o w (1991) use the concept of 'best fit' to articulate the alignment of multiple
strategies within organizations. T h e y define fit as " . . . a process as well as a statea
dynamic search that seeks to align the organization with its environment and to arrange
resources internally in support of that alignment" (p. 633). Miles and S n o w (1991) also
suggest that
. . . it is b e c o m i n g increasingly evident that a simple though profound core
concept is at the heart of m a n y organization and m a n a g e m e n t research findings^as
well as m a n y of the proposed remedies for industrial and organizational renewal.
The concept is that of fit a m o n g an organization's strategy, structure, and
m a n a g e m e n t processes, (p. 632)
Miles and S n o w (1991) illustrate that the most successful organizations ensure that their
strategies, processes, and structures are all w o r k i n g in concert with each other.
Systems theory suggests that multiple strategies and services need to b e combined to
synergistically create opportunities for employees and organizations. Fortunately, the
G S T concept of equifinality suggests that these strategies and services can b e combined
in a multitude of different w a y s because open systems can m o v e to s o m e final state
through a variety o f m e t h o d s and from a variety of initial states. This idea reinforces the
importance of approaching employees and organizations from the perspective of their
uniqueness and individualizing p r o g r a m s to meet their particular needs and goals. W h e n
one adopts a systems perspective, organizational career development can b e viewed as a
series of interrelated services, each working to help organizations and individuals to
reach their respective goals.
Conceptualizations of
Organizational Career D e v e l o p m e n t
Gilley (1989) articulates that the " . . . purpose o f career development is to help employees
analyze their abilities and interests so as to better m a t c h personnel n e e d s for growth and
32
development with the needs o f the organization" (p. 50). Therefore, career development
systems are ideally implemented in an organized, formalized, and planned m a n n e r and
are designed to balance individual and organizational needs. T h e ongoing set o f services
is ideally linked to corporate h u m a n resource initiatives (Leibowitz, Farren, & K a y e ,
1986).
Griffith (1980, 1981) adds a third component called 'life p l a n n i n g ' t o Leibowitz and
L e a ' s (1986) description o f organizational career development. This category, within the
description o f organizational career development services, represents the view that w o r k
is a central place in the lives of m o s t people and that m a n y stressors are caused b y the
workplace (Herr & Cramer, 1992). In order to assuage these stressors, organizations
often provide life planning services (e.g., stress management, time management, family
counselling, etc.).
Career development responsibilities are seen to b e shared b y both t h e individual and the
organization (Hall, 1986; Schein, 1978). T h e individual's role is to engage in self-
assessment and skills identification, to w o r k towards setting realistic career objectives,
and to complete action planning to meet those goals. T h e organization's role is t o assist
individuals b y providing the m e a n s and opportunities for career planning while meeting
its o w n needs for qualified employees. Therefore, organizations need t o combine a blend
of approaches into a comprehensive p r o g r a m directed t o the unique n e e d s and concerns
of their employees and their organization.
The concepts and definitions provided above form the foundation for m o d e l s o f
organizational career development. However, before addressing those m o d e l s , the
general context in w h i c h those m o d e l s m u s t operatethat is, the trends and issues facing
organizations todaywill b e explored. Such a strategy is consistent with a general
systems approach because the current trends and issues facing organizations have an
impact o n o r g a n i z a t i o n s ' c a r e e r development plans.
33
Several writers (Arthur et al., 1995; A x m i t h , 1994; Bridges, 1994; Campbell, 1994;
Davenport, 1994; Kanter, 1989; M i n i s & Smith, 1994) suggest that pressures from global
competition are resulting in team-based rather than hierarchical organizational structures.
To improve their ability to respond to change, organizations are increasingly relying on a
core group of workers and hiring additional staff on a part-time, temporary, or project
basis (Axmith, 1994). This allows organizations to m o r e readily c o m p e t e in a global
e c o n o m y because individuals and their particular skill sets are contracted for only the
period required. Contracted workers are not b e i n g paid w h e n they are between projects,
thereby increasing efficiency and reducing costs for the organization.
There are both positive and negative o u t c o m e s of these changes. O n the positive side,
they increase opportunities b y giving people the chance to develop their o w n ideas,
pursue exciting projects, and b e directly compensated for their efforts. " T h e excitement
of projects in w h i c h people are e m p o w e r e d to act on their o w n ideas m a k e s w o r k m o r e
satisfying and m o r e absorbing, increasing the sense of a c c o m p l i s h m e n t " (Kanter, 1989, p .
356). In addition, enhanced collaboration across departments and organizations) is
b e c o m i n g m o r e c o m m o n . Organizations m a y benefit b y reducing labour costs and
emphasizing the entrepreneurial spirit within all employees (Bridges, 1994; Kanter,
1989).
34
On the negative side, organizational pressures to reduce costs have affected j o b security.
In fact, u n e m p l o y m e n t statistics in Canada have increased from 4 . 2 % in the 1950s to over
1 1 % in the 1990s (Kroeger, 1994). U n e m p l o y m e n t rates have increased as organizations
have downsized to save m o n e y . Unfortunately, however, m a n y of these initiatives have
proven to b e unsuccessful (Foot & Stoffman, 1996; H a m e l & Prahalad, 1994). In fact,
Foot and Stoffman (1996) suggest that massive downsizing initiatives are a reflection of
" . . . management asleep at the switch" (p. 64). Foot and Stoffman state that
organizations should not suddenly and quickly reduce their staff. Instead, they suggest
that organizations should de-layer their bureaucratic hierarchies, help people plan their
careers, and provide t h e m with the training they need to m a k e valuable contributions
within flatter, m o r e horizontally based organizations. Unfortunately, Foot and Stoffman
(1996) also a c k n o w l e d g e that technological advancements are reducing the size of the
workforce. They predict that this trend will continue and suspect that employees with the
least amount of training will b e the most affected.
Another concern revolves around the notion of loyalty. Unfortunately, if employees are
encouraged to rely o n themselves, it m a y b e difficult for organizations t o gain employee
loyalty w h e n d e e m e d necessary or desirable. In the past, such loyalties w e r e part of the
implicit contract between employer and employee. N o w organizations m a y need to offer
assignments which employees feel are ' r e s u m e - e n h a n c i n g ' in order to gain such
commitments (Kanter, 1989).
Kanter (1989), in recognition o f the positive and negative aspects of global competition,
lists 10 recommendations to support organizational flexibility while still providing a
measure of employee security:
. . . [a] h u m a n resource development tax credit; industry-level training
partnerships; accelerated technology and language education; union-
m a n a g e m e n t partnerships to plan workplace changes; incentives for profit-
sharing and performance bonuses; stronger safety nets for displaced
employees; day care; flex-year opportunities; flexible use of severance and
u n e m p l o y m e n t benefits; and portable pensions, (p. 370)
These changes and the problem of relying o n outdated organizational career development
models m a y explain w h y Bernes and M a g n u s s o n (1996), in their study of the 30 largest
organizations in Calgary, Canada, found very little agreement b e t w e e n the intentions of
organizational career development services and the actual services provided. F o r
example, they found that the most c o m m o n intention of career development services w a s
to provide career p a t h information to employees, yet it w a s the least available career
development service. Existing m o d e l s of organizational career development highlight the
importance of such information. H o w e v e r , the m o d e l s have not been updated to reflect
changes in e m p l o y m e n t realities. Consequently, it is not surprising that Bernes and
M a g n u s s o n (1996) found such disparities. T h e inconsistencies between organizational
career development intentions and service delivery necessitate an investigation of current
models of organizational career development. E a c h m o d e l will b e critiqued from the
perspective o f current challenges faced b y organizations.
M o d e l s of Organizational Career D e v e l o p m e n t
Lofquist and D a w i s (1969) produced the first m o d e l attempting to link individual and
organizational needs. Their model is influenced greatly b y the trait-and-factor theory of
career development. Consequently, they m a k e extensive use o f testing to m e a s u r e the
degree o f correspondence between the w o r k personality of the individual and the w o r k
environment o f the organization. ,
T o assess the w o r k environment, Lofquist and D a w i s (1969) measure the j o b ' s ability
requirements and the j o b ' s system of reinforcement. T h e j o b ' s ability requirements are
measured b y the Occupational Aptitude Pattern-Structure ( O A P S ) ( U . S . Department of
Labor, 1979). This document lists the G A T B scores required to b e successful in specific
occupations. The j o b ' s system of reinforcement is m e a s u r e d b y the Minnesota Job
Description Questionnaire ( M J D Q ) (Borgen, Weiss, Tinsley, D a w i s , & Lofquist, 1968).
The M J D Q measures the degree to which the individual needs identified b y the M I Q are
being met within the work environment. T h e degree to w h i c h these needs are being met
determines the e m p l o y e e ' s level of satisfaction o n the j o b . Lofquist and D a w i s (1969)
use the term 'satisfactoriness' to describe the degree t o w h i c h an individual's abilities
match the ability requirements of the j o b . Consequently, Lofquist and D a w i s (1969)
believe that the degree of satisfaction and satisfactoriness m a y lead them to predict
whether the employee will b e promoted, transferred, fired, retained, or will leave the
organization. T o aid t h e m in correlating G A T B scores with those o f the O A P S , they
have developed the Minnesota Satisfactoriness Scales ( M S S ) . Similarly, they have
developed the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire ( M S Q ) to assess t h e degree of
correspondence b e t w e e n the M I Q and occupational reinforcer patterns. Collectively, the
M S S and M S Q are not o n l y used to predict w h e t h e r the e m p l o y e e will b e promoted,
transferred, fired, retained, or will leave the organization; they are also used to predict the
n u m b e r of m o n t h s or years the individual will stay on the j o b .
In critiquing this approach, Osipow (1983) suggests that m o s t of the work on this model
occurred between 1969 and 1973. Since 1973, very little has been done to elaborate on
the model.- O s i p o w (1983) questions w h y this m o d e l h a s not been applied since then b y
its proponents or b y others.
Sharf (1992) also questions this approach b y suggesting that an emphasis on testing m a y
b e impractical because the measurement of possibly h u n d r e d s of skills and needs m a y b e
awkward and difficult to fully achieve.
Another criticism m a y revolve around the m o d e l ' s goal o f producing j o b tenure o n the
basis of this one-time matching. Bridges (1994) suggests that such a goal is unnecessary
and counterproductive to individuals and organizations in t o d a y ' s w o r k environment.
A l o n g these same lines, Bridges (1994) states that ,
. . . long production runs, extended chains o f c o m m a n d , fixed j o b descriptions
all these things m a d e sense in the slower-moving factories and offices of the pre-
37
electronic world. B u t today these things are too rigid. T h e structures, procedures,
and roles of the past are too slow for a world driven and n e t w o r k e d b y electronic
data. (p. 15)
O n the positive side, the Lofquist and D a w i s (1969) m o d e l emphasizes the observable
measurement of abilities, needs, and reinforcements and subsequently matches these .:
traits to the needs of particular occupations. T h e Lofquist and D a w i s (1969) m o d e l ,
however, does not suggest strategies or m e t h o d s that could help organizations or
individuals to, firstly, set goals or, secondly, develop systemic strategies to achieve their
goals. Instead, the m o d e l simply attempts to m a t c h individuals with appropriate j o b s . B y
not encouraging individuals and organizations to create their o w n visions and then b y not
providing the strategies to enhance m o v e m e n t toward the achievement o f set goals, the
Lofquist and D a w i s (1969) m o d e l has limited applicability to t o d a y ' s d y n a m i c
organizations.
Schein's Model
A l t h o u g h the term ' m a t c h i n g ' is used b y Schein (1978), his model m a y b e considered to
b e both a structural and a process approach to organizational career development. B y
m a t c h i n g individual and organizational needs, o n e m a y b e tempted to conclude that it is a
structural approach; however, his m o d e l also incorporates a developmental perspective
and includes the notion of recycling. Recycling is evident w h e n h e describes business
cycles. F o r example, during expansion, Schein believes companies should emphasize
activities that allow t h e m to plan for staffing and growth (e g., recruitment procedures,
;
38
In addition to these ideas, Schein (1978, 1996) developed the notion of career anchors.
Career anchors are individual preferences that people attempt to maintain. Schein (1996)
has found that people usually h a v e strong preoccupations with either
autonomy/independence, technical/functional competence, security/stability, general
managerial competence, entrepreneurial creativity, service/dedication to a cause, pure
challenge, and lifestyle. Schein (1978) states that these types m u s t b e clearly understood
because individuals " . . . want quite different things out of their careers, measure
themselves quite differently, and therefore have to b e m a n a g e d quite differently" (p.
128).
Schein (1996) suggests that individuals can utilize the concept of career anchors to help
them weather the storms caused b y all the changes (e.g., downsizing, rightsizing,
flattening, etc.) in the world o f work. B y understanding what is truly important to them,
Schein believes that people can m o r e readily m a n o e u v r e themselves into positions and
situations that are m o r e likely to meet their needs. Schein (1996) suggests that people
begin to clarify their internal sense of career a s they b e c o m e aware of their career
anchors.
T h e normal career involves a subjective sense of w h e r e o n e ' s going in o n e ' s w o r k
life, as contrasted with the 'extracurricular,' the formal stages and roles defined
b y organizational policies and societal concepts of w h a t an individual can expect
in the occupational structure. (Schein, 1996, p . 80)
Although S c h e i n ' s career anchors instrument is used quite widely in organizations to help
with both career planning and career m a n a g e m e n t , o n e of the m o d e l ' s greatest '
shortcomings is the fact that it is based upon the assumption of lifelong employment with
o n e organization. In fact, Schein (1978) states, " . . . every person in t h e organization will
go through career stages, from being a recruit to ultimately retiring" (p. 209).
Consequently, h e lists specific early, mid- and late career issues. Similarly, h e lists
organizational needs that also tend to reflect the notion of lifelong employment (e.g.,
planning for staffing, planning for growth and development, planning for levelling off
and disengagement, and planning for replacement and restaffmg). Essentially, S c h e i n ' s
(1978) m o d e l proposes a linear sequence of interventions based on t h e assumption that
early, mid-, and late career issues follow each other. This assumption appears valid for
the time period in which it w a s written and within the context of static organizations
wherein replicating past successes is the goal (Magnusson, 1996). However, the idea o f
employment over such a long time frame is n o t valid within t o d a y ' s world o f w o r k or
within the context o f changing, dynamic organizations. In fact, several writers (Axmith,
39
1994; Bridges, 1994; Davenport, 1994; Kanter, 1989; M i n i s & Smith, 1994) have
c o m m e n t e d about the shift from long-term working arrangements to temporary contract
work. These writers have estimated that over 5 0 % o f the workforce will b e employed on
a part-time, temporary, or contract basis in the near future. W i t h companies increasingly
beginning to hire on short-term, contract, and/or project bases, S c h e i n ' s (1978) model
appears outdated. In fact, recent developments in the area of contract w o r k m a y m e a n
that organizations will need to cultivate their o w n smaller core group o f employees and
that contract workers w h o wish to b e hired for certain projects will increasingly b e left
with the responsibility for their o w n career development. This saves the employer m o n e y
in training and salary costs; however, the organization m a y run the risk of not having the
necessary talent available w h e n it is required. For example, s o m e industries in Calgary,
Canada are already having a difficult time finding the workers they n e e d w h e n they need
t h e m (e.g., h o m e construction, computers). These difficulties m a y b e c o m e m o r e
pronounced if organizations continue to downsize.
A final criticism of S c h e i n ' s (1978) m o d e l has to d o with his stage of planning for
levelling off and disengagement. W i t h a core group of employees and outside contract
workers being hired o n a project-to-project basis, this stage of S c h e i n ' s m o d e l (and the
high costs associated with it) m a y n o longer b e necessary. In other w o r d s , there m a y be
n o need for m o n e y to b e spent o n such p r o g r a m s w h e n the project is completed and the
employees are gone. Obviously, this will depend on a n u m b e r of factors, such as^the
organization, the industry, and the m a n d a t e of the next project. 3 i
Like Lofquist and D a w i s (1969), S c h e i n ' s (1978) model does not emphasize the idea that
individuals and organizations m a y h a v e unique visions and purposes. Instead, Schein
(1978) assumes that individuals in early, mid-, or late career stages will require services
designed for that particular stage. B y recognizing a greater diversity of needs, Schein's
m o d e l would need to r e c o m m e n d a larger variety of potential interventions. Activities
from this larger selection w o u l d b e utilized on an as-needed basis as opposed to applying
the same strategies to everyone within a c o m m o n phase of their career (e.g., early,
middle, or late). Similarly, h e suggests that linkages b e t w e e n these employee needs can
b e achieved through the parallel structures of business cycles. Essentially, Schein
statically matches strategies to preconceived individual and organizational needs.
Unfortunately, these assumptions limit the degree to w h i c h S c h e i n ' s m o d e l m a y b e
individualized for use within various organizations. B y not b e i n g fluid, his list of
strategies cannot b e synergistically modified to create m o v e m e n t toward the achievement
of unique individual and organizational goals. Unfortunately, this significantly affects
the m o d e l ' s applicability to d y n a m i c organizations.
i
40
Hall's Model
Step 2 is referred to as the 'Information' stage. During this stage, the employee is
responsible for completing a self-assessment of his or her o w n values, skills, interests,
and experience. The organization is responsible for assessing each e m p l o y e e ' s level of
performance, his or her potential for growth within the organization, and for documenting
the various j o b assignments that individual employees have fulfilled. T h e organization is
responsible for keeping all of the above information in an integrated career information
system. In addition to such record keeping, the organization also provides career
counselling services and information to employees about the career opportunities that are
available within the organization.
Step 3 is referred to as the ' G o a l s ' stage. In this stage, individuals are required to
synthesize information about themselves into s o m e life goals. Organizations are required
to identify and communicate their future business objectives and their future staffing
needs. At this stage, information about specific candidates and information about the
available career opportunities culminates in the establishment of career development
goals. .
Step 4 is referred to as the ' P l a n s ' stage. In this stage, individual employees are required
to break d o w n their career development goals into specifically timed strategies for
achieving each goal. Meanwhile, the organization is involved with establishing a h u m a n
resource development strategy to ensure that the necessary talent is available w h e n it is
needed. This leads organizations to define the k e y assignments an employee should have
received before entering a n e w role within the organization. W h e n organizational h u m a n
resource development strategies are communicated, and the key assignments necessary
for particular roles are m a d e clear, employees are able to refine their individual strategies
into specific career plans.
Step 5 is referred to as the ' R e s o u r c e s ' stage. During this stage, employees must utilize
problem-solving and coping skills to ensure that their plans are implemented. At this
time, it is essential for the organization to help employees to implement their plans b y
providing the necessary support. Support services include personal contacts with key
managers, a p e e r support system, and training in the effective use o f networking skills.
Step 6 is referred to as the 'Performance' stage. During this stage, employees and
organizations refocus on the issue o f performance, this time in the n e w role. G o o d
performance m a y trigger a repeat o f steps 1 through 5 and result in another cycle o f
career growth.
41
Although all of the above points are valid criticisms of H a l l ' s (1986) m o d e l , probably the
strongest criticism h a s to d o with the m o d e l ' s surface-level heuristic value. Congruent
with the notion of clear career path structures, H a l l ' s (1986) m o d e l seems to assume that
individuals will strive to climb organizational hierarchies and it thereby omits exploring
other avenues for obtaining personal satisfaction. Although his later writing
acknowledges this shortcoming (Hall, 1996), h e does not revise his m o d e l . Finally, b y
being universally and generically applied, H a l l ' s (1986) m o d e l m a y run the risk of
promoting tool- or technique-driven interventions which m a y not m e e t the needs of the
employees and the organization being served. Schein (1986) c o m m e n t s o n this problem
b y stating that career development specialists tend to p u s h tools, programs, and normative
solutions to career p r o b l e m s without enough emphasis o n h o w such tools can b e modified
or utilized to better meet the n e e d s of employees and organizations.
42
Schein (1986) also states that "identification, development, appraisal, and reward
processes m u s t fit into the culture and task structure o f the powerful line m a n a g e r s o f the
organization or they will simply b e sidelined and viewed as irrelevant" (p. 321). H e
suggests that career development is defined very differently in different industries,
professions, and organizations, and that any attempt to define tools and p r o g r a m s that
will w o r k across all organizations is d o o m e d to b e seen as irrelevant in at least s o m e
organizations.
H a l l ' s (1986) model suffers from outdated concepts such as clear career path structures,
promotion from within, the existence of an internal labour market, and ensuring an array
o f career opportunities. The heuristic value o f his model m a y promote tool- or technique-
driven interventions that are not aligned with employee and organizational needs.
Specifically, his model does not suggest strategies for balancing individual and
organizational needs. In addition, it does not emphasize the role of personal visions and
organizational visions as a source of energy for the setting and achieving of individual
and organizational goals.
In response to the recent changes in the world of work, Brousseau et al. (1996) have
proposed a n e w m o d e l of organizational career development. T h e m a i n thesis of this
model is that organizations have embraced the need for change m o r e than is necessary.
Brousseau et al. (1996) argue that organizations and individuals both need stability and
change.
Organizations should not, however, merely abandon past, static, n a r r o w concepts
about careers in favor of n e w , m o r e change-oriented career concepts that are
equally narrow. This repeated cycle of out-with-the-old-and-in-with-the-new is
likely to increase rather than reduce p a n d e m o n i u m . Instead, a m o r e powerful
strategy is to incorporate older, m o r e static career concepts along with newer,
m o r e dynamic career concepts into a pluralistic strategy for dealing with careers
and organizational arrangements. (Brousseau et al., 1996, p . 53)
These ideas are very similar to those o f Super (1992) and Krumboltz (1994) about the
need for m a n y theories to help explain the complex nature of individual career
development (see Chapter 2). Following Brousseau et al.'s (1996) arguments, one could
extend the v i e w s of Super (1992) and Krumboltz (1994) to the realm of organizational
career development models. In this manner, it m a y b e necessary to have^access to several
m o d e l s o f organizational career development and to utilize the model that m o s t suits the
needs o f the particular organization and its e m p l o y e e s . . Consequently, if an organization
needs to emphasize employee and j o b matching, it would use the Lofquist and D a w i s
(1969) m o d e l ; if it w a n t s a model that addresses business cycles and early-, mid-, and
43
Brousseau et al. (1996) suggest that being limited to o n e approach (the static or the
dynamic) m a y " . . . significantly constrain the ability of organizations to dynamically
interact with not only different types of individuals but also with the ebbs and flows of
change in specific areas of the environment" (p. 55). Congruent with this idea of
m a x i m u m flexibility, Brousseau et al. (1996) highlight that m o s t organizations already
possess the necessary diversity within its various employees to b e able to respond with
flexibility to m o s t situations.
Brousseau et al. (1996) suggest that there are four types of employees: linear, expert,
spiral, and transitory. The career motives and associated behavioural competencies of
each type of employee, according to Brousseau et al. (1996), are outlined in Table 1.
Brousseau et al. (1996) also state that these employee types can collectively form
organizational career t e a m s to meet differing organizational requirements. F o r example,
an organization that requires growth, according to Brousseau et al. (1996), will need to
lower its prices for its products.
Table 1
It will therefore need a linear organizational team because linear employees possess
competitiveness, cost efficiency, logistical m a n a g e m e n t skills, and a profit orientation.
. . . [A] spiral culture would better support a strategy calling for creativity and
diversification. A n expert culture w o u l d better support a strategy aimed at
maintaining the organization's position based on high-quality and high-reliability
products and services. A transitory culture w o u l d suit a strategy of exploiting
n e w opportunities b y getting into n e w m a r k e t s quickly with highly innovative or
easy-to-use products or services. (Brousseau et al., 1996, p . 60)
Three options for career m a n a g e m e n t practices are offered b y the Brousseau et al. (1996)
model: counselling, contracts, and cafeteria. Counselling refers to training programs to
increase the necessary skills o f employees based on organizational demands. T h e use of
contracts is another w a y o f encouraging employees to c o m m i t to organizational needs.
F o r example, employees w h o possess technical expertise m a y receive contracts that are
designed to favour this activity and to keep such employees on par with their managerial
equivalents. Cafeteria m o d e l s involve " . . . non-linear p a y systems, such as pay-for-
performance and skill-based p a y plans, which compensate individuals on the basis of the
range of skills and w o r k functions at which they have demonstrated proficiency"
(Brousseau et al., 1996, p . 63).
M o s t of the research into the practice of organizational career development has taken the
form of survey research. Unfortunately, m o s t of it is very dated (e.g., Abdelnour & Hall,
1980; Barkhaus, 1983; Clement, Walker, & Pinto, 1979; Griffith, 1 9 8 0 , 1 9 8 1 ; Gutteridge
& Otte, 1983; Kleiman, 1984; Levine, 1985; Morgan, Hall, & Martier, 1979; Pinto &
Walker, 1978; Portwood & Granrose, 1986; Seybolt, 1979; W o w k , Williams, &
45
T h e Walker and Gutteridge (1979) study provided information o n the level of acceptance
of career development services within organizations, w h y services w e r e developed, what
services w e r e provided, w h i c h services w e r e the most and least frequently applied, which
services w e r e the newest, specific factors that m a d e organizational career development
services better, career m a n a g e m e n t services that w e r e m o s t and least likely to b e linked to
career planning services, and future needs of organizations. These findings will n o w b e
briefly reviewed. A s well, relevant information from the above-noted studies will b e
interspersed w h e n applicable and/or w h e n similar findings are reported. as
Walker and Gutteridge (1979) found widespread acceptance o f the benefits of career
development services; however, there w a s a large discrepancy between ideal services and
the reality of the practices found (also Seybolt, 1979). This w a s due to the overall finding
that, for m a n y of the companies surveyed, career development w a s a " . . . largely
informal, experimental, and fragmented activity" (Walker & Gutteridge, 1979, p . 2).
C o m p a n i e s felt that the tools were readily available but that the application of these tools
w a s a challenging endeavour.
Walker and Gutteridge (1979) found that m o s t companies provided basic services such as
informal staff counselling and employee communications. W o r k s h o p s and w o r k b o o k s
w e r e found to b e fairly n e w but growing activities. Particular emphasis w a s given to
psychological testing and assessment, referral to external counsellors, and outplacement
counselling for executives and middle m a n a g e r s . F e w companies reported forecasting
46
future needs and developing programs to meet those needs. Training o f supervisors in
career counselling w a s found to b e the top priority for the future efforts of these
companies. With this as the top priority, it is not surprising to note that c o m p a n i e s found
the greatest frustration to be " . . . the difficulty o f equipping and motivating supervisors
and managers to act as career counsellors, a factor that is believed to b e central to
effective career planning. Lack of success in this area seemed to tarnish the overall
evaluation" (Walker & Gutteridge, 1979, p . 34).
The least frequently applied career planning services w e r e : life and career planning
workshops (11.4%); assessment centres for career development purposes (14.6%);
individual self-analysis and planning w o r k s h o p s (15.6%); career counselling b y
specialized staff counsellors (20.5%); and training supervisors in career counselling
(25%) (Walker & Gutteridge, 1979). These results are also similar to those o f Gutteridge
and Otte (1983), Portwood and Granrose (1986), and B a r k h a u s (1983).
Overall, Walker and Gutteridge (1979) found the state of organizational career
development to b e fragmented and informal. However, participants indicated widespread
acceptance o f career development and predicted that organizational career development
services w o u l d greatly expand in the years to come. ->
Gutteridge e t a l . (1993)
Summary
This chapter b e g a n b y reviewing the relevant aspects of general systems theory and then
provided s o m e conceptualizations of organizational career development. T h e current
trends and issues facing organizations w e r e also briefly discussed. This provided a
context for a critical evaluation of existing m o d e l s of organizational career development.
T h e critique o f existing m o d e l s and the review o f the state of practice i n organizational
career development supported the idea that a n e w model of organizational career
development needs to b e created. T h e next chapter provides an overview of the proposed
model.
50
Chapter 4
Garrison and M a g n u s s o n ' s (1996) transactional view of effective teaching and learning
w a s reconceptualized and expanded upon to create the proposed model of organizational
career development. The goal of Garrison and M a g n u s s o n ' s model (see Fig. 1) w a s to
conceptualize the balancing of effective teaching and learning. Congruent with the
notion of balance, they developed three levels of learning/teaching with a
balancing/interactive process for each level of the model. O n the individual level,
individuals construct their o w n meaning (see b o x 1 A ) . In other w o r d s , they determine
what they perceive to be meaningful. Individuals b e c o m e responsible for their o w n
learning and set individual learning goals w h e n they are engaged in learning that they
deem to b e meaningful (see box 2 A ) . Individuals then reflect on those goals to establish
and engage in specific learning experiences (see b o x 3A).
Figure 1
1A IB 1C
Level
I Constructivism Reciprocal confirmation Collaboration
Individual M e a n i n g Worthwhile k n o w l e d g e
2A 2B 2C
Level
Responsibility Critical discourse Control
II
Individual learning goals Standards/integrity
3A 3B 3C
Garrison and M a g n u s s o n ' s (1996) emphasis on the balancing of individual and collective
needs and goals at various levels, and the use of interactive processes to achieve this
balance, w a s very appealing considering the results of the survey literature on
organizational career development presented in Chapter 3. A s discussed in Chapter 3,
organizational career development interventions lack a sense o f connectedness and
balance. These deficits w e r e reported in the surveys that summarized organizational
career development interventions as fragmented and heavily weighted toward meeting
organizational needs.
Figure 2
A S y n e r g i s t i c Model o f Organizational C a r e e r D e v e l o p m e n t :
Bridging the G a p Between Employees and Organizations
The personal and organizational vision circles are intentionally represented b y the core
rings to denote their role in regulating the other subsystems. Meanwhile, the focus on
competencies is represented b y the outer rings to denote their role in providing feedback
to the rest of the system regarding the requirements of the world of workspecifically
the competencies required to remain employable (in the case of the employee) and
competitive (in the case of the organization) (see Fig. 2). This feedback helps employees
and organizations to adjust to changes in the world of w o r k and therefore monitor their
plans and strategies to ensure the m o s t optimal fulfillment of their respective visions.
This use of systems concepts to create parallel structures between employees and
organizations is n e w to models of organizational career development. E a c h component
of the m o d e l will n o w b e described.
The Employee
The m o d e l begins with the generic goal of encouraging employees to establish their own
personal vision. The need for employees to begin b y establishing a personal vision
relates back to the constructivist ideas that w e r e presented in Chapter 2.
A personal vision provides one with an idealistic view of o n e ' s life and career. In other
words, it provides an answer to the question: In the best of all worlds, what would you
like for your career and life? Despite the idealized nature of this question, establishing a
personal vision allows employees to b e c o m e authors o f their o w n life stories, wherein
55
they can begin to interact with the external environment with a sense o f empowerment,
personal responsibility, or agency (Cochran, 1992; Peavy, 1994). F r o m this perspective,
people begin to " . . . see that life is not j u s t a series of haphazard events but a series of
crossroads and junctions that they h a v e played a major part in selecting" (Peavy, 1 9 9 4 , p .
11).
Cochran (1992) suggests that w h e n p e o p l e attempt to answer the questions, What is? and
What ought to be?, they establish personal visions for themselves. A r m e d with a vision,
people can b e c o m e agents capable of designing and building fulfilling lives. In other
words, they crystallize [a] reason[s] for living. Miller-Tiedeman and Tiedeman (1990)
believe that personal visions emphasize personal desires and goals. Without strong
visions, people m a y b e c o m e immobilized b y the m a n y barriers and constraints inherent in
the world of work.
Constructivist theory w o u l d predict that personal visions will vary because different
people will possess differing perspectives on reality. Consequently, h o w o n e v i e w s his or
her life to date and h o w one envisions future opportunities in life and career will have an
impact on the vision o n e chooses to pursue. However, constructivist theory also suggests
that individual realities need to b e negotiated with external realities. F o r example, one
m a y envision a life filled with leisure and this m a y b e possible based on few economic
needs and plenty of economic resources. However, w h e n economic needs are high and
resources are low, then these economic (or external) realities will necessitate that the
individual renegotiate his or her individual sense of reality with external perspectives.
This m a y encourage the individual to reconsider his or her place in the world of work.
Similarly, K r u m b o l t z ' s (1979) theory reminds us that individuals m a y underestimate their
abilities to o v e r c o m e external barriers d u e to deflated self-observation generalizations,
wherein they believe they cannot accomplish their goals. According to Krumboltz
(1979), these individuals require cognitive restructuring interventions to help t h e m align
their individual realities with m o r e appropriate and self-enhancing external realities. The
intervention m a y also include assisting individuals to obtain the necessary task approach
56
skills through the external practice o f specific activities designed to enhance their
abilities.
Super (1990) believes that career planning can help an individual t o clarify t h e kind o f
person h e or she w a n t s t o b e . What o n e w a n t s t o b e or b e c o m e is a function o f o n e ' s
biological, geographical, and social influences combined with intelligence, needs,
aptitudes, values, interests, special aptitudes, personality, and achievements. All o f these
variables interact to determine o n e ' s self-concept (Super, 1990). According to Super
(1990), individuals engage in a variety of life roles in order to implement their self-
concepts.
Personal visions are determined b y the same multitude o f factors that determine self-
concepts. Both terms are derived from the s a m e variables; however, the w o r d s 'personal
visions' are used in this dissertation to emphasize t h e personal visualizing of potential
dreams, wishes, and desires.
According to Schein (1996), career anchors are individual preferences that p e o p l e attempt
to maintain. Schein (1996) h a s found that people usually have strong preoccupations
with either autonomy/independence, technical/ functional competence, security/stability,
general managerial competence, entrepreneurial creativity, service/dedication to a cause,
pure challenge, and lifestyle. Schein (1978) states that these types must b e clearly
understood because individuals " . . . want quite different things out of their careers,
measure themselves quite differently, and therefore have to b e managed quite differently"
(p. 128). B y understanding what is truly important to them, Schein believes that people
can more readily m a n o e u v r e themselves into positions and situations that are m o r e likely
to meet their needs.
In sum, the ability to visualize and see life as o n e wishes increases self-responsibility for
the outcomes of o n e ' s life (Miller-Tiedeman & Tiedeman, 1990). A vision for the future
also provides a personal anchor for the individual during times of change (Jones & D e
Fillippi, 1996; Schein, 1996). B o t h of these are particularly important as changes
accelerate in the world of work.
M a n y writers in the field o f career development have alluded to the necessity of creating
personal visions (Cochran, 1992; Miller-Tiedeman & Tiedeman, 1990; Peavy, 1994;
Senge et al., 1994; Super, 1990). Schein (1978), however, is the only one to bring the
concept to a particular m o d e l o f organizational career development and does so through
his concept of 'career anchors.' Career anchors exemplify the idea of tapping into what
matters most to individuals; therefore, the idea reflects the intent behind the concept of a
personal vision. Although the concept o f career anchors can b e considered o n e
component of a personal vision, career anchors m a y also b e considered to b e too limiting.
In other words, a personal vision m a y not necessarily b e as easily categorized as "Schein
(1978, 1996) suggests. Instead, t h e concept of a personal vision, as used in this *
dissertation, encompasses anything that is important to the individual. It does not rely on
the categorization of m e a n i n g systems. Therefore, although the use of 'personal visions'
in this dissertation is not unique to the broader field of career development, it does
represent an addition and/or modification to current conceptualizations of personal
visions as used in existing m o d e l s of organizational career development (e.g., Schein's
[1978] model).
not b e ideal for someone else. F o r example, a m a l e secretary m a y have a personal vision
of working in an environment wherein h e h a s the opportunity to socialize, to w o r k
between the hours of 9:00 a.m. and 3:00 p.m. while his children are in school, to never
bring work h o m e with him, and to m a x i m i z e his time with his children. These aspects of
his vision identify w h a t is important to him. This varies a m o n g people; however, the
process of determining what matters m o s t to individuals does not differ. S o m e
individuals already k n o w w h a t matters to them, whereas others m a y b e helped to
articulate their personal visions through the above-mentioned exercises.
T h e e m p l o y e e ' s task at this level is to plan for h o w he/she can implement his/her vision:
T h e employee begins b y assessing the gap between what ought to b e (the personal vision)
and w h a t is (the present) (Cochran, 1992). B y comparing the desired with the present,
the issues that require attention b e c o m e clarified and major priorities are articulated. This
facilitates the process o f exploring possible strategies to close the gap between the
present and the ideal. Therefore, the establishment of a personal career management plan
is the process whereby an individual envisions his/her future and then develops the
necessary plans to achieve that future.
Establishing short- and long-term plans creates a broadly based plan for engaging i n the
activities required for the implementation of personal visions over time. T h e objective is
to select the plans that ensure the best alignment, or fit, between external environmental
opportunities and the internal strengths and weaknesses of the individual. T o remain on
target, individuals m u s t continuously self-evaluate and set goals for the acquisition and
demonstration o f required competencies. This leads to the final level o n the employee
side of the m o d e l (see Fig. 2).
Senge (1990) suggests that the ultimate criterion for successful long-term employability
resides with o n e ' s pursuit of ongoing learning. S e n g e (1990) and Senge et al. (1994)
believe that this is critical to individual employability and to the long-term survival of
organizations in an increasingly competitive global marketplace. (These ideas are
expanded u p o n further in the next section w h i c h describes the organizational side of the
model.) Senge (1990) also suggests t h a t " . . . if learning is related to a p e r s o n ' s o w n
vision, then that person will do whatever h e or she can to keep learning a l i v e " (p. 193).
This point reinforces t h e importance of establishing a personal vision and then using
61
Individuals need to consider their strengths w h e n they establish their personal career
m a n a g e m e n t plans. In addition, they need to accentuate their strengths in order to'
b e c o m e and stay employable. B y recognizing their strengths and w e a k n e s s e s , individuals
can d e v e l o p personal improvement plans to ensure their continued employability. For
example, the increasing u s e o f computers in the workplace m a y necessitate that
individuals develop computer skills in order to obtain e m p l o y m e n t and remain
employable.
The ' C h a n g e s in the World o f W o r k ' section of Chapter 3 illustrated that external
environmental realities require individuals to b e continuously acquiring and
demonstrating their competencies in order to stay employable. This is true for those w h o
currently hold positions as well as for those w h o are between j o b s or contracts.
Employability simply m e a n s the ability to b e c o m e or stay employable in any capacity
(e.g., full-time, part-time, temporary, contract, etc.) and within any organization. It does
not necessarily imply employability w i t h the current employer. In fact, current
e m p l o y m e n t realities suggest that to stay employable, employees m a y b e required to
e x a m i n e options within and outside their current organizations. Within their current
organizations, employees are encouraged to consider options that are hierarchically
above, b e l o w , and equivalent to their current positions.
to ensure their personal visions and plans are being acted upon while at the s a m e time
ensuring their employability.
The personal vision is intentionally diagrammed as the core ring to denote its role in
regulating the other subsystems. Meanwhile, the acquisition and demonstration o f
competencies is d i a g r a m m e d as t h e outer ring to denote its role in providing feedback to
the rest of the system regarding the requirements of the world of workspecifically the
competencies required to remain employable and to subsequently achieve individually
determined goals. T o illustrate the flow of logic inherent in the employee side o f the
model, an example will n o w b e provided.
Example
Let us assume that an engineer (Ms. Smith) w o r k i n g for a natural gas c o m p a n y dreams of
being able to utilize her creative talents toward m a k i n g a unique impact on the
63
organization. In order to realize this personal vision, the employee m u s t first engage in
planning so that she can understand her o w n strengths and explore h o w these strengths
can b e used to achieve the desired impact. This m a y lead M s . Smith to consider the
various problems encountered b y the organization and to explore h o w her strengths can
b e used to o v e r c o m e one of the p r o b l e m s faced b y the organization. T o clarify this
example, let us further a s s u m e that M s . Smith discovers that her particular unit is having
difficulties repairing gas lines in the winter because the ground is frozen. To o v e r c o m e
this problem, she assesses her level of understanding (competency) and then partakes in
developmental learning activities (e.g., courses, reading, discussions, exploration
sessions, etc.) in order to search for possible solutions. M s . Smith then discovers that
using straw and alternative heating devices can quickly thaw the ground and facilitate the
efficient repair of gas lines.
This concludes the description of the employee side of the m o d e l . T h e next section
provides a description of the organizational side of the proposed m o d e l .
T h e Organization
On the organizational side, the model begins with the generic goal o f encouraging the
organization to articulate its vision (see Fig. 2). " A n organizational vision is a realistic,
credible, attractive future for [an] organization. It is the articulation of a destination
toward w h i c h an organization or part of an organization should turn its focus. It is a
future that in m a n y w a y s is m o r e desirable than the present" (Quinn, Faerman,
T h o m p s o n , & McGrath, 1996, p . 219). Like personal visions, organizational visions
inspire action b y engaging employees in bold missions with superordinate goals (Quinn
et al., 1996). Collins and Porras (1994) h a v e suggested that visionary companies set
tangible and energizing goals that are clear, compelling, and serve as a unifying focal
point of effort. Collins and Porras (1994) refer to these goals as ' b i g hairy audacious
goals' (or B H A G for short) to denote their role in reaching out and grabbing people b y
the gut. For example, T o y o t a ' s vision of creating a totally n e w line of automobiles that
exceeded all existing standards for high performance and luxury resulted in the L e x u s
the m o s t highly rated vehicle in customer satisfaction every year since its appearance in
the showroom (Quinn et al., 1996). Quinn et al. (1996) suggest that great organizational
successes like the Lexus example are a result of powerful alignment between
organizational visions, strategies, and goals. Quinn et al. (1996) also point out that an
organizational strategy " . . . is only as powerful as the vision that drives it" (p. 221).
Consequently, organizations hoping to create great successes m u s t begin b y articulating
their organizational visions. In this manner, the articulation of an organizational vision
serves as the foundation for strategic planning and goal setting (Below, Morrisey, &
A c o m b , 1987; Hill & Jones, 1989; Quinn et al., 1996).
Collins and Porras (1994) suggest that visionary organizations are the premier
organizations in their industry. Visionary organizations
. . . have the respect and admiration of their peer organizations and a long history
of having a significant impact on the world around them. Visionary companies
are truly institutions that have had multiple generations of chief executives, have
been through multiple product or service lifecycles, and h a v e been around for at
least 50 years. (Quinn et al., 1996, p . 220) r
Collins and Porras (1994) suggest that it is the degree to w h i c h the organization has-been
built to b e visionary rather than the visionary qualities of an individual chief executive
officer that has an impact o n long-term success.
8. What is different about our business from what it w a s between three and five
years a g o ?
9. W h a t is likely to b e different about our business three to five years in the future?
10. W h a t are our principal economic concerns, and h o w are they m e a s u r e d ?
11. What philosophical issues are important to our organization's future?
12. What special considerations do w e have in regard to the following stakeholders
(as applicable)?
- Owner/stockholders/investors/constituents
- Board of directors
- Parent organization
- Legislative bodies
- Employees
- Customers, clients or users
- Suppliers
- General public
- Others (specify) (pp. 38-39)
Hill and Jones (1989) suggest that w h e n organizations develop vision and mission
statements, they need to define themselves b y focusing on customers, not products. F o r
example, railways diminished in importance because they thought w e r e in the railway
business. Instead, they should have thought they w e r e in the transportation business and
expanded. I B M , o n the other hand, b e g a n b y manufacturing typewriters and mechanical
tabulating equipment. However, I B M viewed itself not as a supplier o f mechanical
tabulating equipment and typewriters but as providing a means for information
processing and storage. W i t h this perspective, it seemed to b e a logical step for I B M to
m o v e into computers, software systems, office systems and photocopiers (Hill & Jones,
1989).
H a m e l and Prahalad (1994) take a further step beyond the vision and mission statements
as presented b y B e l o w et al. (1987) and Hill and Jones (1989). After constructing the
vision and mission statements, senior managers then need to develop a process for pulling
together the collective w i s d o m within an organization. "Concern for the future, a sense
67
selectively open system wherein good ideas are incorporated and ideas that are ??
inconsistent with overall perspectives are rejected. Potential forums for creating
communication on an organization's vision are discussed in Chapter 5.
Obtaining employee input into organizational vision and mission statements helps to
translate the vision into terms that have m e a n i n g to the people w h o would realize the
vision (Kaplan & Norton, 1996). Obtaining e m p l o y e e input also facilitates the process of
expressing statements as an integrated set of objectives and measures that m a k e sense to
individual employees (Kaplan & Norton, 1996). Consequently, the organizational vision
b e c o m e s a synthesis of m a n y p e o p l e ' s perspectives.
B e l o w et al. (1987) state that the success of an organization's vision and mission is
directly proportional to the degree o f c o m m i t m e n t m a n a g e r s and employees m a k e to the
process. Therefore, they must believe in the vision and the w a y it is developed if they are
going to give it their best effort. However, B e l o w et al. (1987) also suggest that the
thinking, dialoguing, confronting, revising, and consensus-seeking is as valuable?as the
vision itself in shaping the future of an organization. T h e team-based dialoguing and
planning builds organization-wide belief and c o m m i t m e n t as participants feel a sense of
ownership (Below et al., 1987). "Participation is critical to success and strategies that
ignore the principle of participation are likely to fail in the long h a u l " (Frey, 1990, p . 80).
The concept of the organizational h u m a n resource strategic plan parallels the concept of
the e m p l o y e e ' s personal career m a n a g e m e n t plan. T h e organization's task at this level is
to plan for h o w it can implement its vision through the strategic utilization of its h u m a n
resources. This requires the organization to begin b y engaging i n the process of strategic
68
planning. This is initiated b y assessing the gap between the desired future (the
organizational vision) and the present (Frey, 1990). B y comparing the desired with the
present, the issues that require attention b e c o m e clarified and major priorities are
articulated (Hill & Jones, 1989). This facilitates t h e process of exploring possible
strategies to close the gap between the present and the ideal. Therefore,
. . . strategic planning m a y b e defined as the process w h e r e b y guiding m e m b e r s of
an organization envision its future and develop the necessary procedures and
operations to achieve that future. The purpose is to ensure that an organization's
activities are focused and its resources are managed in a consistent, strategic
fashion. (Frey, 1990, p . 78)
In order to determine the most appropriate methods of closing the g a p between the
desired and the present, the organization engages in an. analysis of its external
environment. T h e goal of external analysis is to identify strategic opportunities and
threats in the organization's environment (Hill & Jones, 1989; Schuler & Walker, 1994).
This involves analyzing the competitive position of the organization and its major rivals
along with examining the social, governmental, legal, international, and technical factors
that m a y affect the organization (Golembiewski, Hall, Nethery, Shepherd, & Hilles,
1992; Hill & Jones, 1989).
Although the above description of strategic planning tends to assume a fairly rational
thought process, Mintzberg (1994) suggests that organizations need to remain open to the
p o w e r of unplanned, creative, and intuitive emergent strategies. Emergent strategies do
not follow the above logical presentation of strategic planning. Instead, they emerge in
an unforseen, unplanned, and unintended manner. F o r example, the H o n d a M o t o r
C o m p a n y c a m e to the United States to introduce 250cc and 305cc motorcycles. They
changed to the 50cc simply because that w a s w h a t Sears wanted to sell, and it b e c a m e a
big seller. " T h e critical point that emerges from the H o n d a example is that in contrast to
the view that strategies are planned, successful strategies can emerge within an
organization without prior p l a n n i n g " (Hill & Jones, 1989, p . 7).
the North A m e r i c a n market with the 250cc and 305cc strategy, they m a y h a v e lost out.
B y shifting their strategy to the 50cc, their vision o f penetrating the North A m e r i c a n
market w a s achieved. In fact, the 50cc motorcycle allowed H o n d a to initially enter the
North A m e r i c a n market. Later, North A m e r i c a n s started to d e m a n d larger motorcycles.
Consequently, H o n d a initially benefitted from the 50cc and, later, the 250cc and the
305cc. In other w o r d s , H o n d a kept its vision intact, but adapted its strategy. Essentially,
H o n d a benefitted m o r e b y adapting its strategy than it would have if the original strategy
w a s successful because they w e r e able to sell all three motorcyclesnot just the 250cc
and 305cc as originally intended. This e x a m p l e reinforces the centrality or importance of
focusing o n the vision and not fixating on a particular strategy.
Essentially, Mintzberg (1994) argues that emergent strategies are often successful and
m a y b e m o r e appropriate than intended strategies. In addition, he suggests that strategies
can develop a n y w h e r e in w h i c h people h a v e the capacity to learn and the resources to
support their ideas. Emergent strategies are usually the result of bottom-up processes
whereas intended strategies are usually the result o f a top-down process. Consequently,
top m a n a g e m e n t within organizations need to provide forums for the exchange of
information between employees and m a n a g e m e n t in order to capture the potential of
emergent strategies. Ideas for establishing these lines of communication are presented in
Chapter 5.
In the past, strategic planning often took place without the active involvement of the
h u m a n resources m a n a g e r (Benimadhu, 1995). M o r e recently, " . . . [an] overwhelming
majority o f h u m a n resource executives (92 p e r cent) stated that they regularly participate
in their organization's strategic planning p r o c e s s " (Benimadhu, 1995, p . 8).
70
Organizations that have been effective in linking h u m a n resources to their strategic plans
have tended to outperform organizations where this h a s not been the case (Benimadhu,
1995; Butler et al., 1 9 9 1 ; Hill & Jones, 1989). S o m e examples of successful
organizations include I B M , General Electric, Ford (Butler et al., 1991), Bombardier,
Royal Bank, and Canadian Occidental Petroleum (Benimadhu, 1995).
Schuler and Walker (1994) suggest that the process of strategic h u m a n resource planning
is so critical to the success o f the organization that it should not b e left completely to the
h u m a n resources department. Instead, they r e c o m m e n d that responsibilities for h u m a n
71
In essence, the strategic plan and the h u m a n resource strategic plan p r o v i d e a 'road m a p '
of h o w the organization plans to fulfill the vision it has set for itself. B y establishing
short- and long-term plans, the organization begins to create a broadly based strategy for
engaging in the activities required to ensure t h e successful achievement o f its vision.
Ultimately, the resultant activities selected b y t h e organization will require specific
employee competencies. This leads to the next level o n the organizational side of t h e
model (see F i g . 2). .
r r
In order to achieve the vision the organization has set for itself, it n e e d s to break d o w n its
strategic plans into the necessary competencies that it requires from its e m p l o y e e s for the
attainment o f its short- and long-term goals (see Fig. 2). E m p l o y e e competencies refer to
the k n o w l e d g e , skills, and attitudes that underlie effective performance in a particular role
(Hendry & M a g g i o , 1996; McLagan, 1996). Organizational competencies are the firm,
specific resources and capabilities that enable the organization to develop, choose, and
implement value-enhancing strategies. Organizational competencies include all firm-
specific assets, k n o w l e d g e , skills, and capabilities within the organization's structure,
technology, and processes (Wilson, 1994). Essentially, organizational competencies refer
to those areas in w h i c h the organization is competent and therefore give it a competitive
advantage (Kandola, 1996). For example, H o n d a ' s expertise in 'dealer m a n a g e m e n t ' (its
ability to train and support its dealer network w i t h operating procedures and policies for
merchandising, selling, floor planning, and service m a n a g e m e n t ) provides a competitive
advantage (Stalk, Evans, & Shulman, 1992).
A s discussed in the last section, organizations need to consider their strengths w h e n they
establish their strategic plans. Organizations attempt to utilize their strengths in order to
achieve an advantage over their competition. Recognizing its strengths and weaknesses
leads to t h e identification o f specific competencies required b y the organization in order
t o remain competitive. For example, S o n y ' s competencies in miniaturization h a v e
created a competitive advantage (Prahalad & H a m e l , 1990). This advantage required
72
Organizations that define the competencies required from their workforce are able to
articulate the central measures of success and assess, develop, and compensate employees
accordingly. T h e competencies provide a 'road m a p ' for coaching and training
employees and p r o m o t e the establishment of a learning organization (Hendry & M a g g i o ,
1996).
Senge (1990) and S e n g e et al. (1994) suggest that a learning organization has the ability
to learn faster than its competitors and that the rate at w h i c h employees learn is the only
sustainable competitive advantage left to organizations. Senge (1990) defines a learning
organization as o n e w h e r e people continually expand their capacity to create results,
w h e r e n e w and expansive patterns of thinking are nurtured, where collective aspiration is
set free, and w h e r e people are continually learning h o w to learn together.
A s the world b e c o m e s m o r e interconnected and business b e c o m e s m o r e complex
and dynamic, w o r k m u s t b e c o m e m o r e 'learningful.' It is n o longer sufficient to
have one person learning for the organization, a Ford, or a Sloan or a Watson. I t ' s
just not possible any longer to 'figure it out' from the top, and have everyone else
following the orders of the 'grand strategist.' T h e organizations that will truly
excel in the future will b e the organizations that discover h o w to tap p e o p l e ' s
c o m m i t m e n t and capacity to learn at all levels in an organization. (Senge, 1990,
r
73
In general, there are t w o approaches to defining the competencies that are critical'to
performance excellence in organizations. The first approach is 'micro'-oriented and
begins b y defining competencies at the individual j o b level, with position-specific criteria
that build toward the critical success o f the organization as a w h o l e . T h e other approach
is ' m a c r o ' - b a s e d and begins at the corporate level. F o r reasons that include efficiency
and integration of core competency and business strategies, it is usually preferable to start
at the m a c r o level (Hendry & M a g g i o , 1996). Therefore, an organization should begin b y
clarifying its vision and strategic plans. O n l y then can the competencies required of
individual employees b e determined (Hendry & M a g g i o , 1996; Kandola, 1996).
E x a m i n i n g the organization's vision and strategic plans provides m a n a g e m e n t with a
sense of the skills, knowledge, experience, and attitudes that w o u l d b e needed in the near
future. B y evaluating the gap b e t w e e n existing competencies and future needs, the
organization can recruit n e w employees or provide training and experience for current
employees to shift their focus and to b e prepared with the right competencies at the right
time (Shillaber, 1990). " H u m a n resource planning b e c o m e s strategic b y recognizing and
addressing that gap before it b e c o m e s a resource shortfall" (Shillaber, 1990, p . 172).
E m p l o y e e s in an area that is likely to b e downsized can begin training in another-area in
order to develop skills that would b e useful t o another department.
The earlier an organization begins to e x a m i n e its competencies (needs and resources), the
less discomfort it will experience as its internal or external environments change.
/
Therefore, the process o f reviewing w h a t competencies are required b y the strategic plans
should b e ongoing. In addition, m a n a g e r s should b e prepared for changes in their ,
industry or related businesses and internal demographic shifts (e.g., in competencies or
retirement eligibility) that m a y influence the competency mix that will b e available to the
organization in order to meet future business needs (Shillaber, 1990).
Like individuals, organizations need to remain in touch with external realities in order to
modify their visions and strategic plans as well as to update the competencies they
require from their workforces. This focus on continuous monitoring and subsequent
refining provides feedback to the organization to ensure its continued competitiveness
and thus its existence.
Example
Balancing/Interactive Processes
A s stated previously, employees and organizations need to identify their visions. The
process of reciprocal confirmation encourages employees and organizations to share their
respective visions. Throughout the process o f sharing, employees have an impact upon
organizational visions and vice versa.
To create a shared vision, organizations need to provide employees with the opportunity
to share their visions, to have input into the organization's vision, and to create
opportunities for sharing the organization's vision. Specific strategies for achieving these
goals are provided in the next chapter.
The second step toward employee and organizational alignment involves the
balancing/interactive process o f critical discourse (see Fig. 2). Critical discourse refers to
the process of communication b y w h i c h informed, precise, and careful j u d g e m e n t s can b e
77
Bennis et al. (1989) suggest that w h e n organizations include employee opinions they, in
effect, increase the acceptance o f and c o m m i t m e n t to the plans m a d e . Unfortunately,
however, m a n y organizations keep employees out of any meaningful participation in
planning. "With n o opportunity to take responsibility themselves, people learn to keep
their defenses u p , duck b l a m e , and avoid initiative" (Senge et al., 1994, p . 227).
Senge et al. (1994) suggest that team learning begins with dialogue and that competitive
advantage is riot possible without e m p l o y e e s ' full participation in setting directions and
priorities. T h e s e ideas are congruent with the goals inherent in the process of critical
discourse.
with required processes; continue to evaluate and refine alignments to ensure employee
and organizational satisfaction; and develop an ongoing organizational career
development program in order to encourage ongoing learning. Specific strategies for
achieving these goals are provided in the next chapter. O n c e the strategic plans have
been established, employees and organizations need to turn their attention toward the
ongoing monitoring and m a n a g e m e n t of employee and organizational competencies.
This ensures that the required competencies remain effectively aligned with employee
and organizational visions and plans/strategies.
T h e last step toward the alignment of employees and organizations involves the process
o f monitoring and managing specific competencies (see Fig. 2). Monitoring and
m a n a g e m e n t refers to the ongoing need for observing, guiding, and ensuring that
employees acquire and demonstrate essential competencies and that these competencies
are appropriately aligned with those required b y the organization.
Within this process, the employee monitors his or her plans and the external realities to
ensure that he or she acquires and demonstrates the competencies required within the
organization or within the world o f w o r k in general. Information obtained in the process
o f monitoring allows employees and organizations to refine the m a n a g e m e n t of their
respective competencies, plans, and visions. Meanwhile, t h e organization also engages in
the processes o f monitoring and management. In this case, it monitors its achievements
within the external world and also monitors its employees to ensure that they perform the
tasks that are essential to the organization. Information obtained in the process of
monitoring allows employees and the organization to refine the m a n a g e m e n t of their
respective competencies, plans/strategies, and visions.
However, as the employee establishes career m a n a g e m e n t plans that are compatible with
the organization's strategic plans, the t w o b e c o m e closer together. A s the e m p l o y e e and
organization agree on competencies and engage in reciprocal confirmation, critical
discourse, and monitoring and m a n a g e m e n t , the distance narrows between the employee
and the organization, creating a bridge b e t w e e n the t w o (see Fig. 2). This bridging
symbolizes a sense of cohesiveness and alignment that helps both employees and;
organizations to weather the storms caused b y external realities. The ultimate goal of the
proposed m o d e l is to help employees to stay employable and organizations to stay
competitive.
Example
The example of the engineer (Ms. Smith) w h o invented the n e w method of repairing gas
lines during the winter can b e used to illustrate the balancing/interactive processes. M s .
Smith started w i t h a personal vision (i.e., the need to have a creative impact upon the
organization). This personal vision w a s compatible with the organization's vision (i.e., to
provide effective and efficient natural gas service to its customers). The compatibility
between the e n g i n e e r ' s personal vision and the organization's vision illustrates the
process of reciprocal confirmation. In other w o r d s , there w a s agreement or compatibility
on the philosophical level. Consequently, the employee and the organization could
engage in critical discourse designed to strategically further their initial agreement. In
this manner, options for meeting the needs of each party could b e discussed and plans
could b e established. In this case, the problem of fixing gas lines in the winter w a s
addressed b y monitoring and managing the specific competencies required to solve the
presenting problem. Essentially, the c o m p a n y supported M s . Smith in her n e w learning
and subsequently benefited from it.
The Lofquist and D a w i s (1969) m o d e l ' s strength lies in its ability to link employees and
organizations o n the competencies exemplified b y employees and required b y
organizations. This strength is captured in the proposed m o d e l b y the t w o outer rings that
deal with competencies.
80
T h e strength of H a l l ' s (1986) model lies in its emphasis o n encouraging employees to set
goals. This concept w a s also achieved in the proposed m o d e l . However, the difference
between the two is that Hall (1986) tended to emphasize u p w a r d mobility whereas the
proposed model emphasizes goal setting in the form of career m a n a g e m e n t plans that
permeate from o n e ' s personal vision, not from a need to climb the organizational
hierarchy.
Summary
Essentially, bridging the gap between employees and organizations m e a n s that employee
career development cannot b e considered without also focusing on the larger context of
organizational development. Similarly, organizational development cannot b e addressed
without also considering employee development. Focusing on one without the other is
incomplete because employee development occurs within the context of organizations.
Meanwhile, organizations dehumanize the process of organizational development if they
do not include employees in that process. Furthermore, the needs of both parties are
m o r e likely to b e met w h e n w e attend to both employee and organizational development.
In fact, simultaneously attending to both creates a synergistic reaction, in which 'the
w h o l e is greater than the s u m of its parts.'
The next chapter will provide a framework for applying the proposed model of
organizational career development.
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Chapter 5
This chapter provides a framework for applying the proposed model of organizational
career development. T o d o this, further dimensions of the m o d e l will b e articulated.
Specifically, core issues, core strategies, and key tasks will b e provided for each level of
the model. In addition, a list o f potential strategies for balancing employee and
organizational needs at each level of the model will b e offered.
At the strategic level, the employee's m o s t basic question is " H o w can I enhance m y
career?" Meanwhile, the organization is asking " H o w can w e best meet organizational
o u t c o m e s ? " T h e balancing/interactive question for the strategic level can b e summarized
as " H o w do w e balance the short-term needs and goals of employees with those of the
organization?"
At the practical level, the m o s t basic issue faced b y employees is " H o w do I stay
employable?" and the most basic issue for the organization is " H o w do w e ensure
employees perform tasks that are essential to the organization?" The
balancing/interactive question then b e c o m e s " H o w do w e balance organizational
d e m a n d s with employee p e r f o r m a n c e ? " Consequently, the issues faced at the practical
level are concrete and specific.
Figure 3
Central Issues o f
Organizational Career Development
Balancing/
Employee Interactive Organizations
Level Processes Level
1A IB 1C
Philosophical
2A 2B 2C
Strategic
3A 3B 3C
Practical
Philosophical Level
T h e core strategy for helping employees to deal with the issue of h o w they can b e c o m e
and stay meaningfully connected to the world of w o r k is to continuously seek meaningful
connection between their o w n vision and the outcomes the organization is attempting to
produce (see Fig. 5). The key task for employees is to establish their o w n personal
visions. B y endeavouring to express their personal visions, employees at this level can
produce dramatic effects on behalf of the organization. Such energies, however, need to
b e harnessed b y the balancing/interactive process of reciprocal confirmation. Through
this process, employee ideas are heard and the organizational vision and outcomes are
communicated. At this level, employee visions m a y h a v e an impact upon organizational
visions and vice versa. Thorough two-way communication provides the m e c h a n i s m
through which the appropriate visions can b e shared and acted upon.
At the organizational level, the organization deals with the issue of determining its central
purpose b y engaging in the core strategy of developing a conceptual framework for the
organization. In a m a n n e r similar to the employee, the organization needs to articulate its
vision and subsequently the outcomes it hopes to achieve. T o facilitate the
balancing/interactive process o f reciprocal confirmation, t w o specific tasks are suggested
(see Fig. 5). A list of s o m e sample strategies that can b e used to accomplish each task is
provided in Table 2. Again, this list is not exhaustive. However, it does provide s o m e
initial ideas for balancing employee and organizational needs at the philosophical level.
T h e items listed under each task are n o w briefly described.
Figure 4
A Three-Dimensional Model of
Organizational Career Development
TARGET O F
86
Figure 5
Table 2
Reciprocal Confirmation Task #1: Provide employees with the opportunity to share their visions
and to have input into the organization's vision/outcomes
1. Providing employee suggestion boxes (Plas, 1996)
2. Rewarding employees for submitting useful ideas (Plas, 1996)
3. Groupware discussions (Quinn et al., 1996)
4. Value-added exercises (creating new outcomes) (Magnusson, 1996)
5. Gap analysis (identifying what is not being done to meet existing outcomes) (Magnusson, 1996)
Reciprocal Confirmation
Task # 1 : Provide employees with the opportunity to share their visions and to have input into
the organization's vision/outcomes. This conveys the message to e m p l o y e e s that their opinions
and ideas matter. These ideas m a y result in s o m e useful outcomes for employees and the
organization. S o m e forums for this include: (1) providing employee suggestion b o x e s a safe
and potentially a n o n y m o u s location for employee feedback (Plas, 1996); (2) rewarding
employees for submitting useful ideas, thereby further encouraging e m p l o y e e communication
and providing m o r e input to the organization (Plas, 1996); (3) g r o u p w a r e discussions wherein
employees share their visions and ideas for a shared vision via computer p r o g r a m s that m a y or
m a y not maintain participant anonymity (Quinn et al., 1996); (4) value-added exercises which
involve employees in brainstorming sessions designed to generate n e w o u t c o m e s for the
organization (Magnusson, 1996); and (5) gap analysis exercises w h i c h encourage employees to
participate in sessions designed to identify n e w w a y s of meeting existing organizational
outcomes (Magnusson, 1996).
Task # 2 : Share organizational vision/outcomes. Sharing the organization's vision and outcomes
with employees provides a critical ingredient for the balancing/interactive process of reciprocal
confirmation. Sharing this kind of information with employees greatly facilitates the likelihood
of effective alignments between employee and organizational visions. This can b e done through
presentations, videos, individual meetings w i t h supervisors/managers, e-mail, newsletters (Plas,
1996), and/or intranets (Finney, 1997).
T h e issues, core strategies, and k e y tasks to consider at the philosophical level w e r e summarized
in Figure 5. A sample list o f s o m e specific strategies that m a y b e used to balance employee and
88
organizational needs and goals at the philosophical level w a s presented in Table 2. In the next
section, a description of the proposed model at the strategic level is provided.
Strategic Level
The core strategy for helping employees to deal with the issue of h o w they can enhance their
careers is to develop a personal career m a n a g e m e n t plan (see Fig. 6). To create a personal career
management plan, employees need to develop a short-term career path/goal that m a y include a
plan for a n e w and/or enhanced contribution to organizational outcomes. T h e assumption at this
level is that employability is achieved b y demonstrating that one can m a k e an impact upon
organizational outcomes. Organizations deal with the issue of h o w to meet their outcomes b y
developing strategies or processes for o u t c o m e attainment. The k e y tasks involved in developing
organizational strategies are also listed in Figure 6.
T o facilitate the balancing/interactive process of critical discourse, five specific tasks are listed in
Figure 6. A list of some sample strategies that can b e used to accomplish each task are provided
in Table 3. Again, this list is not exhaustive. However, it does provide some initial ideas for
balancing employee and organizational needs at the strategic level. T h e items listed under each
task are n o w briefly described.
89
Figure 6
Critical Discourse
Task #4: Continue to evaluate and refine alignments to ensure employee and organizational
satisfaction. Organizations can utilize a combination of j o b redesign (Belcourt et al., 1996;
Lawler, 1991), j o b enrichment (Lawler, 1991), and j o b rotation (Belcourt et al., 1996) in order to
achieve better alignment between personal career m a n a g e m e n t plans and organizational strategic
plans. Adding, varying, or rotating responsibilities a m o n g employees also makes their j o b s more
challenging and interesting. Providing support for employee m o v e m e n t up, down, across, or out
of the organization (Kaye, 1982) m a y also b e necessary in order to facilitate an optimal m a t c h
between personal career m a n a g e m e n t plans and organizational strategic plans.
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Table 3
Critical Discourse Task #4: Continue to evaluate and refine alignments to ensure employee and
organizational satisfaction
1. Job redesign (Belcourt etal., 1996; Lawler, 1991)
2. Job enrichment (Lawler, 1991)
3. Job rotation (Belcourt etal., 1996)
4. Providing support for movement up, down, across, and out of the organization (Kaye, 1982)
Critical Discourse Task #5: Develop an ongoing organizational career development program
1. Establishing a task force for career development program design (Leibowitz et al., 1986)
2. Designing multiple interventions (Leibowitz et al., 1986)
3. Creating linkages to other human resource functions (Leibowitz et al., 1986)
4. Implementing a pilot project (Leibowitz et al., 1986)
5. Evaluating and redesigning the program (Leibowitz et al., 1986)
6. Publicizing the program (Leibowitz etal., 1986)
7. Generalizing the program to the rest of the organization (Leibowitz etal., 1986)
92
T h e issues, core strategies, and key tasks to consider at the strategic level w e r e summarized in
Figure 6. A sample list of some specific interventions that m a y b e used to balance employee and
organizational needs and goals at the strategic level were presented in Table 3. In the next
section, a description of the proposed model at the practical level is provided.
Practical Level
T h e core strategy for helping employees to deal with the issue of remaining employable is to
acquire and demonstrate specific competencies (see Fig. 7). Consequently, the key tasks involve
developing a plan to acquire and demonstrate specific competencies. On the organizational
level, organizations must b e involved in the core strategy of establishing and measuring
employee competencies. This addresses the issue o f ensuring that employees perform tasks that
are essential to the organization. T h e key tasks for accomplishing this are also listed in Figure 7.
T h e challenges of the balancing/interactive processes of the practical level are to ensure that
organizational competencies are accurately set and that employees are capable of and committed
to demonstrating these competencies. This can only b e accomplished b y obtaining input from
both the employee and the organization. W h e n the organization sets the required competencies
in isolation from the employee, it potentially shuts itself off from alternative m e t h o d s that m a y
b e m o r e efficient. Employees are closer to the j o b and m a y have insights, needs, and demands
which are different from those o f organizational representatives.
Figure 7
Balancing/
Employee Organizational
Interactive
Level Level
Processes
H o w d o I stay H o w d o TC b a l a n c e H o w do w c ensure
employable*? organizational employees perform
Core
d e m a n d s with Lusks that a r e
Issue
employee essential to the
pe.rlbrman.ee'? or gani zalt on ?
\
94
Table 4
Monitoring/Management Task #2: Communicate and reach agreement on compensation and reward
systems
1. Developing compensation and reward systems based on performance (Belcourt et al., 1996;
Bencivenga, 1997; Edwards & Ewen, 1996a, 1996b; Hendry & Maggio, 1996; Martinez,
1997; Tyler, 1997)
Monitoring/Management Task #3: Provide employees with the necessary training and development
options
1. Providing the required training and development options that are necessary for the strategic
development of staff in accordance with the vision the organization is trying to achieve
(Butler et al., 1991; Hendry & Maggio, 1996; McLagan, 1996; Souque, 1996)
2. Providing access to resources needed to accomplish employee goals that are congruent with the
organization's vision (Bencivenga, 1997; Butler et al., 1991)
3. Using information from employee self-assessments conducted at the strategic level to set future
training and development priorities (Butler et al., 1991; Tyler, 1997)
Monitoring/Management Task #4: Provide a forum for the review of employee performance
1. Performance appraisals (Belcourt et al., 1996; Bencivenga, 1997; Martinez, 1997; Stone & Meltz,
1993; Tyler, 1997)
2. Employee/manager periodic reviews of performance, progress toward goals, etc. (Bencivenga,
1997; Martinez, 1997; Tyler, 1997)
3. Discussions between employee and manager regarding the alignment of employee competencies
and the required organizational competencies (Hendry & Maggio, 1996; Tyler, 1997)
95
Monitoring and M a n a g e m e n t
Task # 3 : Provide employees with the necessary training and development options.
Organizations need to provide the required training and development options that are necessary
for the strategic development of staff in accordance with the outcomes the organization is trying
to achieve. In addition, the organization m u s t clearly identify the competencies it requires,
identify h o w employees measure u p against the required competencies, and remediate
deficiencies through the selected training and development programs (Butler et al., 1 9 9 1 ; H e n d r y
& M a g g i o , 1996; M c L a g a n , 1996; Souque, 1996). Such p r o g r a m s need to b e clearly aligned
with organizational o u t c o m e s in order to reduce waste. Providing access to these p r o g r a m s also
demonstrates that the organization values career development and m a k e s i t easier for employees
to reach their goals (Bencivenga, 1997; Butler et al., 1991). Information from e m p l o y e e self-
assessments (conducted at the strategic level) can b e stored in data b a n k s and used to set future
training and development priorities (Butler et al., 1 9 9 1 ; Tyler, 1997).
Task #4: Provide a forum for the review of employee performance. Performance appraisals help
employees and organizations to evaluate w h e t h e r performance expectations h a v e been met
(Belcourt et al., 1996; Bencivenga, 1997; Martinez, 1997; Stone & Meltz, 1993; Tyler, 1997).
Discrepancies can b e identified to help set training and development goals. E d w a r d s and E w e n
(1996a, 1996b) provide s o m e useful ideas o n h o w to incorporate feedback from coworkers and
customers. Their m o d e l , called 360 D e g r e e Feedback, goes beyond traditional m e t h o d s that only
incorporate supervisory opinions. Less formal strategies include periodic e m p l o y e e / m a n a g e r
reviews of performance and assessment of progress toward goals. Although such strategies are
less formal, m a n y authors r e c o m m e n d that they occur m o r e frequently than performance
appraisals (Bencivenga, 1997; Martinez, 1997; Tyler, 1997). These reviews provide employees
96
with the message that the organization values ongoing dialogue, support, and performance
discussions all the t i m e n o t just at the annual or biannual performance appraisal meeting.
Discussions should also take place between the employee and the m a n a g e r regarding the
alignment of employee competencies with the required organizational competencies (Hendry &
M a g g i o , 1996; Martinez, 1997; Tyler, 1997). These discussions reinforce the concept of
balancing employee needs and goals with those of the organization.
The issues, core strategies, and key tasks to consider at the practical level w e r e summarized in
Figure 7. A sample list of s o m e specific interventions that m a y b e used to balance employee and
organizational needs and goals at the practical level w e r e presented in Table 4. T h e brief
c o m m e n t s that w e r e provided for each item in Table 4 completed the description of the proposed
model of organizational career development. Although the description emphasized a linear
application of the proposed m o d e l , alternate conceptualizations are possible.
In the previous section of this chapter, the proposed m o d e l w a s described from a horizontal
perspective which emphasizes the critical function of balancing employee and organizational
needs and goals at the three different levels. Therefore, each level of the model presents issues,
core strategies, and k e y tasks that could b e employed to solve parallel employee and
organizational issues. D u e to the emphasis on balancing/interactive processes, the horizontal
perspective is preferred. However, s o m e organizations m a y simply not b e ready to fully develop
an organizational career development program. Instead, they m a y b e n e w at considering career
development initiatives and m a y only want strategies for employee career planning or for
organizational career management. In such cases, the m o d e l m a y b e utilized from a vertical
perspective. A s s u m i n g the organization only wants to consider a career planning focus,
practitioners need only utilize the framework provided under the employee side of the model at
the three different levels. In fact, some organizations m a y only b e interested in one of the t h r e e
levels provided for employees. Obviously, the organizational side of the model can b e utilized
for organizations that are only interested in the career m a n a g e m e n t of their employees.
Conceptualizing the m o d e l in alternate w a y s provides practitioners with the flexibility they need
to address an organization's presenting problem. O n l y b y demonstrating effectiveness in solving
the presenting problem can practitioners secure the support they need for a full implementation
of the model across an entire organization. In other w o r d s , interventions m a y begin at the
practical level, incorporate some of the strategic level, and then m o v e back to the practical level.
Similarly, interventions m a y begin at the philosophical level and carry on to the practical level or
simply stop at the philosophical level.
T h e intention is that creative uses o f the model will develop to address unique organizational
needs. Consequently, the strength and applicability of the model will b e determined over time as
it is applied to diverse employee and organizational needs. A m o r e detailed explanation of h o w
this m a y occur is presented in Chapter 6 wherein the topics o f further research and model
validation are discussed.
Although the model w a s described linearly in this chapter, this w a s only done in order to provide
a thorough examination of the full model. It w a s not developed exclusively for linear uses.
97
Instead, the intent is to create a m a x i m u m amount of flexibility to meet unique needs and various
organizational d e m a n d s . Organizations, for example, m a y w i s h to begin at the philosophical
level in order to crystallize their vision and then w o r k toward m o r e specific goals at the strategic
and practical levels. Other organizations, however, m a y o n l y b e interested in improving
employee j o b performance.
The proposed model highlights the importance of incorporating individual and organizational
visions. Its flexible applications encourage practitioners t o creatively design interventions to
meet the unique and varying n e e d s of organizations. In addition, practitioners are encouraged to
integrate a variety of the strategies discussed to synergistically meet the needs of the employees
and the organization. Several strategies have been proposed to ensure that the needs of
individuals and organizations remain in balance.
This chapter provided a framework for applying the proposed m o d e l of organizational career
development. T h e dimensions of the model w e r e described and a full conceptualization of the
model w a s offered. Finally, s o m e alternate w a y s of utilizing the model w e r e briefly mentioned.
Chapter 6 provides a conclusion to this project b y suggesting s o m e ideas for further research and
model validation.
1
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Chapter 6
CONCLUSION
Summary
Organizational career development services are designed to help employees fill the gaps between
what they currently k n o w and what they need to k n o w so that they can remain employable, and
so that organizations can remain competitive in the global marketplace. Consequently, a
comprehensive organizational career development plan forces employees and organizations to
identify their needs and concomitantly plan for their continued development.
Specifically, the Lofquist and D a w i s (1969) model w a s found to b e limited because it does not
consider individual development and change over time. Instead, m a n y tests and resources are
used to capture one picture o f the individual. It w a s argued that the requirements of the world o f
w o r k are changing far too fast for a static matching approach to offer enough utility, especially
considering the amount of time involved in achieving the initial match.
Schein's (1978) model w a s found to b e of limited value since it lists specific early, mid-, and late
career issues, reflecting an assumption of lifelong employment. Similarly, Schein (1978) lists
organizational needs that also tend to reflect the notion of lifelong employment (e.g., planning
for staffing, growth and development, levelling off and disengagement, and replacement and
restaffing). S c h e i n ' s (1978) model proposes a linear sequence o f interventions based upon the
assumption that early, mid-, and late career issues follow each other. It w a s suggested that this
assumption w a s invalid within t o d a y ' s world of work or within the context of changing, dynamic
organizations. Although Schein (1996) c o m m e n t s on recent changes in the world of work, he
does not revise his model.
99
Hall (1986), the third major theorist in organizational career development, presents a six-stage
model in w h i c h employees gather information about themselves and the organizations in w h i c h
they work. Hall (1986) suggests that this information can b e used b y e m p l o y e e s to set goals and
develop specifically timed plans for m o v i n g u p the organizational hierarchy. It w a s argued that
there are a few major problems with the application o f H a l l ' s (1986) m o d e l . First, it emphasizes
the need for organizations to have a clearly defined career path structure. M e a n w h i l e , ^
organizations are increasingly m o v i n g from a hierarchical structure to a flatter, team-based -
structure w i t h fewer permanent employees and m o r e employees hired o n a contract, project-to-
project basis (Bridges, 1994; Campbell, 1994; Zunker, 1994). H a l l ' s (1986) m o d e l also assumes
that individuals strive to climb organizational hierarchies, thereby omitting other avenues for
obtaining personal satisfaction. Although Hall (1996) c o m m e n t s on this deficit in his m o r e
recent writing, h e does not revise his model. Finally, it w a s suggested that b y b e i n g universally
and generically applied, H a l l ' s (1986) model m a y run the risk of p r o m o t i n g tool- or technique-
driven interventions w h i c h m a y not meet the needs of the employees and the organization being
served.
deemed to b e insufficient.
Most importantly, the Brousseau et al. (1996) m o d e l is designed to address organizational needs
at the strategic level. In other words, it appears to b e a m e a n s b y which to ensure that
organizational n e e d s are met. It does not emphasize h o w employee needs can b e met. ,
Therefore, it w a s suggested that the model does not effectively encourage the balancing o f
individual and organizational needs.
Ideas from systems theory created the framework for conceptualizing the proposed m o d e l o f
organizational career development. Systemically, parallel employee and organizational concepts
w e r e developed for each level of the model. The systems language to denote this hierarchical
organization includes outcomes, processes, and structures. Outcomes are represented b y the
centre rings (Personal and Organizational Visions; see Fig. 2). They are the long-term goals
toward which the individual and/or the organization is working. Processes are the strategies,
plans, or methods for achieving the longer-term outcomes. T h e structures are the specifics; in
this case, they are the competencies required b y the employee and the organization to ensure
m o v e m e n t toward personal and organizational visions. T o simplify the terminology, the inner
rings are referred to as the 'philosophical level,' the middle rings the 'strategic level,' and the
outer rings the 'practical level.' These terms are used to illustrate m o v e m e n t from the broader
philosophical vision to the strategic plans and then to the practical need for the alignment o f
specific competencies. M o r e specifically, the model encourages employees and organizations to
dream (philosophical level), plan (strategic level), and then perform (practical level).
The personal and organizational vision circles are intentionally diagrammed as the core rings to
denote the role o f personal and organizational visions in regulating the other subsystems.
Meanwhile, the focus o n competencies is diagrammed as the outer rings to denote the role o f
competencies in providing feedback to the rest of the system regarding the requirements -of the
world of workspecifically the competencies required to remain employable (in the c a s e of the
employee) and competitive (in the case of the organization) (see Fig. 2). This feedback helps
employees and organizations to adjust to changes in the world of w o r k and, therefore, to monitor
their plans and strategies to ensure the m o s t optimal fulfillment o f their respective visions. This
use of systems concepts to create parallel structures between employees and organizations is n e w
to models of organizational career development. -
The balancing/interactive processes w e r e designed to help bring the employee and the
organization into closer alignment, thereby avoiding the situation o f treating career development
and organizational development as separate entities. B y simultaneously attending to both w e
create a synergistic reaction, in which 'the whole is greater than the sum o f its parts.'
T h e comprehensive framework provided in Chapter 5 for bridging the gap between employees
and organizations illustrated an attempt to alleviate the concerns reflected in the survey literature
on organizational career development that identified imbalances between career planning and
career m a n a g e m e n t services.
Although the proposed model of organizational career development synthesizes a vast amount of
literature from the fields of career and organizational development and heuristically m a k e s sense
to the writer, its validity remains to b e seen. Consequently, the next section provides a
framework for validating the proposed model of organizational career development.
T h e process of validating a complex set of constructs such as those contained within the
proposed m o d e l of organizational career development will be, in itself, a major undertaking. N o
simple evaluation m e c h a n i s m s or individual research projects could possibly d o justice to such a
complex set of p h e n o m e n a . Therefore, it b e c o m e s necessary to develop a general framework for
m o d e l validation. Details about specific research methodologies will only b e c o m e apparent after
the initial data are analyzed. W i t h that constraint in mind, four major approaches to m o d e l
validation are provided.
Content/Construct Validity
F r o m a content perspective, theoreticians could also b e asked about the viability of incorporating
concepts from chaos theory. These ideas m a y further expand on the systems theory components
o f the proposed m o d e l and provide suggestions for organizations facing the reality or threat of
disintegration.
Feedback on the above questions will provide useful information that m a y lead to s o m e fine
tuning regarding the content/constructs used in the m o d e l . Unfortunately, this feedback is only
impressionistic and, therefore, does not serve to conclusively validate or invalidate the entire
model.
102
After obtaining feedback from theoreticians and m a k i n g the necessary modifications to the
model, it is r e c o m m e n d e d that the model b e presented to practitioners in the field of
organizational career development for their feedback.
Face Validity
It is assumed that theoreticians will b e able to read the proposed m o d e l of organizational career
development and subsequently provide feedback. Although s o m e practitioners m a y also b e able
to do the same, others m a y benefit from having the content/constructs explained. Therefore,
workshops could b e delivered wherein the model is described. T o test this assumption, the
feedback provided b y practitioners w h o have read the model could b e compared with that
provided b y those w h o h a v e attended the training sessions. This information m a y lead to the
development of recommendations about the amount, nature, and type of training necessary in
order to enable practitioners to successfully implement the m o d e l .
It is recommended that feedback from practitioners occur through structured interviews. The
focus w o u l d b e on asking the following questions:
The above questions could also b e expanded upon and individual interviews could extend to a
survey format. Surveys could then b e completed b y practitioners w h o attended the training
sessions or read about the model. Their feedback will determine the degree to which the model
appeals to the audience of practitioners. In addition, their feedback m a y lead to revisions to the
model and m a y also lead to suggestions for m o r e rigorous testing. D u e to its impressionistic
nature, practitioner feedback in itself will not completely validate or invalidate the proposed
model of organizational career development.
Global Validity
T h e purpose of global validation is to determine the extent to w h i c h the model has a positive '
impact on individuals and organizations. O n e w a y of doing this could involve the use of
historical case studies wherein hermeneutical analysis is used to uncover the stories of
successful/unsuccessful individuals and organizations. Following this model, archives of
organizational information and interviewing o f past employees could b e used in an attempt to
uncover the determinants of successful versus unsuccessful individuals and organizations. These
103
The research from content/construct validity, face validity, and historical case studies m a y then
prepare the m o d e l for implementation in one or two organizations. A s the model is
implemented, longitudinal case studies could b e used to address the following questions:
1. W h e n organizations use the model systematically, w h a t impact does it have on the
organization's ability to stay competitive in the global marketplace?
2. W h e n employees use the model systematically, w h a t impact does it have on the
e m p l o y e e s ' a b i l i t y to stay employable?
3. H o w difficult is it for employees to establish personal visions? A r e there differences
based on one's level within the organization? T o w h a t extent are personal visions
influenced by ethnicity/gender? t
4. H o w difficult is it for organizations to establish organizational visions? D o s o m e
organizations find it easier than others? If so, which types?
5. W h a t are the barriers to establishing a personal vision?
6. W h a t are the barriers to establishing an organizational vision?
7. T o w h a t extent d o employees a n d organizations follow through with the ideals proposed
in the m o d e l ? D o s o m e employees/organizations follow through m o r e than others? If
so, which ones? W h y ?
Model Propositions
To test this proposition, specific criteria would need to b e developed to determine to w h a t extent
personal visions and personal career m a n a g e m e n t plans w e r e clearly developed. For example,
the degree to which a personal vision evokes strong emotions in an individual could b e compared
to the level of detail provided in o n e ' s personal career m a n a g e m e n t plan. Correlational studies
could then b e used to determine h o w closely the development of one compares to the other.
Conversely, individual interviews and longitudinal tracking or retrospective interviewing could
be used to provide a greater understanding of the relationship between personal visions and
personal career management plans.
Once again, criteria could b e established for a correlational study or individual interviews and
longitudinal tracking or retrospective interviewing could b e used to test this proposition.
To test this proposition, the clarity of an e m p l o y e e ' s personal vision w o u l d have to b e compared
;
to his/her impact on the establishment and success of organizational visions and strategic plans.
For example, employees with clear personal visions and employees without clear personal
visions could b e compared b y gauging their impact o n the establishment and success of
organizational visions and strategic plans. Again, criteria would help with correlational studies.
Edwards and E w a n ' s (1996a,b) system of 360-Degree Feedback could also b e used to test this
proposition. In this case, supervisors, employees, peers, and customers could b e asked to what
extent the employee had an impact on the organizational vision and strategic plans. This data
would then need to b e compared to the level of clarity he/she had in his/her personal vision.
Proposition 4: T h e articulation of clear personal visions has a positive impact on the
organization's ability to profit economically.
T o test this proposition, survey data or samples of employee interviews could b e used to gauge
the level of clarity employees within the organization h a v e on their personal visions. This data
could then b e compared to the degree o f economic success experienced b y the organization over
time. Obviously, collecting this type of information in several organizations w o u l d provide m o r e
data for comparison and subsequently better validity.
Individual interviews, longitudinal tracking, and retrospective interviewing could all b e used to
test this proposition. A sample of employees could also b e enrolled in a w o r k s h o p to help t h e m
develop clear personal visions. Employees with clear personal visions could then b e compared
to those without clear personal visions. Quantitatively, the t w o groups could then b e compared
on criteria variables such as annual earnings, m o n t h s employed/unemployed, etc.
Once again, criteria could b e established for a correlational study or individual interviews and
longitudinal tracking or retrospective interviewing could b e used to test this proposition.
This proposition could b e tested b y comparing the clarity of the organization's vision with the
degree of success the organization has in the attainment of its strategic plans. F o r example,
H o n d a had a clear vision of entering the North A m e r i c a n market to sell its motorcycles. In this
example, the clarity of the vision m a y be quantitatively compared to the n u m b e r of sales in the
N o r t h A m e r i c a n market.
Individual interviews, focus groups, or surveys could b e used to assess the impact that an
organizational vision h a s on employee visions.
T o test this proposition, correlational data between the clarity of an organization's vision and its
economic success could b e compared. T h e u s e of multiple organizations w o u l d increase the
validity of this data.
T o test this proposition, organizations with and without clear organizational visions could b e
compared to assess their degree of competitiveness in the marketplace.
106
Aside from testing the above propositions, a few generic research questions remain. T h e y
include:
These questions could b e answered through individual interviews or through employee career
development w o r k s h o p evaluations.
13. W h a t differences exist between employees with a n d without clear personal visions?
14. W h a t differences exist between organizations with and without clear organizational
visions?
Again, a multitude of different data could b e collected to answer this question. F o r example,
organizations could be compared o n their degree of competitiveness and economic success.
Implications
Finally, effective use of the model supports a long-term focus wherein employees and
organizations are encouraged to envision their futures and w o r k towards the establishment of
plans and strategies to achieve their visions. This emphasizes the need for long-term planning
and discourages current practices w h i c h focus only on quarterly results. B y focusing on the
long-term, organizations are encouraged to consider the long-term consequences of their actions.
For example, short-sighted actions such as cutting staff to improve quarterly reports are not
supported b y the proposed m o d e l o f organizational career development.
The proposed model also provides a stimulus for a vast amount of research. At the very least,
this research will begin to further illuminate the complex interrelationships between employees
and organizations.
Conclusion
In its current form, the m o d e l encourages practitioners to consider the interrelationships between
career development and organizational development. It also emphasizes the use of dynamic and
multiple points of entry w h e n balancing the needs of employees and organizations. T h e m o d e l
encourages a m a c r o perspective b y including all aspects of h u m a n beings including their
emotions, dreams and current realities. Finally, it focuses o n the future b y creating emotionally
charged, shared visions wherein practitioners help employees and organizations to strategically
find w a y s of harnessing the p o w e r of their visions.
Inevitably, future research and continued application will result in modifications to the proposed
model of organizational career development. These modifications will also lead to n e w
perspectives and additional implications for the field of organizational career development. The
model proposed in this dissertation provides a foundation for that work to begin.
110
Ill
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