Wind Machines

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Contents
Articles
Windmill 1
Windpump 8
Wind turbine 11
Floating wind turbine 23

References
Article Sources and Contributors 29
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 31

Article Licenses
License 32
Windmill 1

Windmill
A windmill is a machine which converts the
energy of wind to rotational motion by means of
adjustable vanes called sails. The main use is for
a grinding mill powered by the wind, reducing a
solid or coarse substance into pulp or minute
grains, by crushing, grinding, or pressing.[1] [2]
Windmills have also provided energy to
sawmills, paper mills, hammermills, and
windpumps for obtaining fresh water from
underground or for drainage (especially of land
below sea level).

This Dutch windmill in Amsterdam was built in 1757 and is identified as De

1100 Roe. It is a smock mill of the type called by the Dutch a grondzeiler
("ground sailer"), since the sails almost reach the ground.

History
The windwheel of Heron of Alexandria in the 1st century marks one of
the first known instances of wind powering a machine in history.[3] [4]
Another early example of a wind-driven wheel was the prayer wheel,
which was used in ancient Tibet and China since the 4th century.[5]

Vertical-axis windmills
The first practical windmills were the vertical axle windmills invented
in eastern Persia, as recorded by the Persian geographer Estakhri in the
9th century.[6] [7] The authenticity of an earlier anecdote of a windmill
involving the second caliph Umar (AD 634644) is questioned on the
grounds that it appears in a 10th-century document.[8] Made of six to
A diagram of the windwheel of Heron of
twelve sails covered in reed matting or cloth material, these windmills
Alexandria, 1st century, C.E.
were used to grind grain or draw up water, and were quite different
from the later European horizontal-axis versions. Windmills were in
widespread use across the Middle East and Central Asia, and later spread to China and India from there.[9]
Windmill 2

Some popular treatments of the subject have speculated that, by the 9th
century, the Afghanistan-style vertical-axle mills spread to Europe
through Al-Andalus (Islamic Spain).[10] This has been denied by the
specialist of medieval European technology, Lynn White Jr., who
points out that there is no evidence (archaeological or documentary)
that the Afghanistan-style vertical-axle windmill spread as far west as
Al-Andalus,[11] and notes that "all Iberian windmills rotated on
horizontal axles until towards the middle of the fifteenth century."[12]
Another historian of technology, Michael Jonathan Taunton Lewis,
The windmills of Campo de Criptana were
suggested an alternative route of transmission for the Islamic
immortalized in chapter VIII of Don Quixote.
horizontal-shaft windmill, with its diffusion to the Byzantine Empire
and its subsequent transformation into the vertical-shaft windmill in
Europe.[13] Late medieval verticle-axle windmills similar to the Islamic/Persian design can be found along this route,
particularly in Karpathos, Greece, and Kandia, Crete. The Crusades has also been suggested as another possible
route of transmission, though in the sense of "stimulus diffusion," where the idea was diffused rather than the
technology itself.[14] However, the debate about whether the European vertical-shaft windmill evolved from the
Islamic horizontal-shaft windmill or was an independent development remains unresolved.[13]

Horizontal-axis windmills
Fixed windmills, oriented to the prevailing wind were extensively used
in the Cyclades islands of Greece. The economies of power and
transport allowed the use of these 'offshore' mills for grinding grain
transported from the mainland and flour returned. A 1/10th share of the
flour was paid to the miller in return for his service. This type would
mount triangular sails when in operation.

A similar type of vertical-shaft windmill with rectangle blades, used

Medieval depiction of a windmill
for irrigation, can also be found in 13th-century China (during the
Jurchen Jin Dynasty in the north), introduced by the travels of Yel
Chucai to Turkestan in 1219.[15]

Horizontal-axle windmills that turn to face the wind

In northwestern Europe, the horizontal-axle or vertical windmill (so called due to the dimension of the movement of
its sails) dates from the last quarter of the 12th century in the triangle of northern France, eastern England and
Flanders. Lynn White Jr. claims that the first certain reference to the European horizontal-axle windmill is dated to
1185 in Weedley, Yorkshire.[16] (This predates Joseph Needham's claim that the earliest known reference is from the
1191 chronicle of Jocelin of Brakelond, in which a Dean Herbert of East Anglia supposedly competed with the mills
of the abbey of Bury St Edmunds).[17] These earliest mills were used to grind cereals. The evidence at present is that
the earliest type was the sunk post mill, so named because of the large upright post on which the mill's main structure
(the "body" or "buck") is balanced. By mounting the body this way, the mill is able to rotate to face the wind
direction; an essential requirement for windmills to operate economically in North-Western Europe, where wind
directions are variable. By the end of the thirteenth century the masonry tower mill, on which only the timber cap
rotated rather than the whole body of the mill, had been introduced. In the Netherlands these stone towerlike mills
are called "round or eight-sided stone stage mills, ground-sailers (windmills with sails reaching almost down to the
ground), mound mills, etc." (Dutch: ronde/achtkante stenen stelling molens, grond-zeilers, beltmolens, etc.). Dutch
tower mills ("torenmolens") are always cylindrical (such as atop castle or city wall towers). Because only the cap of
the tower mill needed to be turned the main structure could be made much taller, allowing the sails to be made
Windmill 3

longer, which enabled them to provide useful work even in low winds. Such mills often have a small auxiliary set of
sails called a fantail at the rear of the cap and at right angles to the sails; this rotates the cap through gearing so the
sails face into the wind.
Post mills in Germany are Bockwindmhlen, Paltrockmhlen or Wippmhlen.
Smock mills in Germany can be Sockelgeschohollnder or Galeriehollnder.
Tower mills in Germany can be Turmhollnder, Galeriehollnder, Erdhollnder or Berghollnder
Windmills were often built on top of castle towers or city walls, and were a unique part of a number of fortifications
in New France, such as at Fort Senneville.
The familiar lattice style of windmill sails (also called "common"
sails) allowed the miller to attach sailcloths to the sails (while
applying a brake). Trimming the sails allowed the windmill to turn at
near the optimal speed in a large range of wind velocities. The
fantail, a small windmill mounted at right angles to the main sails
which automatically turns the heavy cap and main sails into the wind,
was invented by Edmund Lee in 1745, in England. The smock mill is
a later variation of the tower mill, constructed of timber and
originally developed in the sixteenth century for land drainage. With
some subsequent development mills became versatile in windy
regions for all kind of industry, most notably grain grinding mills,
sawmills (late 16th century), threshing, and, by applying scoop
wheels, Archimedes screws, and piston pumps, pumping water either
for land drainage or for water supply. In 1772, Scottish millwright,
Andrew Meikle developed the spring sail made from a series of
connected parallel shutters that could be opened or closed according
to windspeed. To do this the sails had to be stopped, but the sails also
Diagram of the smock mill at Meopham, Kent
which uses a fantail and Cubitt's patent sails incorporated a spring which allowed the shutters to open a little more
to prevent damage if the wind suddenly strengthens. In 1789, Stephen
Hooper invented the roller reefing sail, which allowed automatic adjustment of the sail whilst in motion. In 1807,
William Cubitt a Norfolk engineer, invented a new type of sail, known there on as patent sails, using a chain and a
rod that passed through the centre of the windshaft. These sails had the shutters of Meikle's spring sails and the
automatic adjustment of Hooper's roller reefing sails. This became the basis of self-regulating sails. These avoided
the constant supervision that had been required up till then.

By the 19th Century there were some 10,000 corn mills operating in
Britain,[18] but with the coming of the industrial revolution, the importance of
wind as primary industrial energy source was replaced by steam and internal
combustion engines. The increased use of steam, and later diesel power,
however, had a lesser effect on the mills of the Norfolk Broads, these being so
isolated (on extensive uninhabitable marshland) that some of them continued
in use as drainage pumps powered by diesel until as late as 1959. More
A windmill on the background of the
recently windmills have been preserved for their historic value, in some cases
1792 Battle of Valmy, France.
as static exhibits when the antique machinery is too fragile to put in motion,
and in other cases as fully working mills. There are around 50 working mills
in operation in Britain as of 2009.[18]
Windmill 4

Rule of thumb
Such was the importance of the corn mills of Britain that a number of phrases used in their operation have found
their way into common usage in the English language: When the wind was not strong enough to turn the sails the
millstones would "grind to a halt", and the coarseness of the ground flour was assessed by the miller rubbing it
between his thumb and forefinger, giving rise to the term "rule of thumb".[18]
See Flood control in the Netherlands for use of windmills in land reclamation in the Netherlands.

In Canada and the United States

Windmills feature uniquely in the history of New France, particularly in Canada,

where they were used as strong points in fortifications.[19] Prior to the 1690
Battle of Qubec, the strong point of the city's landward defenses was a windmill
called Mont-Carmel, where a three-gun battery was in place.[19] At Fort
Senneville, a large stone windmill was built on a hill by late 1686, doubling as a
watch tower.[20] This windmill was like no other in New France, with thick
walls, square loopholes for muskets, with machicolation at the top for pouring
lethally hot liquids and rocks onto attackers.[20] This helped make it the "most
substantial castle-like fort" near Montreal.[21]

In the United States, the development of the water-pumping windmill was the
major factor in allowing the farming and ranching of vast areas of North
America, which were otherwise devoid of readily accessible water. They
contributed to the expansion of rail transport systems throughout the world, by An isometric drawing of the
pumping water from wells to supply the needs of the steam locomotives of those machinery of the Beebe Windmill. It
early times. Two prominent brands were the Eclipse Windmill developed in 1867 was built in Bridgehampton, NY in
1820.
(which was later bought by Fairbanks-Morse) and the Aermotor, which first
appeared in 1888 and is still in production. The effectiveness of the Aermotor's
automatic governor, which prevents it from flying apart in a windstorm, led to its popularity over other models.
Currently, the Aermotor windmill company is the only remaining water windmill manufacturer in the United States.
They continue to be used in areas of the world where a connection to electric power lines is not a realistic option.[22]

The multi-bladed wind turbine atop a lattice tower made of wood or steel was, for many years, a fixture of the
landscape throughout rural America. These mills, made by a variety of manufacturers, featured a large number of
blades so that they would turn slowly with considerable torque in low winds and be self regulating in high winds. A
tower-top gearbox and crankshaft converted the rotary motion into reciprocating strokes carried downward through a
rod to the pump cylinder below.
Windmills and related equipment are still manufactured and installed today on farms and ranches, usually in remote
parts of the western United States where electric power is not readily available. The arrival of electricity in rural
areas, brought by the Rural Electrification Administration (REA) in the 1930s through 1950s, contributed to the
decline in the use of windmills in the US. Today, the increases in energy prices and the expense of replacing electric
pumps has led to an increase in the repair, restoration and installation of new windmills.
1980's Wind Energy Experiment
In the early 1980s, several small companies started wind farms for commercial energy production in the San Joaquin
valley region of California. The first such wind farm was created in 1981 when John Eckland, of Fayette
Manufacturing Corporation placed the first windmills on land leased from Joe Jess, Sr. on the Altamont Pass. Later,
as a gift to Mr. Jess for the continued use of his land, Fayette created a stars and stripes themed windmill for Mr.
Jess.[23] [24] [25]
Windmill
Interior view, Pantigo windmill, East Hampton, New York. Historic
American Buildings Survey
Multi-sailed windmills
An eight sailed Windmill at
Wisbech, Cambridgeshire, UK
5
At one point in the mid-80s there were over twenty-six
wind farm companies operating in this area of the
United States. This eventually expanded to areas
outside of Palm Springs, as seen as backdrops in
several films of the era, such as Less Than Zero.
However, later legislative efforts by California
lawmakers eliminated the financial incentives and tax
breaks that made these early alternative energy projects
feasible (Fisher, 1985). Similar tax credits and
incentives have brought a resurgence in interest in
renewable energy sources in other areas of the country
(Maloney, 2006).[23] [24] [25]
The majority of windmills had four sails. An increase in the number of sails
meant that an increase in power could be obtained, at the expense of an increase
in the weight of the sail assembly. The earliest record of a multi-sailed mill in the
United Kingdom was the five sail Flint Mill, Leeds, mentioned in a report by
John Smeaton in 1774. Multi-sailed windmills were said to run smoother than
four sail windmills. In Lincolnshire, more multi-sailed windmills were found
than anywhere else in the United Kingdom. There were five, six and eight sail
windmills.[26]
If a four sail windmill suffers a damaged sail, the one opposite can be removed
and the mill will work with two sails, generating about 60% of the power that it
would with all four sails. A six sail mill can run with two, three, four or six sails.
An eight sail mill can run with two, four, six or eight sails, thus allowing a
number of options if an accident occurs. A five sail mill can only run with all
five sails. If one is damaged then the mill is stopped until it is replaced.[26] Apart
from the UK, multi-sail mills were built in Germany, Malta and the USA.
Windmill 6

See also
American Wind Power Center in Lubbock, TX
olienne Bolle
List of windmills
Mill machinery
Molinology
Renewable energy
Thomas O. Perry
Watermill
Wind turbine
Windmill at the National Ranching Heritage
Runner stone
Center in Lubbock, Texas

References
A.G. Drachmann: "Heron's Windmill," Centaurus, 7 (1961),
pp.145151

Further reading
Ahmad Y Hassan, Donald Routledge Hill (1986). Islamic
Technology: An illustrated history. Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 0-521-42239-6.
Chartrand, French Fortresses in North America 15351763:
Qubec, Montral, Louisbourg and New Orleans.
Dietrich Lohrmann, "Von der stlichen zur westlichen Windmhle",
Archiv fr Kulturgeschichte, Vol. 77, Issue 1 (1995)
A.G. Drachmann, "Heron's Windmill", Centaurus, 7 (1961).
Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China:
Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical [27]
Windmill with rotating sails
Engineering. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.
Hugh Pembroke Vowles: "An Enquiry into Origins of the
Windmill", Journal of the Newcomen Society, Vol. 11 (1930-31)
Roy Gregory and Laurence Turner (2009) Windmills of Yorkshire
ISBN 9781840334753
Edwin Tunis (1999), Colonial living, The Johns Hopkins University
Press ", ISBN 0-8018-6627-2, pp. 72 and 73

External links
Architecture: Windmills [28] at the Open Directory Project Windmill at Werdinsel in Zrich-Hngg,
Earth Science Australia, Wind Power and Windmills [29] Switzerland
The International Molinological Society [30]
Windmills at Windmill World [31]
The Mill Database, Europe [32]
A short video demonstrating how to generate electricity from a windmill by the Vega Science Trust [33]
Windmill 7

References
[1] Mill definition (http:/ / www. thefreedictionary. com/ Mill)
[2] Windmill definition stating that a windmill is a mill or machine operated by the wind (http:/ / www. merriam-webster. com/ dictionary/
windmill)
[3] A.G. Drachmann, "Heron's Windmill", Centaurus, 7 (1961), pp. 145-151
[4] Dietrich Lohrmann, "Von der stlichen zur westlichen Windmhle", Archiv fr Kulturgeschichte, Vol. 77, Issue 1 (1995), pp.1-30 (10f.)
[5] Lucas, Adam (2006), Wind, Water, Work: Ancient and Medieval Milling Technology, Brill Publishers, p.105, ISBN9004146490
[6] - ( http:/ / www. cgie. org. ir/ shavad. asp?id=123& avaid=3609)
[7] Ahmad Y Hassan, Donald Routledge Hill (1986). Islamic Technology: An illustrated history, p. 54. Cambridge University Press. ISBN
0-521-42239-6.
[8] Dietrich Lohrmann, "Von der stlichen zur westlichen Windmhle", Archiv fr Kulturgeschichte, Vol. 77, Issue 1 (1995), pp.1-30 (8)
[9] Donald Routledge Hill, "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East", Scientific American, May 1991, p. 64-69. (cf. Donald
Routledge Hill, Mechanical Engineering (http:/ / home. swipnet. se/ islam/ articles/ HistoryofSciences. htm))
[10] Farrokh, Kaveh (2007), Shadows in the Desert, Osprey Publishing, p.280, ISBN1846031087
[11] Lynn White Jr. Medieval technology and social change (Oxford, 1962) p. 86
[12] Lynn White Jr. Medieval technology and social change (Oxford, 1962) p. 161-162
[13] Lucas, Adam (2006), Wind, Water, Work: Ancient and Medieval Milling Technology, Brill Publishers, pp.1067, ISBN9004146490
[14] Bent Sorensen (November 1995), "History of, and Recent Progress in, Wind-Energy Utilization", Annual Review of Energy and the
Environment 20: 387424, doi:10.1146/annurev.eg.20.110195.002131
[15] Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 560.
[16] Lynn White Jr. Medieval technology and social change, Oxford, 1962, p. 87.
[17] Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 555.
[18] Episode 1: Directed and produced by Naomi Benson: BBC Television
[19] Chartrand, French Fortresses in North America 15351763: Qubec, Montral, Louisbourg and New Orleans
[20] Chartrand, p 41
[21] Chartrand, p. 38
[22] Quirky old-style contraptions make water from wind on the mesas of West Texas (http:/ / www. mysanantonio. com/ news/ weather/
weatherwise/ stories/ MYSA092407. 01A. State_windmills. 3430a27. html)
[23] Land Use Cooperative article from 1985 (http:/ / www. cooperativeindividualism. org/ harrison-fred_on-worldwatch-institute. html)
[24] (2006) Maloney, P. (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2006/ 05/ 17/ business/ businessspecial2/ 17wind. html?_r=1) New York Times, May 17th.
2006.
[25] The threat to wind energy, special report. (1985). Fisher, B. New York Times, October 26, 1985.
[26] Wailes, Rex (1954), The English Windmill, London: Routlege & Kegan Paul, pp.99104
[27] http:/ / hr. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Vjetrenja%C4%8Da_s_rotiraju%C4%87im_jedrima
[28] http:/ / www. dmoz. org/ Arts/ Architecture/ Building_Types/ Mills/ Windmills/ /
[29] http:/ / earthsci. org/ mineral/ energy/ wind/ wind. html
[30] http:/ / www. timsmills. info
[31] http:/ / www. windmillworld. com/
[32] http:/ / www. molendatabase. nl/ index_en. php
[33] http:/ / vega. org. uk/ video/ programme/ 169
Windpump 8

Windpump
A windpump is a windmill used for pumping water, either as a
source of fresh water from wells, or for draining low-lying areas of
land. Once a common fixture on farms in semi-arid areas,
windpumps are still used today where electric power is not
available or too expensive.

History
Windmills were used to pump water since at least the 9th century
in what is now Afghanistan, Iran and Pakistan.[1] The use of
windmills became widespread across the Muslim world and later
spread to China and India as well.[2] Windmills were later used A schematic of a windpump
extensively in Europe, particularly in the Netherlands and the East
Anglia area of Great Britain, from the late Middle Ages onwards, to drain land for agricultural or building purposes.
Early immigrants to the New World brought with them the technology of windmills from Europe.[3]

On US farms, particularly in the Midwest, windpumps were used to pump water from farm wells for cattle. The
self-regulating farm wind pump was invented by Daniel Halladay in 1854[3] [4] [5] . Eventually steel blades and steel
towers replaced wooden construction, and at their peak in 1930, an estimated 600,000 units were in use, with
capacity equivalent to 150 megawatts.[6] Early wind pumps directly operated the pump shaft from a crank attached to
the rotor of the windmill; the installation of back gearing between wind rotor and pump crank allowed the pump to
function at lower wind speeds.

Worldwide use
Windpumps are used extensively in Southern Africa and Australia and
on farms and ranches in the central plains of the United States. In
South Africa and Namibia thousands of windpumps are still operating.
These are mostly used to provide water for human use as well as
drinking water for large sheep stocks.
Kenya has also benefited from the African development of windpump
technologies. At the end of the 1970s, the UK NGO Intermediate
Technology Development Group provided engineering support to the
Kenyan company Bobs Harries Engineering Ltd for the development Brograve Mill, UK. An example of the derelict
of the Kijito windpumps. Bobs Harries Engineering Ltd is still state of many Broadland Windpumps
manufacturing the Kijito windpumps, and more than 300 Kijito
windpumps are operating in the whole of East Africa.

The Netherlands is well known for its windmills. Most of these iconic structures situated along the edge of polders
are actually windpumps, designed to drain the land. These are particularly important as much of the country lies
below sea level.
Eight to ten-bladed windmills were used in the Region of Murcia, Spain to raise water for irrigation purposes.[7] The
drive from the windmill's rotor was led down through the tower and back out through the wall to turn a large wheel
known as a noria. The noria supported a bucket chain which dangled down into the well. The buckets were
traditionally made of wood or clay. These windmills were still in use until the 1950s, and many of the towers are still
Windpump 9

standing.
In the UK, the term windpump is seldom used and they are better known as Drainage windmills. Many of these were
built in The Broads and The Fens, of East Anglia for the draining of land, but most of them have since been replaced
by diesel or electric powered pumps. Many of the original windmills still stand in a derelict state (pictured), although
some have been restored.

Construction
To construct a windpump, the bladed rotor needs to be matched to the pump. With non-electric windpumps, high
solidity rotors are best used in conjunction with positive displacement (piston) pumps, because, single-acting piston
pumps need about three times as much torque to start them as to keep them going. Low solidity rotors, on the other
hand, are best used with centrifugal pumps, waterladder pumps and chain and washer pumps, where the torque
needed by the pump for starting is less than that needed for running at design speed. Low solidity rotors are best used
if they are intended to drive a electricity generator; which in turn can drive the pump.[8]

Windpump types

Cambered plate bladed rotor windpumps

"American", or more accurately, cambered plate bladed rotor windpumps, can
be found worldwide and are still manufactured in Canada, the United States,
Argentina, New Zealand, and South Africa. A six-foot diameter windpump
rotor can lift up to 180 U.S. gallons of water per hour with a 15 to 20 mile per
hour wind (about 700 litres per hour by a 1.8 metre rotor in 2432km/hour
wind), according to a modern manufacturer. Wind pumps require little
maintenance, only requiring gear oil changes about once per year.[9] Although
electric pumps are now the dominant means of lifting water, an estimated
60,000 wind pumps are still in use in the United States. They are particularly
economical in remote sites distant from electric power distribution.

General efficiency
Although the efficiency of a windpump is dependant on the type of bladed
rotor and pump used, some general figures regarding its efficiency can be A cambered plate bladed rotor windpump
given. In general, a windpump is around 7-27% efficient. A table of the on a farm in Iowa

amount of water that can be displaced when there is wind is given below.[10]
[11]
Windpump 10

Windspeed Output rate

11.34 0.3 m/h

14.58 2.3 m/h

17.82 3.7 m/h

21.06 4.7 m/h

Combinations

Tjasker
In the Netherlands, the "tjasker" is a popular drainage wind pump with
common sails connected to the archimedean screw. This was used for raising
water in areas where only a small lift of water was required. The windshaft
sat on a tripod which allowed it to pivot. The archimedean screw raised water
into a collecting ring, where it was drawn off into a ditch at a higher level,
thus draining the land.[12]

Thai windpumps The "tjasker"

In Thailand, windpumps were made on Chinese windpump designs. They

were constructed from wire-braced bamboo poles carrying fabric sails; a paddle pump or waterladder pump is fixed
to a Thai bladed rotor. The water lift was typically less than 1 meter.

See also
Wind energy conversion system
Comparison of bladed rotors for WECS
Coil pump, another frequently used pump[13]
Loeriesfontein, Northern Cape, where there is a museum dedicated to water pumping windmills

External links
Media related to Wind pumps at Wikimedia Commons
A detailed photographic record of the restoration of an 8' Stewarts & Lloyds windpump in South Africa [14]

References
[1] Lucas, Adam (2006), Wind, Water, Work: Ancient and Medieval Milling Technology, Brill Publishers, p.65, ISBN9004146490
[2] Donald Routledge Hill, "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East", Scientific American, May 1991, p. 64-69. (cf. Donald
Routledge Hill, Mechanical Engineering (http:/ / home. swipnet. se/ islam/ articles/ HistoryofSciences. htm))
[3] "Brief History of Windmills in the New World" (http:/ / www. windmillersgazette. com/ history. html)
[4] americanheritage.com (http:/ / www. americanheritage. com/ articles/ magazine/ it/ 2003/ 2/ 2003_2_56. shtml)
[5] fnal.gov (http:/ / www. fnal. gov/ pub/ ferminews/ ferminews03-02-14/ p4. html)
[6] Paul Gipe, Wind Energy Comes of Age, John Wiley and Sons, 1995 ISBN 0-471-10924-X, pages 123-127
[7] http:/ / www. yachtmollymawk. com/ 2008/ 11/ spanish-water-works/ Water-lifting mills in the Region of Murcia, Spain
[8] Water lifting devices; matching bladed rotors to pumps (http:/ / www. fao. org/ docrep/ 010/ ah810e/ AH810E10. htm)
[9] Aermotor Web site frequently asked questions (http:/ / www. aermotorwindmill. com/ Sales/ CommonQuestions. asp), retrieved Sept. 17,
2008
[10] Windspeed vs output rate table (http:/ / www. fao. org/ docrep/ 010/ ah810e/ AH810E10. htm)
[11] Conversion m/sec to km/h (http:/ / www. unitconversion. org/ velocity/ meters-per-second-to-kilometers-per-hour-conversion. html)
Windpump 11

[12] "The types of windmills" (http:/ / odur. let. rug. nl/ polders/ boekje/ types. htm). Odur. . Retrieved 2008-05-24.
[13] Coil pump frequently used for windpump construction (http:/ / blog. modernmechanix. com/ 2007/ 07/ 27/ chinese-windmill-waters-farm/ )
[14] http:/ / picasaweb. google. com/ andy. bytheway/ RestorationOfASouthAfricanWindmill#

Wind turbine
This article discusses wind-powered electrical generators. See windmill for wind-powered machinery used to
grind grain or pump water.
A wind turbine is a rotary device that extracts energy from the
wind. If the mechanical energy is used directly by machinery, such
as for pumping water, cutting lumber or grinding stones, the
machine is called a windmill. If the mechanical energy is instead
converted to electricity, the machine is called a wind generator,
wind turbine, wind power unit (WPU), wind energy converter
(WEC), or aerogenerator.

Wind farm in the North Sea off Belgium

Wind turbine 12

History
Wind machines were used in Persia as early as 200 B.C.[2] The
windwheel of Heron of Alexandria marks one of the first known
instances of wind powering a machine in history.[3] [4] However,
the first practical windmills were built in Sistan, a region between
Afghanistan and Iran, from the 7th century. These were vertical
axle windmills, which had long vertical driveshafts with
rectangle-shaped blades.[5] Made of six to twelve sails covered in
reed matting or cloth material, these windmills were used to grind
corn and draw up water, and were used in the gristmilling and
sugarcane industries.[6]

By the 14th century, Dutch windmills were in use to drain areas of

Wind turbines near Aalborg, Denmark
the Rhine River delta. In Denmark by 1900, there were about 2500
windmills for mechanical loads such as pumps and mills,
producing an estimated combined peak power of about 30 MW.
The first known electricity generating windmill operated, was a
battery charging machine installed in 1887 by James Blyth in
Scotland.[7] The first windmill for electricity production in the
United States was built in Cleveland, Ohio by Charles F Brush in
1888, and in 1908 there were 72 wind-driven electric generators
from 5kW to 25kW. The largest machines were on 24m (79ft)
towers with four-bladed 23m (75ft) diameter rotors. Around the
time of World War I, American windmill makers were producing
100,000 farm windmills each year, mostly for water-pumping.[8]
By the 1930s, windmills for electricity were common on farms,
mostly in the United States where distribution systems had not yet
been installed. In this period, high-tensile steel was cheap, and
windmills were placed atop prefabricated open steel lattice towers.

A forerunner of modern horizontal-axis wind generators was in

The world's first automatically operated wind turbine
was built in Cleveland in 1888 by Charles F. Brush. It
was 60 feet tall, weighed four tons and had a 12kW
[1]
turbine.
not repaired.
service at Yalta, USSR in 1931. This was a 100kW generator on a
30m (100ft) tower, connected to the local 6.3 kV distribution
system. It was reported to have an annual capacity factor of 32 per
cent, not much different from current wind machines.[9] In the fall
of 1941, the first megawatt-class wind turbine was synchronized to
a utility grid in Vermont. The Smith-Putnam wind turbine only ran
for 1100 hours. Due to war time material shortages the unit was

The first utility grid-connected wind turbine operated in the UK was built by John Brown & Company in 1954 in the
Orkney Islands. It had an 18 meter diameter, three-bladed rotor and a rated output of 100kW.

Resources
Wind turbines in locations with constantly high wind speeds bring best return on investment. With a wind resource
assessment it is possible to estimate the amount of energy the wind turbine will produce.
Wind turbine 13

A quantitative measure of the wind energy available at any location is called the Wind Power Density (WPD..) It is a
calculation of the mean annual power available per square meter of swept area of a turbine, and is tabulated for
different heights above ground. Calculation of wind power density includes the effect of wind velocity and air
density. Color-coded maps are prepared for a particular area described, for example, as "Mean Annual Power
Density at 50 Meters." In the United States, the results of the above calculation are included in an index developed
by the National Renewable Energy Lab and referred to as "NREL CLASS." The larger the WPD calculation, the
higher it is rated by class. Classes range from Class 1 (200 watts/square meter or less at 50 meters altitude) to Class 7
(800 to 2000 watts/square meter). Commercial wind farms generally are sited in Class 3 or higher areas, although
isolated points in an otherwise Class 1 area may be practical to exploit.[10]

Types of wind turbines

Wind turbines can rotate about either a horizontal or vertical axis, the former being more common.[11]

Horizontal axis
Horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWT) have the main
rotor shaft and electrical generator at the top of a tower,
and must be pointed into the wind. Small turbines are
pointed by a simple wind vane, while large turbines
generally use a wind sensor coupled with a servo
motor. Most have a gearbox, which turns the slow
rotation of the blades into a quicker rotation that is
more suitable to drive an electrical generator.[12]

Since a tower produces turbulence behind it, the turbine

is usually pointed upwind of the tower. Turbine blades
are made stiff to prevent the blades from being pushed
into the tower by high winds. Additionally, the blades
Components of a horizontal axis wind turbine (gearbox, rotor shaft
are placed a considerable distance in front of the tower and brake assembly) being lifted into position
and are sometimes tilted forward into the wind a small
amount.

Downwind machines have been built, despite the problem of turbulence (mast wake), because they don't need an
additional mechanism for keeping them in line with the wind, and because in high winds the blades can be allowed
to bend which reduces their swept area and thus their wind resistance. Since cyclic (that is repetitive) turbulence may
lead to fatigue failures most HAWTs are upwind machines.
Wind turbine 14

Subtypes

12th-century windmills
These squat structures, typically (at least) four bladed, usually with wooden
shutters or fabric sails, were developed in Europe. These windmills were
pointed into the wind manually or via a tail-fan and were typically used to
grind grain. In the Netherlands they were also used to pump water from
low-lying land, and were instrumental in keeping its polders dry.
In Schiedam, the Netherlands, a traditional style windmill (the Noletmolen)
was built in 2005 to generate electricity.[13] The mill is one of the tallest
Tower mills in the world, being some 42.5metres (139ft) tall.
19th-century windmills
The Eclipse windmill factory was set up around 1866 in Beloit, Wisconsin
and soon became successful building mills for pumping water on farms and
Doesburger windmill, Ede, The
for filling railroad tanks. Other firms like Star, Dempster, and Aeromotor also
Netherlands.
entered the market. Hundreds of thousands of these mills were produced
before rural electrification and small numbers continue to be made.[8] They
typically had many blades, operated at tip speed ratios not better than one, and had good starting torque. Some had
small direct-current generators used to charge storage batteries, to provide power to lights, or to operate a radio
receiver. The American rural electrification connected many farms to centrally-generated power and replaced
individual windmills as a primary source of farm power by the 1950s. They were also produced in other countries
like South Africa and Australia (where an American design was copied in 1876[14] ). Such devices are still used in
locations where it is too costly to bring in commercial power.

Modern wind turbines

Turbines used in wind farms for commercial production of electric
power are usually three-bladed and pointed into the wind by
computer-controlled motors. These have high tip speeds of over
320km/h (200 miles per hour), high efficiency, and low torque
ripple, which contribute to good reliability. The blades are usually
colored light gray to blend in with the clouds and range in length
from 20 to 40 metres (65 to 130ft) or more. The tubular steel
towers range from 60 to 90 metres (200 to 300 feet) tall. The
blades rotate at 10-22 revolutions per minute. At 22 rotations per
minute the tip speed exceeds 300ft per second.[15] [16] A gear box
Three bladed wind turbine
is commonly used to step up the speed of the generator, although
designs may also use direct drive of an annular generator. Some
models operate at constant speed, but more energy can be collected by variable-speed turbines which use a
solid-state power converter to interface to the transmission system. All turbines are equipped with shut-down
features to avoid damage at high wind speeds.
Wind turbine 15

Advantages
Variable blade pitch, which gives the turbine blades the optimum angle of attack. Allowing the angle of attack to
be remotely adjusted gives greater control, so the turbine collects the maximum amount of wind energy for the
time of day and season.
The tall tower base allows access to stronger wind in sites with wind shear. In some wind shear sites, the wind
speed can increase by 20% and the power output by 34% for every 10 metres in elevation.
High efficiency, since the blades always move perpendicular to the wind, receiving power through the whole
rotation. In contrast, all vertical axis wind turbines, and most proposed airborne wind turbine designs, involve
various types of reciprocating actions, requiring airfoil surfaces to backtrack against the wind for part of the cycle.
Backtracking against the wind leads to inherently lower efficiency.
The face of a horizontal axis blade is struck by the wind at a consistent angle regardless of the position in its
rotation. This results in a consistent lateral wind loading over the course of a rotation, reducing vibration and
audible noise coupled to the tower or mount.

Disadvantages

The tall towers and blades up to 45 meters long are

difficult to transport. Transportation can now
amount to 20% of equipment costs.
Tall HAWTs are difficult to install, needing very tall
and expensive cranes and skilled operators.
Massive tower construction is required to support
the heavy blades, gearbox, and generator.
Reflections from tall HAWTs may affect side lobes
of radar installations creating signal clutter, although
filtering can suppress it.
Their height makes them obtrusively visible across
large areas, disrupting the appearance of the
Turbine blade convoy passing through Edenfield in the UK
landscape and sometimes creating local opposition.
Downwind variants suffer from fatigue and
structural failure caused by turbulence when a blade passes through the tower's wind shadow (for this reason, the
majority of HAWTs use an upwind design, with the rotor facing the wind in front of the tower).
HAWTs require an additional yaw control mechanism to turn the blades and nacelle toward the wind.
In order to minimize fatigue loads due to wake turbulence, wind turbines are usually sited a distance of 5 rotor
diameters away from each other, but the spacing depends on the manufacturer and the turbine model.

Cyclic stresses and vibration

Cyclic stresses fatigue the blade, axle and bearing resulting in material failures that were a major cause of turbine
failure for many years. Because wind velocity often increases at higher altitudes, the backward force and torque on a
horizontal-axis wind turbine (HAWT) blade peaks as it turns through the highest point in its circle. The tower
hinders the airflow at the lowest point in the circle, which produces a local dip in force and torque. These effects
produce a cyclic twist on the main bearings of a HAWT. The combined twist is worst in machines with an even
number of blades, where one is straight up when another is straight down. To improve reliability, teetering hubs have
been used which allow the main shaft to rock through a few degrees, so that the main bearings do not have to resist
the torque peaks.
The rotating blades of a wind turbine act like a gyroscope. As it pivots along its vertical axis to face the wind,
gyroscopic precession tries to twist the turbine disc along its horizontal axis. For each blade on a wind generator's
turbine, precessive force is at a minimum when the blade is horizontal and at a maximum when the blade is vertical.
Wind turbine 16

Vertical axis design

Vertical-axis wind turbines (or VAWTs) have the main rotor shaft arranged vertically. Key advantages of this
arrangement are that the turbine does not need to be pointed into the wind to be effective. This is an advantage on
sites where the wind direction is highly variable.
With a vertical axis, the generator and gearbox can be placed near the ground, so the tower doesn't need to support it,
and it is more accessible for maintenance. Drawbacks are that some designs produce pulsating torque.
It is difficult to mount vertical-axis turbines on towers, meaning they are often installed nearer to the base on which
they rest, such as the ground or a building rooftop. The wind speed is slower at a lower altitude, so less wind energy
is available for a given size turbine. Air flow near the ground and other objects can create turbulent flow, which can
introduce issues of vibration, including noise and bearing wear which may increase the maintenance or shorten the
service life. However, when a turbine is mounted on a rooftop, the building generally redirects wind over the roof
and this can double the wind speed at the turbine. If the height of the rooftop mounted turbine tower is approximately
50% of the building height, this is near the optimum for maximum wind energy and minimum wind turbulence.

Subtypes

Darrieus wind turbine

"Eggbeater" turbines, or Darrieus turbines, were named after
the French inventor, Georges Darrieus.[17] They have good
efficiency, but produce large torque ripple and cyclical
stress on the tower, which contributes to poor reliability.
They also generally require some external power source, or
an additional Savonius rotor to start turning, because the
starting torque is very low. The torque ripple is reduced by
using three or more blades which results in a higher solidity
for the rotor. Solidity is measured by blade area divided by
the rotor area. Newer Darrieus type turbines are not held up
by guy-wires but have an external superstructure connected
to the top bearing.

30m Darrieus wind turbine in the Magdalen Islands

Wind turbine 17

Giromill
A subtype of Darrieus turbine with straight, as opposed to
curved, blades. The cycloturbine variety has variable pitch
to reduce the torque pulsation and is self-starting.[18] The
advantages of variable pitch are: high starting torque; a
wide, relatively flat torque curve; a lower blade speed ratio;
a higher coefficient of performance; more efficient operation
in turbulent winds; and a lower blade speed ratio which
lowers blade bending stresses. Straight, V, or curved blades
may be used.

A helical twisted VAWT.

Savonius wind turbine

These are drag-type devices with two (or more) scoops that
are used in anemometers, Flettner vents (commonly seen on
bus and van roofs), and in some high-reliability
low-efficiency power turbines. They are always self-starting
if there are at least three scoops. They sometimes have long
helical scoops to give a smooth torque.

Advantages

A massive tower structure is less frequently used, as VAWTs

are more frequently mounted with the lower bearing mounted
near the ground.
Designs without yaw mechanisms are possible with fixed pitch
rotor designs.
The generator of a VAWT can be located nearer the ground,
making it easier to maintain the moving parts.
VAWTs have lower wind startup speeds than HAWTs. Windmill with rotating sails

Typically, they start creating electricity at 6 m.p.h. (10km/h).

VAWTs may be built at locations where taller structures are prohibited.
VAWTs situated close to the ground can take advantage of locations where mesas, hilltops, ridgelines, and passes
funnel the wind and increase wind velocity.
VAWTs may have a lower noise signature.
Wind turbine 18

Disadvantages
A VAWT that uses guy-wires to hold it in place puts stress on the bottom bearing as all the weight of the rotor is
on the bearing. Guy wires attached to the top bearing increase downward thrust in wind gusts. Solving this
problem requires a superstructure to hold a top bearing in place to eliminate the downward thrusts of gust events
in guy wired models.
The stress in each blade due to wind loading changes sign twice during each revolution as the apparent wind
direction moves through 360 degrees. This reversal of the stress increases the likelihood of blade failure by
fatigue.
While VAWTs' components are located on the ground, they are also located under the weight of the structure
above it, which can make changing out parts very difficult without dismantling the structure, if not designed
properly.
Having rotors located close to the ground where wind speeds are lower due to the ground's surface drag, VAWTs
may not produce as much energy at a given site as a HAWT with the same footprint or height.

Turbine design and construction

Wind turbines are designed to exploit the wind energy
that exists at a location. Aerodynamic modeling is used
to determine the optimum tower height, control
systems, number of blades and blade shape.
Wind turbines convert wind energy to electricity for
distribution. Conventional horizontal axis turbines can
be divided into three components.
The rotor component, which is approximately 20%
of the wind turbine cost, includes the blades for
converting wind energy to low speed rotational
energy.
The generator component, which is approximately
34% of the wind turbine cost, includes the electrical Components of a horizontal-axis wind turbine
generator, the control electronics, and most likely a
gearbox component for converting the low speed incoming rotation to high speed rotation suitable for generating
electricity.
The structural support component, which is approximately 15% of the wind turbine cost, includes the tower and
rotor yaw mechanism.[19]

Unconventional wind turbines

One E-66 wind turbine at Windpark Holtriem, Germany, carries an observation deck, open for visitors. Another
turbine of the same type, with an observation deck, is located in Swaffham, England. Airborne wind turbines have
been investigated many times but have yet to produce significant energy. Conceptually, wind turbines may also be
used in conjunction with a large vertical solar updraft tower to extract the energy due to air heated by the sun.
Wind turbines which utilise the Magnus effect have been developed.[20]
Wind turbine 19

Small wind turbines

Small wind turbines may be as small as a fifty-watt generator for
boat or caravan use. Small units often have direct drive generators,
direct current output, aeroelastic blades, lifetime bearings and use
a vane to point into the wind. Larger, more costly turbines
generally have geared power trains, alternating current output,
flaps and are actively pointed into the wind. Direct drive
generators and aeroelastic blades for large wind turbines are being
researched.

Record-holding turbines

Largest
A small wind turbine being used at the Riverina
The world's largest turbine currently is a prototype installed by
Environmental Education Centre near Wagga Wagga,
Gamesa at Jauln, Zaragoza, Spain in 2009. The G10X 4.5 MW New South Wales, Australia
has a rotor diameter of 128m.
Previously the record was held by two North German companies Enercon and REpower. The Enercon E-126 delivers
up to 7MW, has an overall height of 198m (650ft), a diameter of 126m (413ft), and is the world's largest wind
turbine since its introduction in 2007.[21] The REpower 5M delivers up to 5MW, has an overall height of 183m
(600ft) has a diameter of 126m (413ft), and was the world's largest wind turbine when it was introduced in
2005.[22] In 2010, the Norwegian firm Sway [23] announced a prototype 10MW wind turbine with a height of
162.5m (533ft) and a rotor diameter of 145m (475ft).[24] [25] [26]

Tallest
The tallest wind turbine however is Fuhrlnder Wind Turbine Laasow. Its axis is 160 metres above ground and its
rotor tips can reach a height of 205 metres. It is the only wind turbine taller than 200 metres in the world so far.[27]

Largest vertical-axis
Le Nordais wind farm in Cap-Chat, Quebec has a vertical axis wind turbine (VAWT) named ole, which is the
world's largest at 110 m.[28]

Most southerly
The turbines currently operating closest to the South Pole are three Enercon E-33 in Antarctica, powering New
Zealand's Scott Base and The United States' McMurdo Station since December 2009[29] [30] although a modified
HR3 turbine from Northern Power Systems operated at the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station in 1997 and 1998.[31]
In March 2010 CITEDEF designed, built and installed a wind turbine in Argentine Marambio Base.[32]
Wind turbine 20

Most productive
Matilda was a wind turbine located on Gotland, Sweden. It produced a total of 61.4GWh in the 15 years it was
active. That is more renewable energy than any other single wind power turbine had ever produced to that date. It
was demolished on June 6, 2008.[33]

Highest-situated
The world's highest-situated wind turbine is made by DeWind and located in the Andes, Argentina around
4100metres (13500ft) above sea level. The site uses a type D8.2- 2000kW/ 50Hz turbine. This turbine has a new
drive train concept with a special torque converter (WinDrive) made by Voith and a synchronous generator. The
WKA was put into operation in December 2007 and has supplied the Veladero mine of Barrick Gold with electricity
since then.[34]

Gallery of record-holders

Enercon E-126 REpower 5MW Fuhrlnder ole, the largest

in Thornton Wind Turbine VAWT, in
Bank Laasow, world's Cap-Chat, Quebec
tallest

Highest-situated wind turbine, at

the Veladero mine in San Juan
Province, Argentina

See also
Wind turbine 21

Airborne wind turbine List of wind turbine manufacturers

American Wind Energy Association Maglev wind turbine
Atmospheric icing Microgeneration
Darrieus wind turbine Renewable energy
Environmental concerns with electricity generation Savonius wind turbine
Environmental effects of wind power Thomas O. Perry
Electrical generator Windmill
olienne Bolle Wind power
Floating wind turbine Windpump
GE 1.5 MW wind turbine Wind turbines (UK domestic)
Green energy
High altitude wind power
Hybrid power source

Further reading
BBC News,"Wind farms 'must take root in UK", http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4560139.stm,
BBC News, Copyright 2007
Tony Burton, David Sharpe, Nick Jenkins, Ervin Bossanyi: Wind Energy Handbook, John Wiley & Sons, 1st
edition (2001), ISBN 0-471-48997-2
Darrell, Dodge, Early History Through 1875, TeloNet Web Development, http://telosnet.com/wind/early.html,
Copyright 19962001
David, Macaulay, New Way Things Work, Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, Copyright 19941999, pg.41-42
Erich Hau Wind turbines: fundamentals, technologies, application, economics Birkhuser, 2006 ISBN
3540242406 (preview on Google Books)
awea.org Myths vs. Facts [35]
Germany Inaugurates 5MW Wind Turbine Prototype [36], RenewableEnergyWorld.com website.

External links
Photo journal and tutorial for 1.5kw residential wind turbine [37]
Time-lapse video of wind turbine installation at the WMRA Deer Island Wastewater Treatment Plant [38]
Wind Projects [39]
Guided tour on wind energy [40]
Wind Energy Technology World Wind Energy Association [41]
Wind turbine simulation, National Geographic [42]
Domestic and Commercial wind turbine directory and information wiki, SustainableX.com [43]
D.I.Y. Wind Generator Plans Reviewed [44]
November 3, 2009 "Power Paths" Coal to Wind Turbines [45] on PBS's Independent Lens [46]
Building a robust path for wind turbine engineering [47] Movie and information on wind turbine engineering
Wind turbine 22

References
[1] A Wind Energy Pioneer: Charles F. Brush (http:/ / www. windpower. org/ en/ pictures/ brush. htm). Danish Wind Industry Association. .
Retrieved 2008-12-28.
[2] "Part 1 Early History Through 1875" (http:/ / www. telosnet. com/ wind/ early. html). . Retrieved 2008-07-31.
[3] A.G. Drachmann, "Heron's Windmill", Centaurus, 7 (1961), pp. 145151
[4] Dietrich Lohrmann, "Von der stlichen zur westlichen Windmhle", Archiv fr Kulturgeschichte, Vol. 77, Issue 1 (1995), pp. 130 (10f.)
[5] Ahmad Y Hassan, Donald Routledge Hill (1986). Islamic Technology: An illustrated history, p. 54. Cambridge University Press. ISBN
0-521-42239-6.
[6] Donald Routledge Hill, "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East", Scientific American, May 1991, p. 64-69. (cf. Donald
Routledge Hill, Mechanical Engineering (http:/ / home. swipnet. se/ islam/ articles/ HistoryofSciences. htm))
[7] "James Blyth" (http:/ / www. oxforddnb. com/ public/ dnb/ 100957. html). Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University
Press. . Retrieved 2009-10-09.
[8] Quirky old-style contraptions make water from wind on the mesas of West Texas (http:/ / www. mysanantonio. com/ news/ weather/
weatherwise/ stories/ MYSA092407. 01A. State_windmills. 3430a27. html)
[9] Alan Wyatt: Electric Power: Challenges and Choices. Book Press Ltd., Toronto 1986, ISBN 0-920650-00-7
[10] http:/ / www. nrel. gov/ gis/ wind. html Dynamic Maps, GIS Data and Tools
[11] "Wind Energy Basics" (http:/ / www. awea. org/ faq/ wwt_basics. html). American Wind Energy Association. . Retrieved 2009-09-24.
[12] http:/ / www. windpower. org/ en/ tour/ wtrb/ comp/ index. htm Wind turbine components retrieved November 8, 2008
[13] Molendatabase (http:/ / www. molendatabase. nl/ nederland/ molen_e. php?nummer=1280) Dutch text
[14] Extract from Triumph of the Griffiths Family, http:/ / au. oocities. com/ ozwindmills/ SouthernCross. htm, Bruce Millett, 1984, accessed
January 26, 2008
[15] 1.5 MW Wind Turbine Technical Specifications (http:/ / www. gepower. com/ prod_serv/ products/ wind_turbines/ en/ 15mw/ specs. htm)
[16] Size specifications of common industrial wind turbines (http:/ / www. aweo. org/ windmodels. html)
[17] http:/ / www. symscape. com/ blog/ vertical_axis_wind_turbine
[18] http:/ / www. awea. org/ faq/ vawt. html
[19] "Wind Turbine Design Cost and Scaling Model," Technical Report NREL/TP-500-40566, December, 2006, page 35,36. http:/ / www. nrel.
gov/ docs/ fy07osti/ 40566. pdf
[20] http:/ / www. mecaro. jp/ eng/ introduction. html
[21] "New Record: Worlds Largest Wind Turbine (7+ Megawatts) MetaEfficient Reviews" (http:/ / www. metaefficient. com/ news/
new-record-worlds-largest-wind-turbine-7-megawatts. html). MetaEfficient.com. 2008-02-03. . Retrieved 2010-04-17.
[22] "Germany Inaugurates 5 MW Wind Turbine Prototype" (http:/ / www. renewableenergyaccess. com/ rea/ news/ story?id=21962).
RenewableEnergyAccess.com. 2005-02-04. . Retrieved 2007-11-20.
[23] http:/ / www. sway. no
[24] http:/ / www. norwaypost. no/ content/ view/ 23186/ 48/ Retrieved 2010-02-13
[25] http:/ / www. google. com/ hostednews/ afp/ article/ ALeqM5j-BZEK4lR-_hxsz2hQ-92_c0oSHQ Retrieved 2010-02-13
[26] http:/ / www. grist. org/ article/ 2010-02-12-norway-plans-the-worlds-most-powerful-wind-turbine/ Retrieved 2010-02-16
[27] "FL 2500 Noch mehr Wirtschaftlichkeit" (http:/ / fuhrlaender. de/ produkte/ index_de. php?produkt_gesucht=1& produkt_name=FL+ 2500)
(in German). Fuhrlaender AG. . Retrieved 2009-11-05.
[28] "Visits > Big wind turbine" (http:/ / www. eolecapchat. com/ e_1b-grande. html). . Retrieved 2010-04-17.
[29] Antarctica New Zealand (http:/ / www. antarcticanz. govt. nz/ scott-base/ ross-island-wind-energy)
[30] New Zealand Wind Energy Association (http:/ / windenergy. org. nz/ nz-wind-farms/ operating-wind-farms/ ross-island)
[31] Bill Spindler, The first Pole wind turbine (http:/ / www. southpolestation. com/ trivia/ 90s/ turbine. html).
[32] GENERADOR DE ENERGA ELICA EN LA ANTRTIDA (http:/ / www. mindef. gov. ar/ info. asp?Id=1425)
[33] http:/ / green-blog. org/ 2008/ 06/ 06/ the-demolition-of-a-record-holder/ #more-418
[34] http:/ / www. voithturbo. com/ vt_en_pua_windrive_project-report_2008. htm
[35] http:/ / www. awea. org/ pubs/ factsheets/ MythsvsFacts-FactSheet. pdf
[36] http:/ / www. renewableenergyworld. com/ rea/ / news/ article/ 2005/ 02/ germany-inaugurates-5-mw-wind-turbine-prototype-21962
[37] http:/ / www. mindchallenger. com/ wind
[38] http:/ / www. vimeo. com/ 6739275
[39] http:/ / www. projectfreepower. com/
[40] http:/ / www. windpower. org/ en/ knowledge/ guided_tour. html
[41] http:/ / www. wwindea. org/
[42] http:/ / environment. nationalgeographic. com/ environment/ global-warming/ wind-power-interactive. html
[43] http:/ / sustainablex. com/ index. php/ Portal:Wind
[44] http:/ / www. energysavingnews. co. uk/ home-wind-turbines/ wind-generator-plans-reviewed%E2%80%93-where-to-go-to-get-the-best
[45] http:/ / www. pbs. org/ independentlens/ video/ ?page=& video_id=230& filter=
[46] http:/ / www. pbs. org/ independentlens/ power-paths/
[47] http:/ / www. lmsintl. com/ wind
Floating wind turbine 23

Floating wind turbine

A floating wind turbine is an offshore
wind turbine mounted on a floating
structure that allows the turbine to
generate electricity in water depths
where bottom-mounted towers are not
feasible. The wind can be stronger and
steadier over water due to the absence
of topographic features that may
disrupt wind flow.[1] The electricity
generated is sent to shore through
undersea cables. The initial capital cost
of floating turbines is competitive with
bottom-mounted, near-shore wind
turbines[2] while the rate of energy
The worlds first full-scale floating wind turbine, Hywind, being assembled in the my
generation is higher out in the sea as Fjord near Stavanger, Norway, before deployment in the North Sea.
the wind flow is often more steady and
unobstructed by terrain features. The relocation of wind farms into the sea can reduce visual pollution if the
windmills are sited more than 12miles (19km) offshore, provide better accommodation of fishing and shipping
lanes, and allow siting near heavily developed coastal cities.[3] [4]

Floating wind parks are wind farms that site several floating wind turbines closely together to take advantage of
common infrastructure such as power transmission facilities.

History
The concept for "large-scale offshore floating wind turbines was introduced by Professor William E. Heronemus at
the University of Massachusetts in 1972. [I]t was not until the mid 1990s, after the commercial wind industry was
well established, that the topic was taken up again by the mainstream research community."[1] As of 2003, existing
offshore fixed-bottom wind turbine technology deployments had been limited to water depths of 30-meters.
Worldwide deep-water wind resources are extremely abundant in subsea areas with depths up to 600 meters, which
are thought to best facilitate transmission of the generated electric power to shore communities.[1]
Floating wind turbine 24

Operational deep-water platforms

As of 2009, there have been only two operational floating wind turbines used to
farm wind energy over deep-water. Blue H [5] deployed the first floating wind
turbine 113kilometres (70mi) off of the coast of Italy in December, 2007. It was
then decommissioned at the end of 2008 after completing a planned test year of
gathering operational data.[6]
The first large-capacity, 2.3 megawatt floating wind turbine is Hywind [7], which
became operational in the North Sea off of Norway in September, 2009 and is still
operational As of October 2009.[8]

Blue H Technologies

Blue H Technologies of the Netherlands operated a prototype deep-water platform

A tension leg mooring system as
with an 80-kilowatt turbine off of Puglia, southeast Italy in 2008.[9] Installed 21km
used by Blue H: left-hand
off the coast in waters 113 meters deep in order to gather test data on wind and sea tower-bearing structure (grey) is
conditions, the small prototype unit was decommissioned at the end of 2008. Blue free floating, the right-hand
H has successfully decommissioned the unit as it embarks on plans to build a structure is pulled by the tensioned
cables (red) down towards the
38-unit deepwater wind farm at the same location.[6]
seabed anchors (light-grey)

The Blue H technology utilizes a tension-leg platform design and a two-bladed turbine. The two-bladed design can
have a "much larger chord, which allows a higher tip speed than those of three-bladers. The resulting increased
background noise of the two-blade rotor is not a limiting factor for offshore sites."[6]
As of 2009, Blue H is building the first full-scale commercial 2.4 MWe unit in Brindisi, Italy which it expects to
deploy at the same site of the prototype in the southern Adriatic Sea in 2010. This is the first unit in the planned 90
MW Tricase offshore wind farm, located more than 20km off the Puglia coast line.[6]

Hywind

The world's first operational deep-water floating large-capacity wind

[8] [10]
turbine is the Hywind, in the North Sea off of Norway. The
[11]
Hywind was towed out to sea in early June 2009. The 2.3 megawatt
turbine was constructed by Siemens Wind Power and mounted on a
floating tower with a 100 metre deep draft. The installation is owned
by Statoil and will be tested for two years. After assembly in the
calmer waters of my Fjord near Stavanger, Norway, the
120-meter-tall tower with a 2.3 MW turbine was towed 10km offshore
into 220-meter-deep water, 10km southwest of Karmy, on 6 June
2009 for a two year test deployment."[9] Alexandra Beck Gjorv of
Statoil said, "[The experiment] should help move offshore wind farms
A single floating cylinder moored by catenary
out of sight ... The global market for such turbines is potentially cables. Hywind uses a ballasted catenary layout
enormous, depending on how low we can press costs."[12] The unit that adds 60 tonne weights hanging from the
became operational in the summer of 2009.[8] [13] Hywind was midpoint of each anchor cable to provide
additional tension.
inaugurated on 8 September 2009.[14] [15]

The turbine cost 400 million kroner (around US$62 million) to build and deploy.[16] [17] The 13-kilometer (8-mile)
long submarine power transmission cable was installed in July, 2009 and system test including rotor blades and
Floating wind turbine 25

initial power transmission was conducted shortly thereafter.[18] The installation is expected to generate about 9 GWh
of electricity annually.[19]

Topologies
Platform topologies can be classified into:
single-turbine-floater (one wind turbine mounted on a floating structure)
multiple turbine floaters (multiple wind turbines mounted on a floating structure)

Engineering considerations
Undersea mooring of floating wind turbines are accomplished with three principle mooring systems. Two common
types of engineered design for anchoring floating structures include tension-leg and catenary loose mooring systems.
Tension leg mooring systems have vertical tethers under tension providing large restoring moments in pitch and roll.
Catenary mooring systems provide station keeping for an offshore structure yet provide little stiffness at low
tensions."[20] A third form of mooring system is the ballasted catenary configuration, created by adding
multiple-tonne weights hanging from the midsection of each anchor cable in order to provide additional cable
tension and therefore increase stiffness of the above-water floating structure.[20]

Economics
"Technically, the [theoretical] feasibility of deepwater [floating] wind turbines is not questioned as long-term
survivability of floating structures has already been successfully demonstrated by the marine and offshore oil
industries over many decades. However, the economics that allowed the deployment of thousands of offshore oil rigs
have yet to be demonstrated for floating wind turbine platforms. For deepwater wind turbines, a floating structure
will replace pile-driven monopoles or conventional concrete bases that are commonly used as foundations for
shallow water and land-based turbines. The floating structure must provide enough buoyancy to support the weight
of the turbine and to restrain pitch, roll and heave motions within acceptable limits. The capital costs for the wind
turbine itself will not be significantly higher than current marinized turbine costs in shallow water. Therefore, the
economics of deepwater wind turbines will be determined primarily by the additional costs of the floating structure
and power distribution system, which are offset by higher offshore winds and close proximity to large load centers
(e.g. shorter transmission runs)."[1]
As of 2009 however, the economic feasibility of shallow-water offshore wind technologies is more completely
understood. With empirical data obtained from fixed-bottom installations off many countries for over a decade now,
representative costs are well understood. Shallow-water turbines cost between 2.4 and 3 million United States dollars
per megawatt to install, according to the World Energy Council.[9]
The practical feasibility and per-unit economics of deep-water, floating-turbine offshore wind is yet to be seen.
Initial deployment of single full-capacity turbines in deep-water locations is only just beginning in the summer of
2009.[9]

Other proposed designs

WindFloat
WindFloat is a patent pending floating foundation for offshore wind turbines aimed at improving dynamic stability.
The WindFloat design is intended to dampen wave and turbine induced motion utilizing a tri-column triangular
platform with the wind turbine positioned on only one of the three columns. The triangular platform is then "moored
with 6 lines, 4 of which are connected to the column stabilizing the turbine, thus creating an asymmetric" mooring to
increase stability and reduce motion.[21] This technology could allow wind turbines to be sited in offshore areas that
Floating wind turbine 26

were previously considered inaccessible, areas having water depth exceeding 50 meters and more powerful wind
resources than shallow-water offshore wind farms typically encounter.[22]
As of February 2009, there are preliminary plans for the phased development of a deep-water offshore wind farm off
the coast of Portugal using WindFloat technology.[22]

Nautica Windpower
Nautica Windpower [23] uses a patented technology aimed at reducing
system weight, complexity and costs for deep water sites. Scale model tests
in open water have been conducted and structural dynamics modeling is
under development for a multi-megawatt design.[24] Nautica Windpower's
Asymmetric Floating Tower (AFT) uses a single mooring line and a
downwind two-bladed rotor configuration that is deflection tolerant and
aligns itself with the wind without an active yaw system. Two-bladed,
downwind turbine designs that can accommodate flexibility in the blades
will potentially prolong blade lifetime, diminish structural system loads and
reduce offshore maintenance needs, yielding lower lifecycle costs. [25] Nautica Windpower's AFT design features
a downwind two-bladed rotor with passive
wind alignment to reduce costs

See also
Wind power
List of offshore wind farms

External links
Arcadis [26]
Kusan [27]
Ritec [28]
Sway [29]
Nancy Stauffer (MIT): Giant wind turbines, floating out of sight [30]. 2006 preliminary design with 5 MWe
turbine units mounted 90 meters above the sea with massive 140 meter-diameter blades; MIT-NREL design.
Statoil: Hywind floating wind turbine [31]
Nautica Windpower: Floating wind turbine system [32]
Floating wind turbine 27

References
[1] Musial, W.; S. Butterfield, A. Boone (2003-11). "Feasibility of Floating Platform Systems for Wind Turbines" (http:/ / www. osti. gov/
bridge/ servlets/ purl/ 15005820-0aqZAv/ native/ 15005820. pdf). NREL preprint (NREL) (NREL/CP-500-34874): 14. . Retrieved
2009-09-10.
[2] (WMV) sway_movie (http:/ / sway. no/ assets/ files/ sway_movie. wmv). SWAY. Event occurs at 1m30s. . Retrieved 2009-10-20. "Due to its
simple construction, the capital expenditure of the floating Sway system is competitive to bottom mounted, near-shore wind towers; however,
the average wind speeds far off-shore are typically higher so more energy can be produced and the cost of energy is actually reduced when
compared with near-shore wind parks."
[3] Mark Svenvold (http:/ / www. dailyfinance. com/ bloggers/ mark-svenvold/ ) (2009-09-09). "The world's first floating wind turbine goes on
line in Norway" (http:/ / www. dailyfinance. com/ 2009/ 09/ 09/ the-worlds-first-floating-wind-turbine-goes-on-line-in-norway/ ).
DailyFinance.com. . Retrieved 2009-10-20.
[4] Union of Concerned Scientists (2003-07-15). "Farming the Wind: Wind Power and Agriculture" (http:/ / www. ucsusa. org/ clean_energy/
technology_and_impacts/ impacts/ farming-the-wind-wind-power. html). . Retrieved 2009-10-20.
[5] http:/ / www. bluehgroup. com/
[6] "Floating Wind Turbines, Deep Water Installation" (http:/ / www. bluehgroup. com/ press/
Offshore_Industry_Blue_H_Technologies_September_2009. pdf). Offshore Industry 2 (4): 4851. 2009. . Retrieved 2009-10-20. "In
December 2007, Blue H launched the world's first floating wind turbine 21.3 km off the southern Italian coast at a depth of 113 m. The
concession ran out at the end of 2008 and Blue H decommissioned the unit successfully.".
[7] http:/ / www. statoil. com/ en/ TechnologyInnovation/ NewEnergy/ RenewablePowerProduction/ Onshore/ Pages/ Karmoy. aspx
[8] Madslien, Jorn (2009-09-08). Floating challenge for offshore wind turbine (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ business/ 8235456. stm). BBC
News. . Retrieved 2009-09-14.
[9] Patel, Prachi (2009-06-22). "Floating Wind Turbines to Be Tested" (http:/ / www. spectrum. ieee. org/ green-tech/ wind/
floating-wind-turbines-to-be-tested). IEEE Spectrum. . Retrieved 2009-06-25.
[10] Ramsey Cox (February/March 2010). "Water Power + Wind Power = Win!" (http:/ / www. motherearthnews. com/ Renewable-Energy/
Hywind-Wind-Power-Water-Power. aspx). Mother Earth News. . Retrieved 2010-05-03.
[11] Madslien, Jorn (2009-06-05). "Floating wind turbine launched" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ business/ 8085551. stm). BBC News. .
Retrieved 2009-09-14.
[12] "First offshore wind turbine goes to sea" (http:/ / www. upi. com/ Business_News/ 2009/ 06/ 06/ First-offshore-wind-turbine-goes-to-sea/
UPI-40901244312888/ ). UPI. 2009-06-06. . Retrieved 2009-06-07.
[13] RFI - Radio France Internationale in English, international radio news and feature programmes (http:/ / www. rfi. fr/ actuen/ pages/ 001/
accueil. asp)
[14] "Technip and StatoilHydro Announce Inauguration of World's First Full-Scale Floating Wind Turbine" (http:/ / www. oilvoice. com/ n/
Technip_and_StatoilHydro_Announce_Inauguration_of_Worlds_First_FullScale_Floating_Wind_Turbine/ 767657b69. aspx). OilVoice.
2009-09-13. . Retrieved 2009-09-19.
[15] "Hywind floating wind turbine" (http:/ / www. statoil. com/ en/ TechnologyInnovation/ NewEnergy/ RenewablePowerProduction/ Onshore/
Pages/ Karmoy. aspx). Statoil. 2009-09-08. . Retrieved 2009-09-29.
[16] Statoil Draws On Offshore Oil Expertise To Develop World's First Floating Wind Turbine (http:/ / www. ntm. nickles. com/ issues/ story.
aspx?aid=1000340202). NewTechnology magazine. 2009-09-08. . Retrieved 2009-10-21.
[17] Turker, Tux (2009-05-19). "Maine task force to identify offshore wind energy sites" (http:/ / www. energycurrent. com/ index. php?id=3&
storyid=18144). Energy Current. . Retrieved 2009-06-07.
[18] Donovan, Matthew (2009-08-11). "Subsea cable installed at Hywind project" (http:/ / www. energycurrent. com/ index. php?id=3&
storyid=19929). Energy Current. . Retrieved 2009-09-02.
[19] Terje Riis-Johansen, Minister of Petroleum and Energy, Norway (2009-10-09). "Speech: Opening of Hywind the worlds first full-scale
floating wind turbine" (http:/ / www. regjeringen. no/ en/ dep/ oed/ whats-new/ speeches-and-articles/ the_minister/
speeches-and-articles-by-the-minister-of/ 2009/ opening-of-hywind--the-worlds-first-full. html?id=576658). Norway Ministry of Petroleum
and Energy. . Retrieved 2009-10-21.
[20] Floating Offshore Wind Turbines: Responses in a Seastate -- Pareto Optimal Designs and Economic Assessment (http:/ / web. mit. edu/
flowlab/ pdf/ Floating_Offshore_Wind_Turbines. pdf), P. Sclavounos et al, October 2007.
[21] Balogh, Emily (2008-12-18). "Deepwater Offshore Wind Power Generation Using Oil and Gas Platform Technology" (http:/ / www.
renewableenergyworld. com/ rea/ news/ article/ 2008/ 12/
deepwater-offshore-wind-power-generation-using-oil-and-gas-platform-technology-54314). RenewableEnergyWorld.com. . Retrieved
2009-09-03.
[22] "Principle Power & EDP to Develop Floating Offshore Wind" (http:/ / www. renewableenergyworld. com/ rea/ news/ article/ 2009/ 02/
principle-power-edp-sign-moa-for-offshore-wind). RenewableEnergyWorld.com. 2009-02-20. . Retrieved 2009-09-03.
[23] http:/ / www. nauticawindpower. com/
[24] Braciszeski, Kevin (2010-01-23). "Why Not Floating Windmills?" (http:/ / www. ludingtondailynews. com/ news/
47569-why-not-floating-windmills). Ludington Daily News. . Retrieved 2010-02-08.
Floating wind turbine 28

[25] "U.S. Offshore Wind Energy: A Path Forward" (http:/ / www. usowc. org/ pdfs/ PathForwardfinal. pdf). Working Paper page 24. U.S.
Offshore Wind Collaborative. 2009-10-16. . Retrieved 2009-11-07.
[26] http:/ / www. arcadis. de/ web/ arcadis. de. nsf/ web/ index. html
[27] http:/ / www. kusan. de/
[28] http:/ / www. ritec-industries. de/
[29] http:/ / www. sway. no/
[30] http:/ / web. mit. edu/ erc/ spotlights/ wind-all. html
[31] http:/ / www. statoil. com/ en/ technologyinnovation/ newenergy/ renewablepowerproduction/ onshore/ pages/ karmoy. aspx
[32] http:/ / nauticawindpower. com/ index_files/ Page571. htm
Article Sources and Contributors 29

Article Sources and Contributors

Windmill Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=363583491 Contributors: *drew, -Majestic-, 2D, A. Balet, A8UDI, ABF, Abu badali, Acroterion, AdultSwim, Aeolus88,
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Article Sources and Contributors 30

Wordbuilder, WriterHound, Wtshymanski, Wysprgr2005, Xianbei, Xmnemonic, Yabbadab, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yerpo, Yosh Schmenge, Youngjim, Zntrip, Zonk43, Zzyzx11, , 2267 anonymous
edits

Floating wind turbine Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=363193794 Contributors: 84user, Alessa.marina, Amplitude101, Arnos78, Art LaPella, Beagel, Connor1234,
Corentinoger, Daniel.finnan, Firsfron, Flash200, Framhein, Generalboss3, Gothbag, Iridescent, Johnfos, MKoltnow, Mwarren us, N2e, OgdenPub, Oreo Priest, Physchim62, PigFlu Oink, RG72,
Rehman, Rich Farmbrough, Richerman, Roentgenium111, Sandra.sun, Saturn star, Sean.hoyland, Spencer, Swooper out of shape, Teratornis, Underpants, Viterna, Windpower8, 15 anonymous
edits
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 31

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

File:MolenSneeuwAmsterdam.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MolenSneeuwAmsterdam.jpg License: Attribution Contributors: User:Massimo Catarinella
File:Heron's Windwheel.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Heron's_Windwheel.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: W. Schmidt
File:Campo de Criptana Molinos de Viento 1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Campo_de_Criptana_Molinos_de_Viento_1.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation
License Contributors: User:Lourdes Cardenal
File:Fourteenth century windmill.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fourteenth_century_windmill.png License: unknown Contributors: Medieval manuscripts
File:MeophamGreen.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MeophamGreen.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Clem Rutter, Rochester Kent
Image:Bataille de Valmy ag1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bataille_de_Valmy_ag1.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Duesentrieb, Emc2, Greatpatton, Kirill
Lokshin, Mutter Erde, 1 anonymous edits
File:Beebe Windmill Isometric of Machinery Long Island NY.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Beebe_Windmill_Isometric_of_Machinery_Long_Island_NY.jpg
License: unknown Contributors: Kathleen S. Hoeft & Chalmers G. Long, Jr
File:Interior view Pantigo Windmill East Hampton Suffolk County New York.jpg Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Interior_view_Pantigo_Windmill_East_Hampton_Suffolk_County_New_York.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Historic American
Buildings Survey, National Park Service
File:Leach's Mill, Wisbech 1895.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Leach's_Mill,_Wisbech_1895.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Unknown
File:Windmill at National Ranching Heritage Center in Lubbock, TX IMG 0248.JPG Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Windmill_at_National_Ranching_Heritage_Center_in_Lubbock,_TX_IMG_0248.JPG License: unknown Contributors: User:Billy Hathorn
File:Windlahor.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Windlahor.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Tiho42
File:Limmat - Zrich Werdinsel IMG 5861.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Limmat_-_Zrich_Werdinsel_IMG_5861.jpg License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Roland zh
Image:Low cost wind pump.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Low_cost_wind_pump.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: User:KVDP
File:BrograveMill.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BrograveMill.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Rackellar at en.wikipedia
File:Water Pumping Windmill.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Water_Pumping_Windmill.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Ben
Franske
File:Tjasker Sanpoel 04.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tjasker_Sanpoel_04.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Udo Ockema
Image:commons-logo.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Commons-logo.svg License: unknown Contributors: Geekybroad, Harryboyles, Jezerfetnae, Kbdank71,
MSGJ, Mike5904, RockMFR, Stephen Bain, Who, 17 anonymous edits
File:Windmills D1-D4 (Thornton Bank).jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Windmills_D1-D4_(Thornton_Bank).jpg License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Lycaon
Image:Turbine aalborg.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Turbine_aalborg.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Neutronic at en.wikipedia
Image:Wind turbine 1888 Charles Brush.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wind_turbine_1888_Charles_Brush.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Unknown
Image:Scout moor gearbox, rotor shaft and brake assembly.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Scout_moor_gearbox,_rotor_shaft_and_brake_assembly.jpg License:
Attribution Contributors: Paul Anderson
Image:Doesburgermolen.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Doesburgermolen.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Fransvannes, Friedrich
Tellberg, HenkvD, Kneiphof, Rasbak, Siebrand
Image:Micon-Turbine.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Micon-Turbine.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: User:Southgeist
Image:Turbine Blade Convoy Passing through Edenfield.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Turbine_Blade_Convoy_Passing_through_Edenfield.jpg License:
Attribution Contributors: Paul Anderson
Image:Darrieus-windmill.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Darrieus-windmill.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Conscious, Saperaud, Stahlkocher, 2 anonymous
edits
Image:Quietrevolution-model.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Quietrevolution-model.png License: Public Domain Contributors: KoenB
Image:Windlahor.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Windlahor.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Tiho42
File:EERE illust large turbine.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:EERE_illust_large_turbine.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Office of Energy Efficiency and
Renewable Energy
Image:SOMA Wind generator.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SOMA_Wind_generator.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: User:Bidgee
Image:E 126 Georgsfeld.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:E_126_Georgsfeld.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: User:Jfz
Image:Windmill D1 (Thornton Bank).jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Windmill_D1_(Thornton_Bank).jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License
Contributors: User:Lycaon
Image:Windkraftanlage Laasow.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Windkraftanlage_Laasow.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0
Contributors: SPBer at de.wikipedia
File:Quebecturbine.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Quebecturbine.JPG License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Spiritrock4u (talk) Original
uploader was Spiritrock4u at en.wikipedia
File:Veladero 01.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Veladero_01.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Fedealvarado
File:Hywind.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hywind.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Lars Christopher
File:Floating tension leg wind turbine diagram.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Floating_tension_leg_wind_turbine_diagram.svg License: Public Domain
Contributors: User:84user
File:Floating loose mooring catenary plain.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Floating_loose_mooring_catenary_plain.svg License: Public Domain Contributors:
User:84user
Image:FutureOffshoreWindTurbines.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:FutureOffshoreWindTurbines.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Unknown
License 32

License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported
http:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/