Chemical Arithmetic SECOND EDITION Oberkrieser S fa) a 3. Q Ss ne 4 a ei Van Nostrand peleL ance] mel ZChemical Arithmetic PROBLEM SOLVING IN CHEMISTRY Second Edition Joseph J. Oberkrieser TEACHER IN CHEMISTRY, ORCHARD PARK (N.Y.) HIGH SCHOOL D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc. PRINCETON, NEW JERSEY TORONTO LONDON MELBOURNEVAN NOSTRAND REGIONAL OFFICES: New York, Chicago, San Francisco D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY, LTD. , London D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY (Canada), LTD., Toronto Copyright © 1962, 1967, by D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY, INC. Published simultaneously in Canada by D, VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY (Canada), LTD, No reproduction in any form of this book, in whole or in part (except for brief quotation in critical articles or reviews), may be made without written authorization from the publisher. Library of Congress Catalog Card No. PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICATO THE STUDENT ‘The importance of mathematics in the sciences is that it allows us to deal, in a manageable way, with the complex relationships encountered in scientific study and research. The numbers and symbols of mathematics in science represent measurements, which, properly handled, can be precise expressions of scientific facts, Depending upon the carefulness of the observer and the reliability of his measuring devices, these measurements provide definite data and permit cal- culations of a practical nature. Because mathematics is the practical way of handling data and of transmitting scientific information to others, it is essential for the student to master the mathe- matics of his science course, Beginning students in chemistry are often dismayed at what seems to be an incomprehensible complexity of facts and figures in the problems presented in the course. Actually, chemistry prob- lems involve, for the most part, only simple proportions and simple algebra and arithmetic for solution, ‘The problems here are presented in a logical sequence, generally progressing from the least to the more difficult. “Study carefully the problems illustrated in each chapter. Consider the ratios or formulas used in their solution, Do not simply memorize these, but follow the steps in each solution and the reasons for them. With this effort will come an understanding of how to solve chemistry problems and a realization that they are not especially difficult, Do not fail to consult your instructor when necessary. Often a few minutes’ help from him makes the difference between understanding or not understanding a problem, You will find assorted problems at the back of this book and a variety of additional problems taken from standardized examinations in first-year chemistry. When you can do these without aid, you have truly mastered the mathematics of a first course in chemistry. Answers, corrected to the proper number of significant figures, are given for all problems to help you determine the correctness of your solutions. ‘You should keep a separate notebook for solving problems. This will provide a ready source of solved problems for review, Joseph J, Oberkrieser Orchard Park, New York10. a 2, CONTENTS MEASUREMENTS AND MATHEMATICS ...-..++ A, Handling Units « B, Significant Figures +1. C! Exponential Numbers: D. Logarithms .....++ E. The Slide Rule 1+... ++ F, The Metric System «++ TEMPERATURE SCALE CON- VERSIONS «++. .+e+++ A. Fahrenheit to Celsius B, Celsius to Fahrenheit C. Celsius to Absolute (Kelvin) oe... e+ GRAM-MOLECULAR WEIGHTS... 25 GRAM-MOLECULAR VOLUME... 28 PROBLEMS INVOLVING EQUATIONS . 31 ‘A. Weight- 31 B. Weight--Volume. +++... 38 C. Volume--Volume +s. +2. 43 DENSITY OF A LIQUID OR A SOLID .... 5 eee AT SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS... ...ce0ee05 49 DENSITY OF A GAS... pene SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF GASES .. 54 GAS-LAW PROBLEMS . +e 56 PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION ... 62 EMPIRICAL FORMULAS.....+. 64 iv Chapter 13, 4 18. 16. 1, 18. 19, 20, a. 22. 23. 24. 25, 26. a. Page DETERMINATION OF GRAM- MOLECULAR WEIGHT ...... 68 A, Freezing-Point Depression ......+. 68 B, Boiling-Point Elevation .. 69 PERCENT SOLUTE BY WEIGHT . a MOLAR SOLUTIONS... 6.5 NORMAL SOLUTIONS. 82 TITRATION, . . ELECTROCHEMISTRY (OXIDATION-REDUCTION BALANCING ..... wee 89 HALF-CELL REACTIONS ...... 94 THE pH SCALE...-...-...-. 98 ‘THE EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT . . 102 ‘THE IONIZATION CONSTANT . . . 107 ‘THE SOLUBILITY PRODUCT CONSTANT... eeseeeeeeee UL OUTLINE REVIEW OF ALL PROBLEMS. ....- eee 6 ASSORTED PROBLEMS, 19 TYPICAL PROBLEMS FROM STANDARDIZED EXAMINA- ‘TIONS IN FIRST-YEAR CHEMISTRY .....+ eae APPENDIX Tables... ese eeeee eee es 138 Answers to Problems. 11. 144 INDEX oe ee eee eee eee eee ee 155CHAPTER 1 MEASUREMENTS AND MATHEMATICS HANDLING UNITS In any problem where given quantities or numbers are being substituted into a formula, the units of those quantities—such as ounces, pounds, or feet—should be brought into the formula as well. “These units are as important to the measurement as a label is toa reagent bottle, and it would be just as foolish to separate them. ‘The number 8, for example has no dimensions and is therefore meaningless. Whether it refers to 8 days, & dogs, 8 pounds, or something else is uncertain. If the number is labeled, however, as 8 tons or 8 miles, then it has meaning. Units of measurement are manipulated just as numbers are, and, like numbers, they may be ‘squared, cancelled, ete. Units properly handled minimize errors in determining the units of an answer, Unlike units of the same measurement family (such as liters and milliliters, feet and yards) should be changed to a common unit before any calculations are made. ‘The word "per" is often used with numbers and units in both science and everyday life. We frequently use such terms as: the car was traveling 60 miles per hour, eggs are 75 cents per dozen, water weighs 8 pounds per gallon, etc. In each case per means the quantity of one thing for one unit of another; that is, the car was traveling 60 miles in 1 hour, eggs cost 75 cents for 1 dozen, water weighs 8 pounds for 1 gallon. The sign "/"" is used to denote per. Accordingly, 60 miles per hour becomes 60 miles/hour or 60 2U28; 75 cents per dozen becomes 75 cents/dozen or 75 $2008 and 6 pounds per gallon, 8 pounds/ealon or 6 Bude ‘The following illustrate some concepts about handling units: (@) 4 liters +3 liters = 7 liters () (6 em*) (7 em) liters + liters = liters (em?) (em) 16 grams Tgrams/Iter Ear « Gone (Maze) «ar sows ( PROBLEM 1: What is the length in feet of a steel bar 48 inches’ long? SOLUTION: While the arithmetical answer is obvious, setting up the problem illustrates the handling of units in order to get the unit of the answer. © 4 liters (@) (4 hours) (60 miles/hour) = 240 miles pu). wiles 48 inches Tinie ~ 4 feet ANSWERPROBLEM 2: If sound travels 1100 feet/second, how many yards will sound travel in 60 seconds? (1100 teet/s (60 seconds) (iene psec 6 seco) (1100}60) , $5,000 yar48.. 2,090 yards ANSWER (ara) ep rere (186, 000 miles/sec)(60 sec/netn) (60 satn/iir)(24 bes/day)(365.days/year) (186, 000 mites)(60)(60)(24)(365/year) = 5, 865, 696, 000, 000 miles/year Corrected to the proper number of significant figures, the answer is, 5,870,000, 000, 000 miles/year ANSWER (See Section B, SIGNIFICANT FIGURES) PROBLEM 4: What {s the perimeter of a fleld that measures 167 feet by 154 feet by 122 feet by 37 yards? SOLUTION: Unlike units of the same measurement must be changed to a common unit in adding or subtracting numbers before the calculation is carried out In multiplication and division, units may be converted to a common unit so the units of the answer are in convenient form. It is possible, however, to multi- ply 1 foot by 1 yard and get a perfectly proper, although awkward, area unit of the foot-yard, but 1 foot cannot be added to 1 yard without changing uni ‘Thus: (87 yards) (3 feet/yard) = 111 feet And: 111 feet 167 feet 154 feet 122 feet 554 feet, perimeter ANSWER PROBLEMS TO SOLVE PROBLEM 1: A car is traveling at a speed of 44 feet/second. What distance will the car travel in 15 seconds? PROBLEM 2: In the preceding problem, how far will the car travel in 10 minutes? PROBLEM 3: Solve the following for the units of the answer: rams 22 grams/liter ©) Srame/aner ©) Tr grame7iiter (©) em) (B em) (4 em) @ Gime” gram (op enttumetors) Cuter) (°) (© Grams/mol)(molsAiter)(liters) ©) Grams/gram-equiv w)(gram-equiv wis/liter)iters) _(n) ‘Gentimeters)(aullsnters)%°) © grams =x (S) (yy {Lem/see) (60 sec/min) c 60 min/hrB. SIGNIFICANT FIGURES ‘Measurements made in chemistry are frequently approximate. The accuracy of any measure- ment depends upon the accuracy of the instrument used, which in itself has limits of precision, and the judgment of the observer. This is especially true beyond the limits of the smallest division on the measuring instrument. For example, suppose a student were reading a graduate calibrated in milliliters and the ‘meniscus came somewhere between 23 and 24. He could read accurately to the nearest whole milliliter (23 here) and estimate the nearest tenth. ‘Thus he may read 23.5 ml. Another person making the same observation may call it 23.6 or 23.4. The first two digits are certain, while the third digit is doubtful because it is an approximation. ‘These three digits should be kept, however, since they include only one doubtful digit. AL three digits (2, 3, 5), then, are called significant figures. Obviously any attempt to estimate the volume to the nearest hundreth in this case would be ridiculous. Any hundreths digit selected would have no significance whatsoever since the tenths digit immediately preceding it is already doubtful. Another example: suppose the student were using a burette calibrated in tenths of milliliters ‘The meniscus falls somewhere between 12 and 13. Closer examination at eye level shows the bottom of the meniscus between the fourth and fifth division between 12 and 13. The accurate reading is 12.4. Estimation of the distance between 12. 4 and 12. 5 depends upon the judgment of the observer and is the first doubtful digit. If the reading were accepted as 12.43, it would include three certain figures or digits (1, 2, 4) and one doubtful digit (3), and all four digits would be considered significant. In any consideration of which figures are significant in a measurement, include all certain digits and the first doubtful digit. ‘A decimal point does not determine the number of significant figures. In the following measure- ments all figures are equally significant: 3234., 323.4, 32.34, 3.234. The last number (3. 234) may be more precise since the measurement was carried out to a smaller division than the others, but all four digits are no more significant than the four digits in each of the other numbers. A question always arises concerning the significance of zeros in a number. Certainly zeros appearing between the digits in any number are significant. Accordingly, the number 200. 1 has four significant figures. Zeros that appear at the end of a number are significant only as they indicate the degree of precision of a measurement. For example, if a burette is calibrated in hundreths of a milliliter and the reading is exactly 16, then the number should read 16.00. There are four significant figures. Any recorded measurement should show the decimal place to which the measurement is reli- able. A burette reading of 16.00 as given in the example above should not be recorded as 16. or 16.0 since this does not show how accurately the measurement was made. Zeros which appear before other digits merely locate the decimal point and are not significant. In the number 0.0001, there is only one significant figure. In the number 0.01, there is still only one significant figure ‘There are some numbers, however, which may be considered more precise than they are written. A dozen contains 12'of something; this 12 is actually 12.0000. . . . There are 60 seconds ina minute; that is, 60.0000. . . . seconds ina minute. These are exact numbers and do not reduce the number of significant figures in an answer. Some numbers added to problems, such £6 atomic weights, molecular weights, conversion or multiplication factors, ete., may be considered as exact numbers to lessen somewhat the problems of resolving answers to significant figures. At best, however, procedures governing the significance of numbers in an answer are soie- what confusing. A good general rule to follow is: give the same number of significant figures in the answer as has the measurement with the least number of significant figures in the problem. ‘The final result in any problem cannot be more precise than the least precise measurement. 3PROBLEM 1: SOLUTION: ‘Multiply 3.72 by 2.1 and give the answer in the proper number of significant figures. 3.72 21 372 144 Tar ‘The least number of significant figures given in the problem is two. By definition, the significant figures in an answer are all certain digits and the first doubtful one. ‘The number 3.72 contains two certain digits and one doubtful. The number 2. 1 contains one certain digit and one doubtful. Thus in the product, 7.812, the digit 8 must be doubtful The digits 1 and 2 must be even more doubtful. Accordingly, the correct ANSWER = 7.8 ROUNDING OFF. It is permissible to round off to the first doubtful digit. If the digit to be dropped is Tess than 5, the last digit retained is unchanged. If the digit to be dropped is greater than 5, the last digit retained is increased by 1. When it is exactly 5, 1 is added to the last digit retained only if it is odd, otherwise it is simply dropped. For example, successive rounding off for the number 6. 2358 is 6.296, 6.24, 6.2, 6. The number 4.65 may be rounded off to 4.6, 4.55 to 4.6, 4.45 to 4. 4. PROBLEM 2: SOLUTION PROBLEM 3: SOLUTION: Multiply 0.0145 by 0.0089, expressing the answer to the correct number of significant figures. 0.0145 0.0089, 305 1160 ‘00012905 ‘The answer cannot contain more significant figures than found in the measurement with least number of significant figures in the problem (0.0089 with two figures). ‘Therefore, it is necessary to round off to the number which contains only two figures: 0.00012905 becomes 0.00013 ANSWER Divide 4. 58 by 6.600, expressing the answer in the correct number of significant figures e039 6.909 FE OUON —" 39600 = g2000 50400 "pé000 18800 "2000 1400 Since the answer did not come out "even," division was carried to one place more than in the measurement with the least number of significant figures given. ‘The answer cannot be more exact than the Ieast exact measurement, so the answer must be rounded off to contain the same number of significant figures as the ‘measurement with the least number of significant figures in the problem. The number 4. 58 has only three figures which are significant, while the number 6. 600 has four figures which are significant. Thus, 0.6939 becomes 0. 694 ANSWERPROBLEM 4: Divide 8.75 by 2.014 to the proper number of significant figures. SOLUTION: 4.344 2.014 [8.759 000 8 a 6940 6042, “8980 8056 “9240 8056 Division was again carried to one place more than the least number of significant figures given in any one measurement (8.75) with three significant figures. Therefore, 4.344 becomes 4.34 ANSWER PROBLEMS TO SOLVE PROBLEM 1; Round off the following numbers to one less decimal place: (a) 32.67 (b) 4.090 (c) 731.5 (a) 24.088 (e) 0.422 (ft) 1.356 (@) 88.85 (u) 0.00213 PROBLEM 2: Round off 48. 655318, decreasing the number of decimal places by one place in each successive step. PROBLEM 3: Determine the number of significant figures in each of the following. (@ 66.6 (&) 42.0 (e) 0.008 (@) 0.019 (e) 0.700 (100. (@) 1.01 (uy 4,009 (@_ 0.0550 () 5500.7 PROBLEM 4: Divide the following, giving the answer in the correct number of significant figures: (@) 32 (b) 930 (©) 46.0 16 “eR 220 (@) 0.0087 (e) 9.08 (9 287 30080 m4 3 @) 71.8 (h) 6.08 (i) 3800 0.89 503 340 @) 0.80 Oo PROBLEM 5: Multiply the following, giving the answers to the correct number of significant figures: (@) 0.32 (©) 0.0016 (©) 23.5 0.8 O01 6. @ 12.9 fe) 42.1 (9) 8800. 123 Lt 22.1(g) 8.900 (hy 1.05 0.0221 44 () 0.010 2a PROBLEM 6: Solve the following to the correct number of significant figures: (@) 33x 64 @) 82x90 (©) 82x 0.090 “Bi neta: 66 (@) 273 x 760 (e) 83x 9.01 ) 0.004 x 0.6 eats easstaa ae ee () 104x 77.2 (h) 59.11.01 () 72x 0.041 x 0.50 er eed: O0 ae Cox () 113 x0.10x 34.3 10. Tx 14.8 C. EXPONENTIAL NUMBERS In the sciences certain measurements may be expressed as very small numbers. Such numbers are very difficult to handle in the usual manner and are accordingly expressed in powers of ten. For example, the weight of an electron is calculated to be ‘0. 0000000000000000000000000001079 gram. ‘This number, should it be needed in a calculation, is almost impossible to handle with accuracy and rapidity.’ The more convenient method is to express it as an exponential number, to a power ‘of ten. Thus it becomes 1.079 x 10-** gram, ‘The minus exponent indicates the number of ‘decimal places in the number between the old and new decimal points (see Problem 2). Large numbers, too, may be more easily written in powers of 10. Thus 10,000 becomes 1 x 10°; 120,000 becomes 1.2 x 10". Avogadro's number, the number of atoms in one gram- atomic weight or the number of molecules in one gram-molecular weight of a substance, is expressed as 6.02 x 10° instead of 602, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000,000,000. A positive exponent indicates the number of places to the left of the old decimal point (see Problem 1). ‘When numbers are in the exponential form, they are handled according to procedures learned in algebra. For example: when numbers are multiplied, exponents are added algebraically; in division, exponents are subtracted algebraically. Significant figures play a role here, too. In the expression 1. x 10° there is one significant figure. A number such as 3.6 x 10°, however, has two significant figures. Expressing unusually small or large numbers in exponential form actually aids in the recognition of significant figures. PROBLEM 1: Express the number 1, 000, 000 as a power of 10. SOLUTION: (1) A decimal point is placed after the first digit: 1.000000 (2) and the digits to the right of that decimal point are counted. This figure becomes the exponent on the 10. Counting the digits to the right, away from the decimal point, gives a positive exponent 1. x 10° ANSWER