Claire Smith Editor Encyclopedia of Global Archaeology en 2619 se 6 aes @ SpringerReference 2014Andes: High-Altitude Archaeological Sites as Cultural Hertage Figs, M, 2007, Ssience across borders: Johan Gunnar ‘Andersson & Ding Wenjiang. in D. Glover eal (ed) Raplorers.and sciemists in China's borderlaas, 1580 1980: 240-66. Seate: University of Washington Press TFiskisi0, M.& X. Chan. 2004, Chin before China: Johan Gunnar Andersron. Ding Wenviang. and the discovery of China's prekisiory(Zhongguo hi gin de Zhongguo: Antesieng, Ding Wenjiang, he Zhongguo ‘higianshi de facian,Stockhola: Museum of Far East- em Antiquities (Bilingual, in English and Chinese) Jomasssos, P2012. Saluing the yellow emperor: 1 Swedish case of sinography. Leien Bri Liv, L. 2004. The Chinese Neolithic: rajectries to early ‘nates, Cambridge: Cembridge University Pros, Andes: High-Altitude Archaeological Sites as Cultural Heritage Johan Reinhard National Geographic Society, Franklin, WV, USA Introduction Archaeological remains, predating the Spanish conquest of 1532 CE, have been founé on numer- ous mountain summits in the Andes, including more than 100 sites above 5,200 m, with some ranging as high as 6,700m. This is only one of the many achievements associated withthe culture of the Incas but it istnique (D'Atroy 2002). In less than a 100 years (€. 1470-1532 CE), they constructed well-built stone structures in moune tains over avast area ofthe Andes, encompassing the countries of Chile. Argentina. Bolivia, and Peru (Beorchia 1955 and 2001) (Fis. 1). Nowhere else on carth have archacological remains been found at such altitudes, Indeed, the heights of some structares were not even reached again for fourcenturies, and taken together. this constitutes fone of the most awesome accomplishments known to us from ancient times, ‘The sites generally consist of stone buildings with low walls, artificial raised platforms, and simple structares that served for protection from the elements, At the base of some mountains, fairly large complexes ~ some with hundreds of structures - have been found thar provided storage and housing facilities for participants in ceremonies carried cut on the summits. The sum- ‘mi structures are often not impressive in size and it is the ritual offerings, such as starues, precious textiles, foodstuffs, and in rare cases shuman sscrifices, which have been found in the structures that make them of such value to us today. Extraordinarily preserved in the cold environ- ‘ment of the high Andes, the mummificd remains ‘of the sacrificial victims and their associated funerary offerings provide invaluable evidence for the study of the ceremonial life of the Inca ivilization. They are among the few pieces of ‘material evidence of Ince religion that have survived the Spanish conquest and have been found in their original contexts. Unfortunately, ting the last 100 years, many of the mountain- top shrines of the Incas have been destroyed by looters, and the scientific study of these sites only began in the past few decades. Definition ‘The term “high altitude” has often been used by archaeologists to refer to sites found above 5.200 m. This has been & convenient way to distinguish them from Iowerlying ruins with which they may, nonetheless, share many char- acteristics. It is also understood that ruins on ‘4 mountain only 2,000 m in altitude could still bbe considered “high” relative to people living ‘over 1,000 m below. Nonetheless, it is the high altitude of so ‘many ruins that has captured attention, not least Of all because of the great amount of energy, ‘organization, and in some cases specialized techniques necessary for constructing and maintaining structures at such heights. Com- monly, even people who have lived all their lives atc. 4,000 m (the highest that permanent villages are normally found) have difficulty in reaching, et alone working at, altitudes over 5.200 m, ‘A mummy can be defined as a human compse that hax had its skin preserved over its skeleton,26 Andes: Kigh-Altiude Archaeologica Sites as Cultural Heritage Pacific Ocean ‘Andes: High Altitude Archaeological Sites as Cultural Heritage, Fig. 1) Map ofthe contral Andes with ycleced {Inca high-altitude archaeological sites marked (Courtesy of te National Geographic Society)cither through natural or artificial processes. One cof the things that makes Andeaa frozea mummies unique is their natural preservation. Egyptian ‘mummies are renowned and some date back over ‘duce millennia before the Incas. However, these ‘are usually desiccated bodies that have had their intestinal organs removed and embalming tech- ‘niques utilized to help the mummification process. As rare as these ancient mummies may be, those ‘mummies that have been naturally frozen are far more so. Thanks to their better preserved body risques and ongans, they provide a wealth of human biological information otherwise ‘unobtainable and enable scientists to undertake far more comprehensive studies. Historical Background ‘The Spanish chroniclers described Inca offerings to the gods as including statues made of precious metals, finely woven textiles, and ceramics of cistinetive Inca style, along with coca leaves, incense, food items, and alvoholic beverages. Although they also noted that offerings could involve human sacrifices, it was not until 1954 that scientists began paying serious attention to such sacrifices having taken place on mountains. That year, looters in Chile discovered the body of an Inca boy on the summit of El Plomo at c.5,200 im. After it was recovered by archaeologists, the study of the mummy and its associated artifacts led t0 a collection of articles by specialists from several scientific disciplines (Mostny 1957). In 1964, the frozen body of an adult male was found by mountain climbers at 6,000 m on Mount El Toro, and in 1985, the frozen body of a seven-year-old boy was recovered from an Inca site at 5,300 m on the slopes of Aconcagua in Argentina (Schobinger 1966, 2001), The resulting stidies of these mmammies laid the foundation for the development of longer-term scientific excavations to be under- taken on the summits themselves during the 1990s, and this resulted in the discovery of four exceptionally preserved Inca mummies on the |gh-Altitude Archaeological Stes as Cultural Heritage ‘Andes: High-Altitude Archaeological Sites as Cul- tural Heritage, Fig. 2 An overview cf the Inca cerer nial site on MU Luilallaco’s summit at 6,700m (Photo: Johan Reinhard) mountains of Ampato and Liullaillac in Peru and Argentina, respectively (Reinhard 1105; Reinhard & Ceruti 2010) (Fig. 2. Key Issues/Current Debates ‘The Andean mountain-top mummies are unusual even among the world’s few “ice mummies.” This is because the human sacrificial victims often would have become frozen at the time of their deaths — not afier time had passed and the bodies begun undergoing decomposition. indeed, several chroniclers described many of them as having been buried while they were still alive. (On snow-laden mountains, this has allowed for ‘an unprecedented scientific treasure — a bodyArchaeological Sites as Cultural Heritage, Fig. 3. Aa tres female frozen mummy recovered from the sumanit of Mt Liuthitace (Photo: Johan Reinhard) could be frozen with Tittle decomposition having occurred even after the passage of five centuries (F's 3), There are several reasons for their excellent preservation, but the main one would have been the continuity of below-freezing temperatures at the high altitudes of Andean peaks. Scientists have noted that some humidity is necessary because the absolute absence off water causes shrinkage and embritilement of organic mate- rials by water loss. As Cronyn (1990: 24) foced, “the best condition for preservation is that of extreme cold ~ for here, since all water is tured to ice, itis inactivated without being lost and so both inorganic and organic materials are unaffected.” 1 volcanic ash surrounds the mummies, such as has occurred in some cases in the Andes, this also helps to inhibit the growth of bacteria, while maintaining moisture. And the rapid burial and freezing of the soil can result im a vapor barrier being created, further impeding decomposition, This unique combination of factors makes the hhigh Andean summits excellent places for the Andes: HighrAlttude Archaeological Sites as Cultural Heritage preservation or organic material. Frozen ‘mummies have even been recovered with their DNA perfectly intact, Al present, these high Andean sites cannot be protected and they will — sooner or later = be Iooted. That is a fact, one underlined by the Tooting that already has taken place at many of them, not to mention at thousands of tombs uroughout the coastal region and highlands of ‘westem South America (Atwood 200). OF the several dozen high-altitude sites [have seen, ot a few have not been at least partially looted already ~ in the sense of items having been taken from the surface and holes dug. [Lis impos- sible to post guards on the summits or even around the mountains, which are, after all, several ‘miles in circumference. Furthermore, mountains can be climbed from many sides, and, if situated on a border between countries, they are even hhander to protect. Several factors have combined ia recent years to increase the likelihood of the sites being looted. Access has become easier as roads have peactrated throughout the Andes,