DRAWING WITH LIGHT THE PENCIL OF NATURET - Thesis PDF

K A T A Y O U N P A S B A N D O WL A T S H A H I THESIS
DRAWING WITH LIGHT: THE PENCIL OF NATURE
KATAYOUN PASBAN DOWLATSHAHI
December 2004
A thesis submitted to the University of Gloucestershire in accordance with the requirements of the
degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Arts and Humanities
The University of Gloucestershire
DRAWING WITH LIGHT: THE PENCIL OF NATURE - 1 -

Abstract
This studio based research is concerned with the concept of Drawing with Light through the
development and use of carbon based photographic processes. The inspiration for this
research is taken from William Henry Fox Talbots work, in particular, his first photographic
publication, the Pencil of Nature1. The concept of a pencil of light is investigated to show how
light might be traced or dragged across a surface to form an image of itself. A hypothesis is
developed for Drawing with Light that investigates the notion of light as a medium from which
drawings can be traced, edited and erased by the inherent visual characteristics of visible and
invisible light.
This research commenced with a literature review and preliminary practical studio
investigations, which were informed by a review of historical and technical literature from the
early history of photography. Visual and textual information relevant to Drawing with Light,
were derived from national photographic archives and the Correspondence of William Henry Fox
Talbot project web site. Technical support was sought from a corporation producing carbon
tissue, and from an institution specialising in colloidal research. On completion of this
literature review, I undertook extensive studio investigations that resulted in the completion
of 6 projects. These projects consisted of a series of smaller studies of light and shadow that
lead to a final hypothesis for Drawing with Light.
This research significantly contributes to the field of contemporary fine art. Carbon based
photographic processes were first derived in the 19th century. Carbon and Gum Bichromate
are developed here as tactile studio based processes. Carbon in particular is a versatile
continuous tone transfer system that is permanent, stable and transferable to almost any
surface. To my knowledge carbon has never been used as a material for tracing direct
abstractions of light, nor as a pictorial element in an installation, which makes the basis of this
research unique. On glass, carbon is a subtle yet affirmative medium that has extensive
aesthetic possibilities, these range from the photograph to contemporary installations within
an architectural or outdoor context.

Declaration
I declare that the work in this thesis was carried out in accordance with the regulations of the
University of Gloucestershire and is original except where indicated by specific reference in
the text. No part of the thesis has been submitted as part of any other academic award. The
thesis has not been presented to any other education institution in the United Kingdom or
overseas.
Any views expressed in the thesis are those of the author and in no way represent those of
the University.
Signed ..................................................... Date .....................................

Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the University of Gloucestershire and Professor Andrew Stonyer for
having given me the opportunity to undertake this period of research, leading to the
completion of my Ph.D. I would particularly like to thank Andrew for his professionalism,
commitment and his unerring support during these last 4 years. I would also like to convey my
thanks to Dr. Paul Thirkell, my second supervisor, and to Annie Brocklehurst for her
enthusiasm and secretarial support; to Roger Watson from the Lacock Abbey Collection at
the Fox Talbot Museum and Michael Gray, formerly from the museum, for offering me advice,
archival support and enthusiasm that helped form the direction of my research. Also to Brian
Liddy at the National Museum of Photography, Film & Television in Bradford, who provided
me with a memorable and thoroughly enjoyable experience of the Science Museum and the
Royal Photographic Society collections. Also my thanks go to Professor Larry Schaaf at the
William Henry Fox Talbot Correspondence Project, Alison Morrison-Low at the Royal Scottish
Museum, Dr. Duncan Forbes at the National Galleries of Scotland, the Science Museum
Library at Imperial University London, Dimbola Lodge The Julia Margaret Cameron Trust and
Museum on the Isle of White, the Victoria and Albert Museum, the British Library, and the
learning centre staff at Pittville campus, the University of Gloucestershire. Furthermore, I was
very grateful for technical support I kindly received from Mr J. Jelinski of Autotype
International Ltd., Dr. John Eastman of the Bristol Colloid Centre, and Mike Simons of Kodak
Research and Development in Harrow. However, this research would not have been possible
without the loving support and enthusiasm of my partner Martin Castle, who has, with his
skilful art in humour, helped me through the good and the bad times. And thanks also to my
Cheltenham house buddies, Rona Brodie and Sheila Harper, who helped me edit my papers in
the midnight hours and kept me going with endless cups of tea, gin and tonics and
camaraderie. Last but not least, I would like to thank my mother, Susan Dowlatshahi for being
there for me, helping with the difficulties of financing a Ph.D. and for giving me the opportunity
to make her proud of me.

Table of Contents
Abstract 2
Declaration 3
Acknowledgment 4
Table of Contents 5-6
List of Plates 7-14
Historical Review:
Chapter 1 1:1 Introducing the Research 15
1:1:1 Drawing with Light: The Pencil of Nature 15
1:1:2 Methodology 18
Chapter 2 2:1 Historical Review 24
2:1:1 Proto-Photography and Optics 24
2:2 Henry Fox Talbots Dame Nature and her Pencil of Light 31
2:2:1 An Introduction 31
2:2:2 The Ontology of Photography 32
2:2:3 The Taxonomy of Drawing with Light 36
2:2:4 A Philosophical Concept 39
2:2:5 This Art-Science 41
2:2:6 Evolving Trends in Fine Art Photography 42
2:3 Photogenic Drawings of Light Derived by the Agency of Light 44
2:3:1 An Introduction 44
2:3:2 The Early Science of Light: Prismatic & Spectral Analysis 45
2:3:3 Talbots Observations on the Optical Phenomena of Crystals 47
2:3:4 The Visual Evidence 51
2:3:5 William Crookes 56
2:3:6 The Aesthetic Significance of Talbot & Crookes Crystals to this research
58
Studio Methodology:
Chapter 3 3:1 Preliminary Investigations of Gum Bichromate and Carbon 61
3:1:1 An Overview 61
3:1:2 Analysing Investigations of Gum Bichromate and Carbon 67
Research Diary:
Chapter 4 4:1 Preliminary Light & Shadow Studies Leading to a Hypothesis 79
4:1:1 Introduction 79
4:1:2 Artificial Light Studies 79

4:1:3 Studies with Sunlight 81

4:1:4 Negative Shadow Studies 87
4:2 Experiments with Soot, Ink and Graphite 91
4:2:1 Experiments with Soot: Study 1 92
4:2:2 Experiments with Ink: Study 2 94
4:2:3 Experiments with Graphite: Study 3 98
4:2:4 Polychrome Carbon Tissues 99
4:3 Converging Light Studies with Flexible and Inflexible Media 102
4:3:1 Series I Converging Light Studies with Flexible Media 102
4:3:2 Series II Converging Light Studies with Inflexible Media 110
4:4 Glass Studies: 1-7 117
4:4:1 Series 1 & 2: Glass & Charcoal Studies Leading to Glass Constructions 117
4:4:2 Series 2: Glass Constructions 120
4:4:3 Series 3: Fragmented Glass Studies 123
4:4:4 Series 4: Drawing Fragments of Black 128
4:4:5 Series 5: Drawing Sequential Lines of Black 132
4:4:6 Series 6: Tracing Light with a Prayer 133
4:4:7 Series 7: Drawing Veiled Light 136
4:5 Westonbirt Arboretum: Carbon and Glass Installation 141
4:5:1 Conclusion 145
4:6 Solar Camera: Series 1-4 149
4:6:1 Cardboard Model: Series 1 150
4:6:2 Solar Camera Scaled Up: Series 2 153
4:6:3 Divining Lines: Series 3 157
4:6:4 Solar Diffraction: Series 4 159
Conclusion:
Chapter 5 5:1 Drawing with Light: The Pencil of Nature 164
5:1:1 Talbots Influence 165
5:1:2 Motion and Time 166
5:1:3 Carbon 171
Appendices: 172
1: Glossary 172
2: Chemistry 184
3: Tissue Formulations 187
4: Preliminary Findings of Gum Bichromate and Carbon, Series 1-13 190
Endnotes 220
Bibliography 234

List of Plates
List of Plates
Plate 1: Drawing Fragments of Black I & II

Carbon Photography (unique image) - Gelatine, black pigment onto glass, 1680mm x 760mm
(each panel) (diptych)
Plate 2: Drawing Veiled light I V, 2004

Carbon Photography (unique image) - Gelatine, Black carbon pigment onto Somerset Velvet
paper, 1270mm x 555mm each, including the frames (each panel)
Plate 3: Drawing Veiled light I III, 2004

Carbon Photography (unique image) - Gelatine, black carbon pigment onto Somerset Velvet
paper, 1270mm x 555mm each, including the frames (each panel) (Triptych)
Plate 4: Enfolding Dusk I II & III, 2004

Carbon Photography (unique image) - Gelatine, blue and black pigment onto Somerset Velvet
paper, 1369mm x 761mm (each panel) (Triptych)
Plate 5: Tracing Footprints of Light I & II, 2004

Carbon Photography (unique image) - Gelatine, blue pigment onto Aquarelle Arche paper,
782mm x 759mm including frames (each panel) (diptych)
Plate 6: Drawing Fragments of Light I II & III, 2004

Carbon Photography (unique image) - Gelatine, blue and black pigment onto glass, 1680mm x
760mm (each panel) (Triptych)
Plate 7: Drawing Fragments of Light I II & III, 2004

Carbon Photography (unique image) - Gelatine, blue and black pigment onto glass, 1680mm x
760mm (each panel) (Triptych)

Plate 1

Plate 2

Plate 3

Plate 4

Plate 5

Plate 6

Plate 7

Chapter 1: Historical Review
1:1 Introducing the Research
1:1:1 Drawing with Light: The Pencil of Nature
Figure 1. Richard Beard, Portrait of William Henry Fox Talbot (1842) Daguerreotype, Fox Talbot Museum Lacock.
Before establishing a concept and methodology for this research, I reviewed literature
pertinent to my life long interest in sacred art and architecture, particularly from my cultural
heritage: Mithraism and Zoroastrianism of ancient Persia2. Central to the cosmology, in the
polytheistic cult of Mithras3 and subsequently in the monotheistic religion of Zarathustra4, is
LIGHT. This is symbolised by the element fire. The significance and symbolism of light is also
embodied into the core tenets of Islam and Sufism5. Though this literature did not form the
basis of my research, it did influence my philosophical outlook and in turn the judgements I
made about my visual aesthetic.
The concept for this investigation into Drawing with Light was directly inspired by William
Henry Fox Talbot (1800-1877) (Figure 1) and his first photographic publication of 1844, The
Pencil of Nature6. This was a seminal book, not merely because Talbot was able to demonstrate

his significant achievements on paper; but because it was a concept for LIGHT. This concept
will be explained in greater depth in the introductory chapter and the historical review.
This research began by first investigating Talbots use of nomenclature. He created visual
metaphors to entitle his experimental processes with new terms, such as Photogenic Drawings.
By choosing the title The Pencil of Nature, nature was conveyed as having a power so great that
she was able, armed with a pencil, to draw an image of herself. What Talbot had done was to
provide nature merely with the tools to execute the drawings. These tools were photo-
chemical; therefore, the framework of my investigation into the activity of drawing was taken
from a photographic perspective. Talbots analogy started me thinking. Was it possible to
literally draw with light? To take the medium and drag it like you would drag a stick of
charcoal across paper, and therefore, leave traces of its visible and invisible characteristics
behind as marks? Could these light characteristics, of transmission, reflection, refraction and
polarisation form a taxonomy for drawing with light? How would I edit the visual compositions
of light and shadow to develop a pictorial aesthetic? Did precedence for such images exist in
the history of optics and photography?
To inform these research questions, I began reviewing historical and technical literature about
the history of photography from as early as 1794. Technical texts for the method and material
of this research were taken from contemporary literature7, which had detailed descriptions
and suggested formulae involving carbon compounds. I also referenced patents and out of
print technical publications from the 19th and the 20th centuries. I purchased The A B C Guide to
the Making of Autotype Prints in Permanent Pigments, which was originally published by The
Autotype Company8 in London, in1893. This was augmented by, Martons New Treatise on the
Modern Methods of Carbon Printing, written by A. M. Marton and published in the United States
in 19059. Both books had extensive technical information for carbon printing onto diverse
substrates, which none of the modern texts had, and were to prove invaluable to my
investigations. Texts published in the early to mid 20th century were scant but four in
particular, published by a Canadian; Luis Nadeau of Atelier, identified a variety of carbon

processes10. He did extensive research on the history and practice of chromium based
processes11, which were to form the basis of my practice led research.
Further more, I accessed visual and textual collections of photographic material, at some of
the major national archives: the National Museum of Photography, Film & Television in
Bradford, the Royal Photographic Society Collection (which is now housed at Bradford), the
Lacock Abbey Collection at the Fox Talbot Museum in Lacock and the Victoria and Albert
Museum in London. Another significant source of textual information was The Correspondence
of William Henry Fox Talbot12, a web based project hosted by Glasgow University and directed
by Professor Larry J. Schaaf. Throughout this research, the literature review informed and
directed my studio practice, which is why the textual studies have been presented in such
depth in this thesis.
As I began to look into this history I found a pattern of research in the field of optical science
that augmented Talbots concept of nature brandishing a pencil of light, and as a consequence
the premise for this research into Drawing with Light, which is presented in the following
chapters. What my research has in common with 19th and 20th century scientific exploration in
optics is a mutual fascination for light, the phenomena of revelation and the search for pattern.
By acknowledging the early precedents for photographic experimentation in the field of optics,
my intention is to establish a historical context.
Talbot emerged as a significant figure in all facets of this investigation: technical, philosophical,
and etymological, mainly because he dedicated much of his life to the study of light and optics,
philology, theology and science. But of particular relevance were his photogenic drawings of
polarised light through crystals, traced with the agency of light, which will be referenced in
greater detail in chapter 2. This particular facet of Talbots scientific oeuvre was the precedent
from which the framework for this research into Drawing with Light was constructed: to
investigate the supposition that direct sun light could be employed by means of diffraction,
refraction, reflection and polarisation to produce drawings with light, traced directly onto light
sensitive substrates.

His greatest influence on my research, however, was his use of visual metaphors, conveyed
through the nomenclature of the new art of photo-graphy / light drawing and scia-graphy /
shadow drawing. My aim is to present a hypothesis for Drawing with Light, articulated through a
literature review and the practical studio investigations.
1:1:2 Methodology
Having established the concept that light can be used to depict light by making and tracing; I
now needed a methodology through which I could investigate this concept in the studio. This
methodology had to embody the concept of drawing, its materials and its history. But most
importantly it had to exploit the property of light sensitive chemistry to enable the visible and
hidden characteristics of light and shadow to be traced. It had to be a process that suitably
reflected the relationship of drawing to the practice and history of photography. Carbon
Photography, also historically known as a pigment processes13, provided me with that unique
association.
Carbon Photography is a chromium based process, wherein the image is rendered in pigment.
Dichromate salts of potassium, sodium and ammonium are used to produce light sensitivity,
not silver salts. Prior to the 20th century these salts were known as bichromate salts14. In
1839 Mungo Ponton (Figure 2) discovered the light sensitivity of paper soaked in a solution of
potassium bichromate15, but he was unable to explain its chemical properties. This discovery
was followed by William Henry Fox Talbots further research and claim in 1852 that colloids
such as gelatine, when coated with potassium bichromate harden when exposed to light16. This
crucial discovery by Talbot was the bases for his new patent Photoglyphic Engraving17, the
predecessor of all photo-mechanical processes. His discovery consequently led to the
invention of pigment printing18 by a French inventor, Alphonse Poitevin19 (Figure 3) in 1855. It
was a direct application of gum, albumen or other similar substance impregnated with some
colouring matter and mixed with bichromate, which was then coated onto any surface, dried,
exposed to ultra violet light, and developed by immersion in cold water, wherein the soluble
portions dissolved. He called this patent Photographic Printing20 but it was also referred to as

permanent printing21 and Gum Printing. By 1894 the process became more commonly known
as Gum Bichromate; popularised by the pictorial works of Alfred Maskell and Leon Robert
Demachy22. What Poitevin brought to the attention of the scientific and artistic communities
was the bases for a permanent alternative to the more universally used, but unstable, silver
based processes. The gum method, it was said, brought photography into a closer kinship with the
art of the pencil and brush than any other that had preceded it.23
Figure 2. Portrait of Mongo Ponton (circa 1870-1879) Photogravure, 1885-0044, National Museum of Photography, Film
& Television, Bradford. Reference taken from William Crawford, The Keepers of Light: A History and Working Guide to
Early Photographic Processes (New York: Morgan & Morgan, 1979), p70
Figure 3. Alphonse Louis Poitevin, Self Portrait (1862) Dusting On Process., A print from Poitevin's book, Traite de
L'Impression Photographique sans sel d'Argent (Paris, 1862). Reference taken from William Crawford, The Keepers of Light:
A History and Working Guide to Early Photographic Processes (New York: Morgan & Morgan, 1979), p71
The only constituents needed to produce photographic images were watercolour pigments
dispersed in a binder: a colloid24 and sugar compound. These core constituents were the same
as those used in the production of watercolours, pastels and drawing materials25. The active
constituent in the gum bichromate process was the salts of bichromate26, which hardened a
previously soluble compound of pigment and gum arabic. On exposure to light, a chemical
reaction would take place within the matrix of a colloid; bichromate precipitated insolubility in
previously soluble colloids. This insolubility was also termed as a hardening or tanning and was
proportional to the amount of light received. Cold water was used to wash away the soluble
portions for gum bichromate. Dependent on the tonality of the image exposed this pigmented
substrate of gelatine, albumen or gum arabic was of unequal thickness.

Because the bichromate was completely washed out along with the soluble elements of the
image, the remaining pigment emulsion was not prone to degradation over time, as silver salts
tended to be in 1855. Though the process had distinct potential, there were problems with
obtaining good tonality. The discovery could not compete with silver prints in terms of aesthetic
quality. Poitevins prints were often devoid of middle tones and highlight details because the light had
acted more or less on the surface of the bichromated colloid leaving the supporting portions soluble.27
The process was evolved as a transfer system in 1860, by a Frenchman by the name of
Adolphe Fargier28, but proved to be too difficult to commercialise. By 1864, however, the
technical process had been improved and patented for commercial use as a single and double
transfer system29 by Joseph Swan in England30 (Figure 4). In his patent he used the term carbon
[and] pigment printing to describe the procedure; carbon, because of the primary use of
carbon pigment as a constituent in the production of the pigment tissues. The process was
subsequently referred to as carbon photography or carbon printing. Apart from transferring
the pigmented coating, after exposure, to another surface for development, another crucial
change was the use of gelatine as a binder in place of gum Arabic and consequently the use of
hot water to dissolve the soluble portions of an image (See Appendix 2 for a full description).
Figure 4. Portrait of Sir Joseph Wilson Swan (circa 1890-1900) 10303175, Science Museum Pictorial / Science & Society
Picture Library, http://www.scienceandsociety.co.uk/results.asp?image=10303175&wwwflag=2&imagepos=1
I decided to investigate gum bichromate and single transfer carbon as two separate chromium
processes, because of their tactile characteristics and their flexible application in a studio
environment. I was impressed by gum bichromate because of its immediacy and delicacy,
qualities frequently associated with drawing. As a process it was flexible to handle, and the
sensitised formula could be applied by the controlled gestures of a brush and was well suited

to paper. It has been said of gum printing, that Perhaps the most revolutionary means by which
photography could convey the impression of the artists hand was the versatile gum-bichromate
method in which the print itself could be altered.31 I also chose carbon because it was transferable
onto a diverse range of supports, such as wood, metal, opal glass, plate glass, ivory and paper.
It had the added benefit of an extensive tonal range, in contrast to gum bichromate that had a
more limited range. The organic, water-soluble constituents of these pigment systems,
gelatine, gum arabic, pigment and sugar, were virtually identical to ones used in drawing and
painting, which made them a suitable framework from which to explore the notion of Drawing
with Light. These pigment processes were considered to be the most permanent organic
photographic systems to have evolved in the history of photography.
A further reason I chose to work with carbon was that it was a water based system, requiring
only water to develop and fix the carbon image. Though potassium bichromate had
carcinogenic properties, I felt that used in small quantities and with proper health and safety
procedures in place, it was less hazardous than silver based chemicals, which had affected my
health in the past.
Gum bichromate32 and carbon33 shared a fundamental characteristic with fine art in they were
popular amongst artists and photographers wanting to investigate a more painterly approach
to photography, or to create permanent fine art reproductions. At the height of its use, during
the late 19th century and into the early years of the 20th century, carbon was used to make
permanent quality reproductions, in monochrome or colour, of paintings, drawings and
photographs from important museum collections. As a result, carbon printing enabled the
archives to be exposed to a much wider audience. These permanent pigment processes were
particularly suited to the reproduction of old master drawings, where colours could be
matched identically with the original. These reproductions were also produced onto quality
rag papers that could be manufactured to closely resemble the originals. Conversely, gum
bichromate was flexible and immediate, and enabled artists or photographers to manipulate
the surface texture of their images to imitate drawings in much the same way that photogravure
was extensively used to manipulate tones, soften or texturise an image for artistic effect.

From their early literature, it was interesting to note that The Autotype Company34 produced
and sold a matt surface, single transfer carbon paper in 1899 for Auto-Crayon Enlargements.
Permanent photographs on drawing paper as a basis for work in crayon, watercolour, &c..35 They
were clearly aware of the potential uses for carbon as an aid to artists. The availability of this
paper indicated that artists used these papers to establish a faint photographic ground from
which drawings in pencil, pastel or paint were built up, resulting in artworks that had little to
no visible photographic basis36. This technique was also applied to opal glass, not unlike the
papers mentioned above. A carbon image transferred to opal was also worked up into a
painting (Figure 5).
Figure 5. Durkoop, Portrait of a child (circa 19th century) Opalotype, Carbon image on glass, painted in colour by
hand, C26/D11, National Museum of Photography, Film & Television, Bradford
Due to the less sensitive characteristics of chromium salts, gum bichromate, carbon and other
numerous historical processes were exposed to sunlight by contact printing37. Alphonse
Poitevins 1855 patent on pigment printing did describe the use of a camera obscura for direct
exposure onto a sensitised surface38; however this method did not produce successful results.
Conversely, I did locate early technical literature describing industrial methods of projection
and enlargement by The Autotype Company39 and one patented by Frank O. Sullivan in the
United States40 onto collotype and carbon plates. This would have necessitated the

construction of specialist enlargers, using a very powerful 5oo watt High Pressure Mercury
Vapour lamp.
The sun is the most effective source of ultra violet light; however, it is not an easy resource to
control as it is subject to the vagaries of momentary and seasonal climatic conditions. For this
reason, I created two alternative sources of ultra violet in order to examine the properties of
carbon: Mercury Vapour Sun Lamps (Figure 6) and Low-Pressure Mercury Vapour Discharge Lamps
Black Light Blue Fluorescent Tubes (Figure 7)41. (See Glossary for further information).
Figure 6. Mercury Vapour Sun Lamps Mounted onto the wall
Figure 7. 'Black Light Blue' Fluorescent Tubes Low-Pressure Mercury Vapour Discharge Lamps
Using the sun and the two artificial light sources, it was my intention to explore gum
bichromate and carbon, using the single transfer method. I was particularly keen to examine
the diversity and suitability of supports, such as glass, paper and metal, for the transference of
images. With no previous experience of working with these processes, I focused the initial
phase of the research on developing chemical and technical skills in the studio. Once the basic
principles of the two chromium processes had been mastered, I intended to explore each in
relation to Drawing with Light. This exploration involved mark making, texture, masking, tracing,
editing, layering and erasing and using filters to reveal the visible and invisible characteristics of
natural and artificial light. The filters and the actions used to generate a mark or a trace onto
sensitized pigmented tissues were my drawing tools from which a framework for Drawing with
Light would be developed. From this a taxonomy would emerge, one that distinctly linked
drawing to photography and the pencil of light to a philosophy on light.

2 : 1 P r o t o - P h o t o g r a p h y 42 a n d O p t i c s
Photography has a complex history, but one fact is certain, the desire43 to conceive the new
art of photography came primarily from a wish to draw nature in its perfection. Photography
became an integral tool for the fine arts and sciences from its beginnings in 1839 and continues
to the present day. Its photo-chemical properties were discovered, however, and applied to
the field of optics and chemistry as early as the17th century44.
Of the numerous categories of light sensitive substances, three belonged to the silver halides;
others included plant dyestuffs, platinum chloride, iron salts, bichromates, bitumen of Judea,
resin from pine trees and molluscan dyes from the Mediterranean sea snail Murex Brandaris45.
By the mid 1830s the complete roster of compounds that were to be used in photography in the
coming years had been identified and characterised as undergoing changes when exposed to light46.
Figure 8. Equilateral Dispersing Prism
Carl Wilhelm Scheele, an 18th century Swedish chemist published the first recorded account of
the effects of the solar spectrum onto powdered chloride of silver on paper47. A prism was
used to split the colours of the spectrum and he was able to observe the effects of the violet
48
rays on the chloride. With the intervention of a prism to fracture light (Figure 8) and
consequently to observe its chemical effects onto a light sensitive substance, Scheele
established a precedent in the use of photo-chemistry for the study of optics particularly the
solar spectrum. In the context of this research into Drawing with Light, this is significant,

because it is the first published account on the application of light to depict the properties of
light.
As a consequence of Scheeles investigations further work on the solar spectrum was
commenced by other researchers49. A taxonomy for light was emerging, founded on Sir Isaac
Newtons discovery of the visible spectrum as obtained through a glass prism in 1666, through
to the discovery of invisible rays in the spectrum50. These invisible rays were called, the
chemical rays to differentiate them from the luminous rays which are chemically far less effective51.
What many of the early chemists had in common was a desire to investigate the nature and
material substance of light and by implication the nature of the light sensitive substance itself,
by applying chloride, nitrate and oxides of silver to their experiments. In contrast, Elizabeth
Fulhame, a late eighteenth century chemist and her contemporary Thomas Wedgwood (1771
1805) sought to apply the light sensitive and reductive properties of metals to industry52.
In her publication of 1794, An Essay on Combustion: With a View to a New Art of Dying and
Painting53 (Figure 9), Mrs. Fulhame stated, that she conceived the idea for the use of chemical
processes in making cloths of gold, silver and other metals as early as 1780. After extensive
tests were undertaken to explain the reduction of metals by gases, phosphorus, sulphur,
charcoal, acids and light followed by further tests on the oxygenation of these same
combustible bodies, Fulhame was able to discount some widely accepted theories on oxidation
and reduction54. Finding the experiments could not be explained on any theory hitherto advanced, I
was led to form an opinion different from that of M. Lavoifier, and other great names.55 However,
the effect of light on metals and the oxygenation of light itself were not singled out as
significant or distinct from the other experiments. Her methodology was considered modern
and she had the vision to recognise the potential uses of her chemical invention to the arts. It
is in the preface of her document56 that Fulhame describes the application of her investigations
to painting and geography. I found the invention was applicable to painting, and would alfo
contribute to facilitate the ftudy of geography: for I have applied it to fome maps, the rivers of which I
reprefented in filver, and the cities in gold. The rivers appearing, as it were, in filver ftreams, have a

moft pleafing effect on the fight, and relieve the eye of that painful fearch for the courfe, and origin, of
rivers, the minuteft branches of which can be fplendidly reprefented in this way.57 John P. McElhone
who writes about the application of photography to science, explains Fulhames interest
further by stating that the behaviour of metals and metal compounds exposed to light was of great
interest to the textile dyeing industry, since many of the dye mordants (fixatives) used were metallic
compounds. Researchers such as Louise Berthollet and Elizabeth Ful1hame examined chemical and
light effects on metallic dye compounds in terms of oxidation and reduction, a thoroughly modern
approach to the interpretation of chemical reactions.58
Figure 9. Mrs. Elizabeth Fulhame, An Essay on Combustion with a view to a New Art of Dying and Painting Wherein
the Phlogisitic and Antiphlogistic Hypotheses are Proved Erroneous (1794). Printed for the author by J. Cooper,
London.
The chapter, Reduction of Metals by Light59, in Fulhames publication was focused significantly on
the methodology, process and analysis of her chemical investigations. In these experiments,
Fulhame soaked pieces of silk in aqueos solutions of nitro-muriate of gold and nitrate of silver.
Depending on the experiment, these solutions were made up of water, alcohol or ether.
These silks were kept in the dark for up to 3 months, observed from time to time and
subsequently exposed to sunlight. Fulhame was keen to discover the effect of water or
moisture, as well as light, to the recuction of these metals. She discovered that water was a
neceffary condition in thefe reductions by light60. She was able to provide clear evidence of how
metals were reduced by light, but she failed to grasp the potential application of these findings,
to the depiction of nature by photo-graphic means.
Her research was described by a contemporary, as an invention [that] would make an era in the
arts61. This new era did not occur, and Mrs. Fulhame fell into obscurity, however, her indirect

though significant contribution to the early history of photography was not forgotten. In
contrast to his contemporaries in the 19th century, Sir John Herschel (1792-1871) made key
reference to her work, acknowledging her contribution to photography, in his first paper on
the subject in 183962. As a chemist and researcher, Mrs. Fulhame facilitated a new
understanding of the reactions of metallic compounds to light, as a visionary she identified a
clear potential for a new art but it was left to Thomas Wedgwood, a few years later, to make
a case for the application of metallic compounds in the production of art.
Wedgwood stood out from his predecessors because he was the first person to actively
investigate silver salts for the production of images: making delineations of all such objects as are
possessed of a texture partly opaque and partly transparent63. These were to be derived by
means of contact printing and the camera obscura. His account of these researches was
observed and duly published by a colleague and friend, Humphrey Davy, in the Journals of the
Royal Institution in 1802, entitled An Acount of a Method of Copying Paintings upon Glass, and of
Making Profiles, by the Agency of Light Upon Nitrate of Silver64. Wedgwood was unsuccessful in
obtaining permanence in his visual experiments, Nothing but a method of preventing the
unshaded parts of the delineation from being coloured by exposure to the day is wanting, to render
the process as useful as it is elegant65. Having had his work published, Wedgwoods precedence
in the early history of photography was acknowledged by those who followed66.
The most significant of all investigations for the use of silver salts in the study of physical optics
to this research into drawing with light, was the work of Thomas Young, who played a leading
role in establishing the concept of the undulatory nature of light (as distinct from the Newtonian
Corpuscular concept)67. In November 1803, he was awarded the Bakarian Lecture by the Royal
Society for his Experiments and Calculations Relative to Physical Optics. In this paper under
experiment VI, with the subtitle Experiments of the Dark Rays of Ritter, Young, quite possibly
motivated by the work of Wedgwood in 1802, demonstrated the physical presence of ultra
violet rays in the prismatic spectrum by obtaining an image of Newtons Rings between two
plates of glass. He then projected these by means of a solar microscope onto a paper dipped in
a solution of nitrate of silver placed at the distance of about nine inches from the microscope. In the

course of an hour, portions of three dark rings were very distinctly visible, much smaller than the
brightest rings of the coloured image, and coinciding very nearly in their dimensions, with the rings of
violet light that appeared upon the interposition of violet glass68.
Figure 10 and Figure 11 are examples of this visual phenomenon. He goes on to describe the
importance of using a heliostate69, which would move, in keeping with the motion of the sun,
enabling a consistent and strong exposure to be obtained. Young concluded that the
experiment however, in its present state, is sufficient to complete the analogy of the invisible with the
visible rays and to show that they are equally liable to the general law which is the principal subject of
this paper70. The visual results of the demonstration would have been destroyed by the
continuing action of sunlight, but this did not appear to concern Young.
Figure 10. Leopoldo Nobili, Metallochrome (1826).Thin layers of lead oxide create interference patterns in the same
way that Newton's rings are produced by thin films of air. This is a method of electrolytically depositing these layers of
lead on a silver base, Science Museum Display, London.
Figure 11. Newton's Rings, film of oil on water.
Commencing with Scheeles powder experiment with the solar spectrum, Young proceeded
with the first example of scientific photo-graphy / light-drawing to trace an image of light he had
generated with the aid of a solar microscope. This was not simply an observation of light; it
was an intervention, a concept in using evidence to demonstrate a theory. This enabled
depictions of circular spectrums of light by the action of sunlight. This depiction is of particular
interest to this research, because it is one of the first examples that show how light can be
translated into a circular spectrum. There does not appear to be any evidence for subsequent
use of silver salts for optical investigations. Nonetheless, Youngs demonstration was a unique
turning point in the proto-history of photography. It took thirty six years before photography
as a discipline was invented, but the principle was clearly in existence and applied to optics by

a limited number of individuals for research and demonstration. Youngs demonstration
undoubtedly established a precedent for a new genre of scientific photography. An art form
that was not predicated on the precepts or taxonomy of the fine arts and which flourished
quietly alongside the mainstream application of the new pictorial art form.
Figure 12. William Crookes, Polarised light through crystals, misattributed to Talbot (1851).Albumen Positive Print,
1937-2513/3, National Museum of Photography, Film & Television, Bradford.
Figure 13. William Henry Fox Talbot, Polarized light through crystals (Circa 1840-42). Calotype Positive, a Facsimile of
a drawing, 1937-2508, National Museum of Photography, Film & Television, Bradford.
Significant though Youngs work is on the use of photo-chemistry to demonstrate the use of
light to draw an image of light, it is William Henry Fox Talbot who deserves credit for being
the first scientist to trace a permanent drawing of light, derived by the action of sunlight, in his
work on crystals. This is one aspect of Talbots oeuvre that has remained largely un-
investigated by historians, until recently71; his large body of experiments on light. Central to
these experiments is his invention of the polarizing microscope72 in 1834, leading to his
seminal research on The Optical Phenomena of Certain Crystals73 and Further Observations on the
Optical Phenomena of Crystals74. Both were published in 1836 by the Royal Society, for which he
was awarded the Bakerian Prize from the Royal Society in recognition of his achievements.
Talbot successfully traced these patterns of polarised light as photogenic drawings onto light
sensitive papers, circa 1840.
When these 19th century phenomena of polarisation, (Figure 12) and (Figure 13) are seen in
their original context impressed by natures hand 75, they are seen as representing a more
truthful and faithful application of light to depict visual representations of visible and invisible
light, than occurred by any other photogenic drawing presented in 1839. As patterns of

abstraction they were also aesthetically distinct, and unlike any other contemporary pictorial
depictions. A clear argument will therefore be made for the intrinsic relationship of drawing to
photography and the application of photo-chemistry to the process of tracing and mark making
inherent in drawing.
The proto-photographic notion of natures hand working a pencil is an artifice, certainly an
analogy, and one that raises many questions about the perceptions of a 19th century public at
large, and the social context in which these metaphors were applied. Unwittingly the authors
of proto-photographic depictions of light became the founders of scientific photography as an
art genre today; contemporary evidence of this can be seen in such fields as spectroscopy76.
This is quite separate from other strands of scientific photography. The use of photography for
the study of light had been, in the main, marginalised by photographic historians until 1984. In
this year, the first major historical publication of scientific photography was presented by the
physicist Jon Darius in Beyond Vision. It was to be another thirteen years before a significant
scholarly appraisal was undertaken on the subject, resulting in the publication Beauty of Another
Order77 to accompany a major exhibition of work in Canada. However, the phenomena of
polarisation that Talbot discovered in 1834 and which he traced onto light sensitive paper in
circa 1840, continued to be overlooked by this publication and by further historians.
Thomas Young (1773-1829), Henry Fox Talbot, Sir John Herschel and William Crookes (1832-
1919) are just a selection of early pioneers working in the field of light during the 19th century.
Their advances in the application of silver salts to optics, set in motion a powerful new tool,
enabling the methodologies of scientific practice to be transformed. Phenomena were no
longer just observed, they were permanently traced onto light sensitive substrates,
investigated, identified and measured. Here was a new genre, distinct from pictorial
representation; it was the art of evidence: scientific photography. But it was also an Art-
Science a sophisticated photographic tool that was as much an investigative tool in the hand of
scientists as it was for visual artists of the 20th and 21st century, as the object and subject of
artistic research in the field of light.

2:2 Henry Fox Talbots Dame Nature and her Pencil of Light
2:2:1 Introduction
The Pencil of Nature, published by William Henry Fox Talbot in 1844, was as understated as it
was significant. It was a contradiction in terms, because it alluded to a romantic neo-classical
notion of dame nature 78 as a divine entity able to create as if by magic her own reflection. In
Talbots own words a person unacquainted with the process, if told that nothing of all this was
executed by hand, must imagine that one has at ones call the Genius of Aladdins Lamp. And, indeed,
it may almost be said, that this is something of the same kind. It is a little bit of magic realised:- of
natural magic79. The phenomenon which I have now briefly mentioned appears to me to partake of
the character of the marvellous, almost as much as any fact which physical investigation has yet
brought to our knowledge80. The notion of natural magic was quite contrary to science, as
typified by the chemical foundations of photography, which evolved in an era of industrial
ascendancy.
Talbots pre-eminence in establishing the foundations of modern day photography in 1839 is
set against a back ground of social evolution, the emergence of mechanisation in industry and
scientific enlightenment in the fields of engineering, chemistry, physical optics and natural
philosophy. Like small cogs in a big wheel, each new discovery and invention paved the way
for new enquiry into every facet of 19th century society; photography being no exception. To
comprehend Talbots motivation and choice of metaphor in describing The Pencil of Nature,
one must embrace the social context in which he worked and thought, evidenced by his
seminal work in light, philology and etymology.

Talbot was respected by his peers throughout his life. He was highly educated in the arts,
sciences, literature, ancient history and languages. He was conversant in French and German,
and could read and write in Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Sanskrit, Hieroglyphics and Cuneiform. He
was a man of his times, capable of lateral thinking; science and mathematics in one instant,
poetry, theology and mythology in the next. One part of his mind functioned in terms of ideal
categories and sought metaphysical relief in the metaphorical properties of language, whereas anther
part worked on the basis of historical evidence and valued hard facts81. He left a legacy of scientific,
mathematical, artistic and philological researches, some of which made a major contribution to
the foundation of modernity. Talbots contribution to photography is clearly established, it is
certainly not the intention here to reiterate that accepted history.
2:2:2 The Ontology of Photography
Born in 1800 Talbot grew up in an era of transition, during which modern science was
emerging in Europe. He was to play a major role in its emergence; a young man influenced by
his extensive travels in Europe, by his eminent family and social connections, and by having the
best education a young gentleman could have. However, contrary to his scientific scholarship
Talbots philosophical outlook was retrospective as a result of his neo-classical education and
interests. As a result of his scholarship in mathematics and the sciences, Talbot was invited to
become a member of the Royal Society. It was here that he came to meet many of the great
figures of the scientific enlightenment; such as Sir John Herschel (1792-1871), presiding as
Secretary.
Herschel, a leading light in the field of natural sciences, optics, astronomy and photography
82
wrote Preliminary Discourse in 1830 as a guide to scientists in various fields of study, for the
classification and nomenclature of the natural world; one of the most influential methodologies of
nineteenth century natural philosophy83. Herschels Preliminary Discourse had a fundamental
influence on key 19th century figures. Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882) was one such figure.
He published the Origin of Species in 1859, which sent shock waves through 19th century
sensibilities. Darwin acknowledged Herschels influence by sending him a copy of his book with
a note I cannot resist the temptation of showing in this subtle manner my respect, and the deep

obligation, which I owe your introduction to Natural Philosophy. Scarcely anything in my life made so
deep an impression on me: it made me wish to try to add my mite to the accumulated outres of
natural knowledge.84 Herschels reputation was established amongst his peers. He became an
acknowledged point of reference in the field of scientific nomenclature 85, a position of strength
from which he was to influence the pioneers of photography in their choice of names that best
described their independent discoveries. Talbot was certain to have read Preliminary Discourse,
for he had a warm relationship with Herschel, with whom he corresponded for much of his
life; they had met several years before the publication of the book.
The word Photography was suggested to Talbot by Sir John Herschel, who also communicated
this suggestion to the Royal Society in his 1839 paper on photography, (it appears to me that
the term adopted in the title of this note may on the whole be most appropriately applied)-by Mssr.
Niepce and Daguerre in France and by Mr Talbot in this country86.
The etyma of the word photography are phos, or photos in the genitive, meaning light or of light
and -graphos meaning writing/drawing. They derive from Greek and can be understood as
drawing, or writing, with light. The Neoplatonist, Plotinus, in the 3rd century, described the eye
as a microcosmic sun (Enneads); a metaphor that is analogous with a camera lens, suggesting
the ability of the eye to draw with light onto the retina of the eye, transcending the material
form by means of perception. The word sciagraphy in contrast, is the antitheses of the word
photography and predates it by several years; scia, meaning shadow and graphos meaning
writing/drawing; therefore the process is one of drawing with shadows. An equally pertinent
analogy can be made with Plato's "Allegory of the Cave" (Republic: Book VII) 87 ; when we look
around and perceive the sensible, material objects around us, we are simply looking at shadows
- i.e. imperfect representations of the Ideal types, central to Platos philosophy. Our visual
perception of physical form is made possible with the existence of light and shadow, however
this perception goes beyond the physical realm, it can also be read in the cosmological sense:
analogised as good and evil.

The words photos, scia and graphos describe a deceptively simple action, as observed by those
who invented the terms, light drawing and shadow drawing; the difference in the terms used is in
their attribution. One is describing the transformative action of light and the other the reaction.
By using the word graphos in both terms, Talbot and Herschel bring attention to the physical
action of light in the photo chemical process. If this terminology is linked to the word dragan88
as in to draw or to trace, then the action invoked is a literal dragging of sun light across a light
sensitive surface. This action is consistent with the fact that the earth rotates around the sun
and therefore light rays are never static, but in a constant state of motion, making this analogy
all the more pertinent.
Photogenic Drawing on the other hand, describes an alternate notion; the etymon of the word
genic is the suffix -gen and comes from the Greek gens, which means born89. So Talbot may
have been describing his images as drawings born of light; instantaneous, spontaneous and
revelatory are implicit in his description of light; in contrast to the considered act inherent in
mark making and tracing. By association Talbot brings these notions together, implying that
drawing can also be spontaneous and revelatory; a proposition advocated by Phillip Rawson in
Drawing: The Appreciation of the Arts90, he describes drawing as numinous, making the inference
that drawing can be a means of attaining inner contemplation through the creative act, the
doing, in that a state of numen or being can be attained: a state suffused with the divine.
As an author and photographer, Chris Townsend presents a valuable discourse on the
ontology of photography in his introduction to Into the Light91, by alluding to the religious
undertones apparent in the nomenclature of photography. By proposing that nature as the
object which spontaneously generates its own image without the intervening agency of human hands,
these pioneers were essentially inferring that light was synonymous with God, made manifest
in the natural world. Therefore this omnipotence had materialised direct representations of its
own image, analogous with a mirror. Titus Burckhart, an authority on the history of sacred art
and architecture from the East and the West, elaborates on the significance of the mirror,
when he writes that the mirror is the most immediate symbol of spiritual contemplation and indeed
of knowledge (gnosis) in general, for it portrays the union of subject and object92. This union is

evident in Talbots investigations into polarised light through crystals. Townsend continues to
draw parallels between 19th century ontological notions of the self representation of nature
and the fantasy of the physical, representational manifestation of nature and/or god that produces
first those objects (diipetes)of pantheistic religion, and which later became known as acheiropoetoi
not made by hand within early Judeo-Christian culture. The scriptural associations of acheiropoetos
with divinity, permanence and the elision of physical contact is later accommodated within western
traditions through the story (and reproduction) of the Sudarium, or Veronicas veil.
The spontaneous imprint of Christs face on a veil reaches mythic proportions with the
existence of the Shroud of Turin and the longstanding speculation over its authenticity (Figure
14 & Figure 15).
Figure 14. The Shroud of Turin (Circa 1325).Cloth, restored in 2002
Figure 15. The Shroud of Turin - Back (Circa 1325).Cloth, restored in 2002
As an historian, Mike Weaver is singular in his biographical appraisal of Talbot, for unveiling
the philosopher / poet in the man; he likens Talbot to the figure of Diogenes of Sinope, a
Greek philosopher from the 4-3rd century BC, who became an iconic figure for the European
Enlightenment in the late eighteenth century. He was often depicted holding a lantern;

emblematic of the Hermetic tradition; its light symbolizing scientific, political and religious
truth. The stoic philosopher was emblematic to him of the mystical rather than sceptical chemist who
delighted in revealing what lay hidden in darkness93. Weaver depicts Talbot not merely as a
scientist and natural philosopher, but as a man deeply influenced by his fascination for myth,
biblical history and philology; who created a visual aesthetic, often staged but understated with
symbolism; this was particularly so in The Pencil of Nature. To sample his mythological studies in
relation to his English Etymologies, through to his multitudinous writings on Assyrian Cylinders and
inscriptions, is to glimpse Talbots mind at its full creative stretch and shows him to have been capable
of the most imaginative metaphorical thought94
In attempting to define the ontology of photographic nomenclature, within a broader social
context, multiple meanings begin to emerge; myth, romantic aspirations and symbolism begin
to attain a greater degree of importance, to rival scientific logic and invention. In keeping with
the trend for neo-classical idealism and enlightenment, Talbot devoted much of his early
scientific research to the study of light, culminating in his independent discovery of
photography. This corresponded with his philosophical scholarship and philological discourse
into the nature of light as divine, as evidenced by The Pencil of Nature and his associated texts.
2:2:3 The Taxonomy of Drawing with Light
Talbot was first and foremost a natural philosopher and scientist; with a vision beyond the
ordinary to see the potential applications of his discoveries, particularly to science, art and
industry. By adopting the taxonomy of fine art to describe the action of light to draw, trace and
to sketch, and by applying neo-classical precepts to the nomenclature of photo-chemical
experiments, begun in 1834, Talbot presented us with Photogenic Drawings and The Pencil of
Nature. Implicit in these was the association he made with the art of drawing. His initial
commentaries on discovering photography were sensationalised by his analogous references
to natural magic. He wrote in his 1839 paper to the Royal Society, Some Account of the Art of
Photogenic Drawing, or the Process by Which Natural Objects May be Made to Delineate Themselves,
Without the Aid of the Artist's Pencil that The phenomenon which I have now briefly mentioned
appears to me to partake of the character of the marvellous, almost as much as any fact which

95
physical investigation has yet brought to our knowledge A person unacquainted with the
process, if told that nothing of all this was executed by and must imagine that one has at ones call the
genius of Aladdins Lamp. And indeed, it may almost be said, that this is something of the same kind.
It is a little bit of magic realised!- of natural magic 96. Though wonder was tempered by scientific
rigour and understanding, Talbot did not lose sight of the miracle of nature to engender life
into his chemically prepared papers; indeed he exploited the evocation of myth, which he
disseminated through his articles and publications, yet he always grounded the metaphor by
meticulously describing the scientific procedures involved in making the images.
Public consciousness during the early part of the 19th century was one of pure wonder and at
times disbelief; an assertion that is documented in a review of Talbots Sun Pictures, published
in 1846, By the public these sun pictures are still misapprehended still misnomered; we shall
accordingly in the notice show what they are not, and endeavour to explain what they are, as it is yet
far from generally accepted that they result from the action of light alone, and are not produced by
some (Leger-de-main) of Art. On their first appearance, artists who were not as yet cognizant of the
discovery were utterly at a loss to pronounce upon them they could, at once, understand that they
were charactered by nothing like human handling; there was no resemblance to (touch), for the eye to
rest upon they resembled nothing that had ever been done, either in the broad or narrow styles of
water-colour washing they had nothing in common with mezzotinto nothing with Lithography
nothing with any known method of engraving. By the artist all this was determinable but still the main
question was unresolved. By the public they were considered drawings, or some modifications of
Lithography or mezzotinto and this is still extensively believed. It cannot be understood that these
veritable (Phoebi Labores) that no two are exactly alike, and that to copy them surpasses all human
ingenuity, in as much as they are a transfer to paper of the masses and tracery of light and shade by
a means utterly inimitable by the ordinary resources of Art. On every print or plate, of what kind so
ever, the trace of manipulation is perceptible; but an examination of a sun picture by a magnifying
glass serves only to render the problem more difficult of solution, if the mind of the inquirer be
occupied with Art without reference to Nature. 97

The initial impact of the new art of photogenic drawings on paper on the British public was
made even more significant by the simultaneous discovery in France of photography on metal;
the Daguerrotype by Joseph Nicephore Niepce (1765-1833) and Louis Jacques Mande
Daguerre (1787-1851). No vocabulary or taxonomy existed to describe the action of light to
replicate nature, an art of so great singularity, which employs processes entirely new, and having no
analogy to anything in use before98. No wonder then that Talbot should reference the
terminology of drawing, by implying that natures hand was synonymous with the human hand
to undertake the act of drawing, let nature substitute her own inimitable pencil for the imperfect,
tedious and almost hopeless attempt of copying a subject so intricate99. Michael Faraday
embellished this notion when he stated to the Royal Institution on the 25th January 1839, on
presenting Talbots photogenic images at the popular Friday evening lecture during the
customary library exhibits100, that no human hand has hitherto traced such lines as these drawings
display, and what man may hereafter do, now that dame nature has become his drawing mistress, it is
impossible to predict101. One cannot fail to acknowledge the manner in which the taxonomy of
this new art was conceived out of the fine art conventions of an older tradition.
Sciagraphy 102 was another term devised by Talbot in his notebooks, which was not adopted by
him, but conceived of four years prior to his public disclosure. Larry Schaaf expounds on his
choice of terms in Out of the Shadows, Talbot chose his words very conservatively. Photogenic
drawing, employing light, was obvious. Sciagraphy, the art of depicting objects through their shadows,
reflects a sense of wonder about an extension of vision beyond the ordinary a depiction that serves
to replace a physical object 103. This attribution is by no means lost, indeed the properties and
characteristics of both light and shadow were intrinsic to the photochemical processes at
work then, as they are now in our digital era, and as they have been to drawing throughout
the ages. Within the traditions of fine art, these characteristics would be termed chiaroscuro:
the distribution and contrast of light and shade in a painting or drawing. Photography and the
fine art of drawing, painting and printmaking were all fundamentally concerned with the
depiction of a three dimensional form in a two dimensional plane; they therefore shared the
same pictorial concerns.

For Talbot it was his lack of proficiency in drawing, even with the aid of a camera lucida, which
drove him to undertake such investigations. With the pronouncement of photography in 1839,
numerous claims for priority were made104 from as far a field as Brazil, Germany and Spain,
many of them driven by the desire to fix the image of a camera obscura.
Figure 16. Henry Fox Talbot, Erica Mutablilis (1839) Photogenic Drawing Contact Negative, a present to Sir John
Herschel, Inventory Number 92949. The Museum of the History of Science, Oxford
Camera-less images obtained by means of contact printing and depicted by the action of light
alone, were universally referred to as drawings or sketches in that they were understood to be
drawn by natures hand (Figure 16). In The Pencil of Nature and associated papers Talbot
continued to apply the taxonomy of fine art to describe his experiments, by using such words
as hue, delineations, opaque, transparent, harmony of colour, shades of colour, being
coloured, tone, chiaroscuro and composition, and in some instances in the chemical
preparations onto paper as sizing papers. This association with drawing can be traced
through photographys predecessor: the camera obscura. By the 19th century, the predominant
motivation for photo-chemical experimentation had been the desire to make permanent the
modulated images of a camera obscura.
2:2:4 A Philosophical Concept
The most transitory of things a shadow the proverbial emblem of all that is fleeting and
momentary may be fettered by the spells of our natural magic, and may be fixed for ever in the
position which it seemed only destined for a single instant to occupy.
William Henry Fox Talbot105

Talbot briefly indulges in the romantic notion of magic, by adopting the analogy The Pencil of
Nature; light is mystified as a divine entity capable of self representation, which leads to the
question, was this just a flight of fancy or a more truthful reflection of Talbots theological
motivation? He conceived the notion of light as omnipotent and autonomous, with the power
to reveal the invisible, to engender life and to illuminate the human soul. Talbot presented the
chemical property of light alongside a ubiquitous notion, that light is synonymous with nature
and nature with God a concept that was still prevalent in 19th century discourse.
Ian Jeffrey, who published a significant appraisal for an alternative history of photography, cites
Talbots English Etymologies published in 1847106, Talbots vision, as expressed in the English
Etymologies, was of an originating moment in which primal things, the sun in particular, gave rise to
complex ideas107. This theme is echoed in Talbots 1845 publication titled Sun Pictures in
Scotland108, published directly prior to his English Etymologies, Talbot himself always insisted that
the sun was the artist performing the drawing. He called his works Sun Pictures, and asserted that the
suns work was far greater than his109 Light therefore was not only the subject and object of
Talbots photo-chemical work, it was also central to his philosophical perspective. To Talbot,
the ontology of language was as important as light and shadow were in making manifest the
visual world of form and colour. Ian Jeffrey goes on to say Talbots concept as expressed in
English Etymologies was marked by a feeling for continuity. There was an originating moment, or
coming to consciousness in the presence of the sun. Thereafter language and consciousness evolved,
slowly drawing away from that primal moment when things were thought. Talbot even imagined
himself as re-enacting the movement of culture and language in his own work110. His life long
commitment to Biblical Archaeology, Egyptology and Assyriology informed and no doubt
influenced Talbots personal theology. In Diogenes with a Camera111, Mike Weaver suggests that
Talbots English Etymologies112 virtually amounts to a personal statement. It is no coincidence
that Talbot alludes to the centrality of the sun to the cosmology of ancient civilizations, when
considering The Pencil of Nature, all myths, all images, all gods, eventually connected to the
sun113.

It is fitting then that Talbots obituary written in the Daily Telegraph in 1877 should contain
the following epitaph
The little picture somewhat puzzled the inquisitive, since with all their lengthened experience, they
were fain to confess that they had never seen anything of the same kind anywhere elsewhat
human hand had executed this curious performance? The artist came to be known afterwards well-
nigh simultaneously in England and in France. His name was SOL, otherwise PHOEBUS, sometimes
called APOLLO, and thousands of years since a blind poet dubbed him the Lord of the Silver Bow.
He was, in short, the Sun, whose magic pencil had been pressed into the service of an ingenious
mortal a modest English gentleman named FOX TALBOT, who died a few days since at the good old
age of seventy-seven- and the sallow little vignette in the opticians window was one of the earliest
known specimens of that which was subsequently called the Talbotype. It was the infant HERCULES.
It was photography in its cradle114.
2:2:5 This Art-Science
The divide between the desire for pictorial representation and scientific enquiry was clearly
evident during the 19th century and led to uncertainty about the classification of photography.
The French critic Francis Wey (1812-1882), while puzzling over whether photography was an
art or a science, decided that it was a kind of hyphen between the two115. Meanwhile the term
art-science was coined as early as 1847 in the Athenaeum, by one author who wrote we
have attended a meeting of a dozen gentlemen amateurs [the Calotype Club in London] associated
together for the purpose of pursuing their experiments in this art-science (we scarcely know the word
fittest completely to designate it116. Nonetheless, the common ground for both strands of the
new art was the means by which the natural world of visible and invisible form could be
observed and documented. As an art form, this genre of scientific photography was not fully
recognised until the 1850s under the guidance of newly formed Museums of art, natural
History and ethnography [that] had sprung up in Europe and North America in the 19th century with
unprecedented rapidityThe importance of maintaining visual records of works of art and artefacts,
including fossil specimens, vertebrate specimens and insects, was quickly understood by these
institutions117 .

2:2:5 Evolving Trends in Fine Art Photography
Figure 17. William Henry Fox Talbot, (1840-44). Salt print, 0000235, Lacock Abbey Collection
Figure 18. Rosamond Talbot (1840-44). Watercolour superimposed on a photograph, 00001136 Lacock Abbey
Collection
As a new art form, photography with an essentially distinct set of precepts was not fully
advocated, though it had clearly been practiced, until after the Great Exhibition of the Works of
Great Industry of All Nations in 1851118 at Hyde Park, which took place within the newly
constructed Crystal Palace. This fervent interest in photography was followed soon after by
the formation of the Photographic Society in 1852119, championed by Roger Fenton (1819-
1869). In England he was a catalyst for change, intent on demonstrating the power and
potential of the new medium. Fenton clearly understood that the practice of photography must
change if it was to keep pace with the rapidly changing culture. It must shed its status as quaint
curiosity or commercial service and transform itself into a thoroughly modern profession that both
expressed and responded to the concerns of English society120.
Until that juncture, photography had fallen into two distinct divisions: the commercial
practitioner of portraiture versus gentleman amateur. The former photographed purely for profit,
the latter for private delectation121. These divisions were fragmented further by
artist/photographers, within mainstream photographic circles, who advocated and practiced
the emulation of fine art conventions through composition, choice of subject, style, lighting and
fabrication; even by painting elements of a photograph in colour by hand, as was so commonly
seen in Daguerreotypes. Talbots own family were tempted as many of their peers were, to
use photographs simply as a foundation for a watercolour or drawing122 (Figure 17 & Figure
18). The same was true for painting on canvas123; in 1857 and 1864 a solar enlarging camera

and a solar apparatus were patented124 to pander to this demand for ease of execution. Silver
nitrate coated onto canvas and hand made papers was made widely available for this end.
Photography emulating the conventions of fine art painting was taken to new heights with the
introduction of combination printing, first described in its most basic form, by Hippolyte
Bayard (1801-1887) as a method for adding clouds to landscape scenes in the issue of La
Lumiere in 1851125. It was then developed as a more complex technique and spearheaded by
Oscar G. Rejlander (1813-1875) in his controversial work The Two Ways of Life, exhibited in
1857, and endorsed by Henry Peach Robinson (1830-1901). Robinson laid the foundations of
Pictorialism in his published discourses on photography; also originating the term combination
printing. He contended that the means of producing pictures in our art [photography] are as good
as those of producing paintings in Raphaels time; and nothing but a deep and earnest study is
required to make our pictures rank with the works of the most famous men126. He cited the pre-
eminent artist Sir Joshua Reynolds (1723-1792)127 throughout his Pictorial Effect in
Photography128; Reynolds established an 18th century paradigm for painting, on which Robinson
appeared to model his own teachings. He was, as many of his generation were, painters prior
to their adopting the new art of photography.
The photographic historian Michael Charlesworth, in writing about the White Mythology of
photography, references Hubert Damisch, who suggested, that the lenses chosen for the
projection of images in early photography (out of a pool of lenses potentially infinite in number) were
precisely those that would project images which conformed to pre-existing conventions of perspective
drawing129. Even in relation to optics, this correlation demonstrates the initial efforts of the
new discipline to emulate the principles of the old. However in contrast to this practice,
existing words in the English language were appropriated to infer new meanings such as
negative, positive, burning and dodging130; technical terms normally not associated with the fine
arts, but that became intrinsically associated with photography.

2:3 Photogenic Drawings of Light, derived by the agency of Light
It is not the artist who makes the picture, but the picture which makes ITSELF.
William Henry Fox Talbot February 2nd 1839131
2:3:1 An Introduction
To develop a unique visual aesthetic in this research, for an image derived by the agency of
light, it was essential that historical records be examined to identify precedence and priority.
Direct light/shadow drawings onto photosensitive materials were common in the 19th and 20th
century universally known as Photogenic Drawings and Photograms though variations on these
names were used. Images were derived, in the main, by placing transparent, translucent or
opaque objects onto sensitised surfaces and by manipulating artificial light. Talbots Photogenic
Drawings of lace and leaves and Anna Atkins cyanotypes132 of botanical species are significant
examples from the 19th century. Twentieth century examples in this genre are Man Rays
Rayograms133, Lazlo Moholy-Nagys Photograms134 and Joan Fontcubertas Frotograms and
Haemograms135. Some of these early 20th century artists mistakenly claimed priority for this
methodology. These artists, though significant and well documented, are not the main focus of
this research into Drawing with Light. Their images are more concerned with objects than light.
The intention of this research is to establish a lineage; of practitioners who investigated and
documented the nature of light itself.
In chapter 2:1 Proto-Photography and Optics , I highlighted the existence of a genre of images
formed, not by placing objects directly onto a light sensitive surface, but by fracturing sunlight
with the use of transparent filters, thus revealing inherent hidden characteristics. These
patterns of light were traced onto light sensitive chemicals and papers by scientists in the
course of their investigations into optics and light. The most significant amongst these
scientists was Thomas Young who created the first representation of light formed by the

agency of light onto paper coated with silver nitrate. Though the image produced was not
permanent, this genre of art-science was furthered by William Henry Fox Talbot
approximately thirty years later in his work with crystals and polarised light, for which he was
designated the prestigious Bakarian Lecture from the Royal Society in 1837 for the seminal
work Further Observations on the Optical Phenomena of Crystals136. Talbots attempts to
photograph the optical phenomena of crystals in the early 1840s are some of the first
examples of scientific photography to be produced137. These depictions of polarised light are
highly relevant to this research on Drawing with Light, because they are the first documented
traces of invisible light traced by the agency of light onto paper.
The significance of Talbots images to this research, and those by William Crookes some 10
years later will be outlined here in chapter 2:3. I wish to show that the fundamental principal
of drawing with light, Talbots notion of a pencil of light, originates in the history of optical
science. These images will be presented in the context of developments in scientific
photography, from the early 19th century discoveries of spectral analysis to the groundbreaking
research of the 20th century, in which the refractive properties of light have been used to
depict patterns of light; the most memorable example being the image of DNA.
2:3:2 The Early Science of Light: Prismatic & Spectral Analysis
It is evident that photography owes its existence to scientists in the field of chemistry, physical
optics and the natural sciences, now more commonly known as physics. In optics, light exists
in the visible and invisible realms. The notion that a world exists beyond the visible is as
fascinating as it is essential to existence. In chapter 1:2 Proto-Photography and Optics, Thomas
Young was cited as having produced the first significant demonstration with Newtons Rings
and the salts of silver, the existence of ultra violet rays138. This heralded a new era of enquiry
into optics by photographic means.

Figure 19. Joseph Fraunhofer, Spectrum of the Sun with its absorption lines, (1819)
<http://www.aal.lu/SPECIAL_TOPIC/6/> [accessed 30th July 2005]
Light from the sun is absorbed on a molecular level by minerals, metals, liquids and gases. The
level of absorption is dependent on many factors, such as colour, density and composition
resulting in the unique existence of a light frequency in each individual atom. This frequency is
not unlike a fingerprint and is absorbed and simultaneously emitted, enabling scientific
identification and measurement. It is commonly termed as electromagnetic radiation. The
absorption and emission patterns of a substance can be observed as dark or coloured lines
respectively. The dark absorption lines were first observed in the solar spectrum by William
Hyde Wollaston139 in 1802 and subsequently independently discovered and mapped out by
Joseph Fraunhofer140 in 1819 (Figure 19). He was a Bavarian scientist and close associate of
William Henry Fox Talbot. In 1824 Talbot discovered coloured emission lines, which had been
first observed by Thomas Melvill in Scotland, in 1752141. Talbot may or may not have been
aware of Melvills observations. The vertical absorption lines set against the coloured emission
lines were a pictorial mapping of light and visually distinctive. These visual qualities organically
emerged as significant sequential patterns, in practical investigations of light and shadow, in this
research Drawing with Light.
In 1824/25 Talbot demonstrated the existence of such spectral lines at a private party given by
Wollaston142. Following this, in his paper Some Experiments on Coloured Flames143 published in
1826, he explained that when a substance was heated say by the flame of a candle or by a spirit
lamp, that the element gave off its own set of characteristic bright lines of colours, Among

these are the colours of flames which not only appear very various to common observation, but are
shown, by the assistance of a prism, to be entirely different in nature one from another; some being
homogeneous, or only one kind of light; others consisting of an infinite variety of all possible shades of
colour. At the age of 26 Talbot had unwittingly published the basic principles of spectral
analysis which he termed prismatic analysis, suggesting that spectral light from a burning
substance might help chemical analysis I would further suggest, that when ever the prism shows a
homogeneous ray of any colour to exist in a flame, this ray indicates the formation or the presence of
a definite chemical compound. An excellent prism is, however, requisite to determine the perfect
homogeneity of a raya glance at the prismatic spectrum of a flame may show it to contain
substances which would otherwise require a laborious chemical analysis to detect. This paper on
prismatic analysis was followed by several short papers in 1834 and 1836144 in which he
suggested further extensive experiments, and the need for accurate measurements of these
prismatic spectra to be undertaken.
His work on prismatic analysis predated by 25 years the work of Gustav Kirchoff (a physicist)
and Robert Bunsen (a chemist) who came to be known as the inventors of spectroscopy: a
new term describing the study of spectra. From 1859 to 1861 they undertook a systematic
survey involving hundreds of substances, which laid the foundation for analytical atomic
spectroscopy. They wrote definitive explanations and methodologies for their researches.
New optical devices were invented to observe and to permanently trace the lines observed. It
is hard not to conclude that on hearing about the work of Kirchoff and Bunsen in 1861, Talbot
re-published ad-verbatim his Early Researches on the Spectra of Artificial Light from different
Sources, in the journal of the Chemical News145. Talbot was not known to have attempted the
application of photography to trace the emission and absorption lines of the Spectrum; his
photographic developments from 1839 onwards laid the foundation for others in the field to
do so, with highly successful results.
2:3:3 Talbots Observations on the Optical Phenomena of Crystals
Talbots fascination with crystals was evident in family correspondence, from the age of
thirteen146. Encouraged by his friendship with the eminent scientist, Sir David Brewster147, he

studied, in some depth, an optical phenomenon, which he brought to the attention of the
scientific community. Though Talbot had attempted to trace these light patterns, their
successful documentation was not obtained until the efforts of a young chemist by the name of
William Crookes.
Talbot looked to Sir David Brewster148 for support and constructive dialogue when he
embarked on his research into crystals, which Brewster positively encouraged, I do not know
any subject more likely to lead to curious discoveries than the one you are occupied in viz. microscopic
crystallisation149. This naturally coincided with Talbots new design of the polarising microscope
in 1833, which he subsequently published details of in 1834150. The significance of the polarising
device was enormous, without it the optical phenomena and its significant use in identifying
crystals and minerals would not have been discovered and the field of crystallography opened
to new research. Furthermore, it would not have led to the systematic employment of the
polarising microscope to petrological research from 1858, when Sorby published his classical paper,
On the Microscopical Structure of Crystals, indicating the origin of Minerals and Rocks. 151
What Talbot discovered in 1834 and which he first mentioned alongside his new arrangement
for the polarising microscope152, was an optical phenomenon not previously seen, and which
was first made visible by polarised light. Translucent crystallised salts such as Sulphate of
Copper, displayed rich circular zones of colours (known as isochromes) seen by common light
these crystals offer nothing peculiar, but on the darkened field of the microscope they are luminous
and splendidly coloured153 (Figure 20). At this juncture, Talbot was unable to explain the
phenomena though he made analogous references to work undertaken by Sir David Brewster
who detected the beautiful property of dichroism in the crystal salt of copper. Talbot indicated
his suspicion that the colours emitted by the crystals followed the same principle of spectral
identification, which he had elaborated on in his 1826 paper Some Experiments on Coloured
Flames. It was impossible to view this without admiring the infinite perfection of nature, that such
almost imperceptible atoms should be found to have a regular structure capable of acting upon light in
the same manner as the largest masses, and that the element of light itself should obey in such trivial
particulars the same laws which regulate its course though-out the universe.154

Figure 20. William Henry Fox Talbot and Curtis Pinx, Circular Crystal of Borax and Phosphoric Acic, remarkable for the
definite red ring upon it, (1838) Watercolour of Interference Pattern, National Library of Scotland
Intrigued, Talbot continued to research the phenomena and subsequently published two
substantial Royal Society papers155 in May and in December of 1836. These patterns have since
been named Interference Figures156 and the black cross is called an Isogyres.157. Talbot also
devoted a whole section on what he named Analytic Crystals158. There are two categories of
minerals observed in polarised light, uniaxial and biaxial159. Talbot appears to have studied
both, but to have only attempted a light tracing of the uniaxial form as a photogenic drawing in
the early years of the 1840s.
The interference figure in Figure 20 is a water colour representation of this visual
phenomenon. Its repetitious circularity of coloured lines and distinctive black cross must have
appeared fascinating and strange to Talbot and his contemporaries when observed for the first
time. These circular patterns of light with two lines intersecting are reminiscent of sun
symbols found extensively on ancient artefacts, and carved in stone in various cultures. Talbot
was knowledgeable about theology and the archaeology of the ancient world. As I was, he may

have also been struck by the visual similarity of these phenomena of polarised light through
crystals to the ancient pictographs representing divine light as sun discs or wheels (Figure 21).
Figure 21. Sun Symbols from Ancient Cultures Pictographs depicting the sun as divine. From Indian, Sumerian,
Egyptian, Spanish, Celtic, Christian and Alchemical sources. Reference from Walter Herdeg, The Sun In Art: Die Sonne
In Der Kunst : Le Soleil Dans L'art (Zurich: Graphis Press, 1962)
Dates for Talbots Photogenic Drawings of polarised light through crystals are somewhat
questionable; many publications on the history of photography cite different dates for their
production. The only biography to include, in some detail, Talbots scientific achievements
outside of photography is William Henry Fox Talbot: Pioneer of Photography and Man of Science by
H. J. P. Arnold160 in 1977. It was the first comprehensive appraisal of Talbots life and work and
became a primary reference for many future scholars. Arnold illustrated his book with an
example of Talbots phenomena of polarisation161, claiming the image to be a calotype dating
from the early 1840s and that it was produced with the aid of a solar microscope. This
statement is quite misleading and has no doubt confused scholars since. He made no reference
to the location of this image, though my researches suggests the original paper negative to be
at the National Museum of Photography, Film & Television in Bradford (Figure 22), formally
from Lacock Abbey. Arnolds printed version was a positive salt print / Photogenic Drawing. I
believe it and many of the others held in the collection to be hand drawn or coloured images
that Talbot had made salt print facsimiles of. It is quite obvious to see that four of these images
had not been obtained by means of directly tracing light onto light sensitive paper, they have
no uniformity or symmetry of light and shade and when studied close up reveal pools of
irregular texture, closely resembling watercolour and pencil marks. Furthermore, the images
could not have been taken with a solar microscope, as Talbot had clearly devised and
manufactured a separate polarising instrument to obtain the optical phenomena. The mistaken

attributions of these hand drawings as direct photomicrographs have been perpetuated by
numerous other historians162.
Figure 22. William Henry Fox Talbot, Calotype negative (Circa 1840-42).a facsimile of a drawn Image, 1937-2511/1
National Museum of Photography, Film & Television, Bradford
Figure 23. William Henry Fox Talbot, Ink Drawing (Circa 1836-1842). Miscellaneous Box 31-47, file 25, National
Museum of Photography, Film & Television, Bradford
There is ample evidence in the form of personal correspondence, for the existence of hand
drawn and painted images; made by Talbot, his wife Constance and by an acquaintance of
theirs, an artist by the name of Mr C. Curtis, up to a year before photography was announced
to the public.
2:3:4 The Visual Evidence
Housed with the Talbot collection in the photographic archives of the National Museum of
Photography, Film & Television in Bradford, there are twelve images, all attributed to Talbot,
ten are uniaxial depictions of crystals and two are biaxial; of these twelve, one is a small ink
drawing (Figure 23), four are catalogued as albumen prints (Figure 24 & Figure 25) and the
remainder are salt prints and paper negatives (Figure 22, Figure 26, Figure 27, Figure 28 &
Figure 29). Most descriptions of the circular crystals are of coloured rings, superimposed with
a dark cross and set against a dark ground, which would indicate that many of these images are
negatives. Talbot no doubt intended to portray these light patterns in their correct
orientation. There are six further salt prints held with the National Museum of American
History at the Smithsonian Institute and one colour drawing held at the National Library of
Scotland (Figure 20).

Figure 24. William Crookes, Polarised light through a Nitre crystal, mistakenly attributed to Talbot (1851).Albumen
Positive Print, 1937-2513/3, National Museum of Photography, Film & Television, Bradford
Figure 25. William Crookes, Polarised light through a Calc Spar crystal, mistakenly attributed to Talbot
(1851).Albumen Positive Print, 1937-2513/2, National Museum of Photography, Film & Television, Bradford
The hauntingly atmospheric quality and visual feel of these images were striking. The concept
of light as a chemical agent and as a divine entity capable of self representation, a prevalent 19th
century discourse, was significant to the development of a visual and philosophical aesthetic
for this research. The status of light as author, capable of developing a unique visual genre is
examined in greater depth through the studio investigations. This aesthetic was characterized
by these images of polarisation, simultaneously reflecting the scientific and artistic values of
light.
These images have proved to be an enigma within the collection. Historians have
acknowledged their existence but have not critically examined them. Talbots published papers
were very informative on the nature of the research but did not mention his use of silver salts
to trace the patterns of light onto paper, though he had already commenced his photo-
chemical experiments in 1835. Nonetheless, he had made numerous efforts at depicting his
circular crystals as drawings before his photographic efforts in the 1840s and the evidence for
this was to be found in his letters163.
Talbot was a prolific letter writer; he certainly had no compunction in asking for the opinion
of his peers on work that he was undertaking. He disseminated images and notes on his work
to many colleagues at home and abroad, such as Sir David Brewster, Sir John Herschel,
Francois Arago and Charles Babbage. In May 1836 within weeks of publishing his first

substantial paper On the Optical Phenomena of Certain Crystals164, Talbot sent Francois Arago a
letter, enclosing a drawing he had made to illustrate his research and to pose some questions
of the French Academy, I ask you to put before the Academie should you judge it appropriate, the
drawing which I have made with the polarising microscope of some circular crystals of Borax. He
described the images as composed of an infinity of needles which radiate from a central point.
The coloured crosses one can see on the disks are all parallel to each other165. The letter was
published by the French Academy and no doubt generated much interest.
Figure 26. William Henry Fox Talbot, Calotype Negative (Circa 1840-42).Facsimile of three drawn images, 1973-2512
Figure 27. William Henry Fox Talbot, Calotype positive of polarized light through crystals (Circa 1840-42).Facsimile of
a drawing, 1937-2508, National Museum of Photography, Film & Television, Bradford
Talbot had devoted a great deal of his time to photo-chemical pursuits. He announced his
priority in the new art of photography in 1839166. It is not inconceivable to think that in the
few years following, Talbot produced salt prints facsimiles of his drawings of light patterns.
The polarised light patterns of circular crystals were too faint to procure by directly tracing
their light onto sensitised paper in 1839. What is certain is that as the sensitivity of his
chemistry improved, Talbot did finally obtain the first photogenic drawings of these optical
phenomena167, though the dates are uncertain168. Two negative169 prints exist in the collection
at Bradford that fit this description perfectly (Figure 28 & Figure 29). What makes these faint
traces of polarised light direct tracings, as distinct to the drawn facsimiles, is the regularity of
tone, line and geometry, which are clearly absent from the other samples.

Figure 28. William Henry Fox Talbot, Five circular depictions of polarised light through crystals (Circa 1848).Calotype
Negatives, 1937-2509, National Museum of Photography, Film & Television
Figure 29. William Henry Fox Talbot, Seven circular depictions of polarised light through crystals (Circa
1848).Calotype Negative, 1937-2510
Talbots description composed of an infinity of needles which radiate from a central point170
succinctly describes the traces of light in Figure 28 and Figure 29. The patterns are tonally
delicate and at times indistinct, and composed of radiating lines, which convey motion though
this may be a visual anomaly. What these images represent is the power that light has to mark,
trace and drag its polarised rays across the sensitised surface, over a period of several
hours171. Although their symbolic associations as wheels of light are interesting, it is the action
and power of visible and invisible light to trace, by means of diffraction, refraction, reflection
or polarisation, that is most significant to this research into Drawing with Light.

The four remaining prints, two of which are catalogued as salt prints and two as negative
prints, dated 1840-1842 Figure 22 Figure 26 & Figure 27 all display hand rendered marks; they
are also tonally vibrant and full of contrast which I suspect was just not possible to achieve
with the direct exposures at that time.
In the mid-nineteenth century demand was high for greater sensitivity of photographic
emulsions, in order to obtain difficult images within the fast evolving field of scientific
photography. By the 20th century photographic manufacturers had evolved emulsions specifically
intended for spectroscopy, photomicrography, nuclear physics, radiography, thermography each of
which demanded a particular range of spectral sensitivity, resolving power and contrast172.
From the Bradford collection four distinct images stood out, interference patterns of calcite
and nitre, which had been dated 1851 and attributed to Talbot (Figure 24 & Figure 25). These
were quite clearly photographically produced light patterns and compared to the earlier
figures were somewhat larger, more distinct tonally and had been catalogued as Albumen
prints. The date, the nature of the procedure and the vivacity and professional appearance of
these direct exposures, indicated a contradiction in contemporary evidence for Talbots
activities. These indications led me to doubt the provenance of these images.
Arnold stated that Talbots scientific and mathematical researches in the decade of the 1830s
was to be the most intensely creative period of his life173, Diffraction, reflection, absorption
and polarisation of light were all phenomena attracting much attention in the 1820s and 30s
and Talbots work in Microscopy using polarised light was amongst his most important174. His
most significant papers on optics and crystals had been published by 1839, by which time
Talbots attention had moved into the fields of photography, Etymology, photographic
engraving and Assyriology. It was 1870-71 before Talbot published another significant paper on
the subject of spectrum analysis and optics175. Talbot apparently made no attempts to write up
his photographic experiments with polarised light. There is no evidence whatsoever to prove
that Talbot was undertaking further experiments with crystals in 1851 or that he successfully
traced them onto light sensitive paper.

2:3:5 William Crookes
Conversely ample evidence existed for photographic research into the optical phenomena
Talbot discovered, and this was in the work of William Crookes (1832-1919)176. As a young
man Crookes had published a Royal Society paper on the 2nd June 1853 On the Application of
Photography to the Study of Certain Phenomena of Polarisation177. This was the first published
account of photography being applied to the study of crystals, in this instance Calc Spar and
Nitre. The black and white engraved reproductions in this paper had an unquestionable
similarity of appearance to the four images attributed to Talbot. Crookes outlined a procedure
in his paper178, in which a polarising microscope was structurally altered, to enable this optical
phenomenon to be successfully traced onto wet collodion on glass. This device was called a
Polariscope. In this paper he made no reference to Talbots seminal discovery in this branch of
optics. It would be inconceivable that he did not know, because under the guidance of
Professor Wheatstone, a close associate of Talbots, he was able to procure the results that
he did finally obtain. The four images attributed to Talbot were in fact by Willam Crookes.
Evidence for this assertion was found in a small body of work on glass and paper, dated circa
1851 by Crookes, lodged in the photographic collection at the National Museum of
Photography, Film and Television in Bradford.
Figure 30. Crookes, William, Box of Glass & Paper Negatives and Positives 1 (Circa 1851).Albumen prints & Wet
Collodion on Glass, 1987-477, NMPFT, Bradford

Figure 31. Crookes, William, Box of Glass & Paper Negatives and Positives 2 (Circa 1851).Albumen prints & Wet
Collodion on Glass, 1987-477, NMPFT, Bradford
What this collection yielded in images was far greater than I had anticipated (Figure 32, Figure
33, Figure 34, Figure 35, Figure 36 & Figure 37). Many of them were quite different in nature
to the more familiar interference patterns of calcite and nitre. No notes accompanied the
images and I have since established that no major public archives in the UK appear to hold any
Crookes material prior to 1858, during the period he investigated the scientific arm of
photography. Crookes had written numerous articles and papers179 on photography but only
his first publication180 in 1853 referred to his work on crystals. No mention was made of the
unusual and visually distinctive patterns of light on unannealed glass. The most unusual of all
these images are in Figure 32, a depiction of a uniaxial and biaxial light pattern traced onto
glass simultaneously.
Figure 32. William Crookes, Box of Glass Absorption Photo's 8 (Circa 1851).Wet Collodion on glass, polarised light
through crystals, 1923-1513, National Museum of Photography, Film & Television, Bradford

2:3:6 The Aesthetic Significance of Talbots & Crookess Crystals to this Research
What connects my research Drawing with Light with Talbot, spectroscopy and crystals, and in
turn to DNA imaging is the optical characteristics of light to refract, diffract and to polarise.
From these characteristics, patterns of light and colour previously invisible are made visible.
This phenomenon was clearly illustrated by Talbots early experiments with prismatic analysis,
the precursor of spectral analysis and in his work with crystals. His tentative efforts at using
photogenic drawings to trace the optical properties of crystals, revealed by polarisation, were
debilitated by poor chemical sensitivity in the 1840s. Though the patterns were faint and
indistinct, Talbots intention was evident. William Crookes, however, was successful in
obtaining the first strong traces of these light patterns onto wet collodion, from which
albumen prints were made. Talbots faint traces, as well as Crookes stronger more diverse
range of patterns are in principal unique Photogenic Drawings traced by the agency of light.
Another connection emerged from these investigations, Photogenic Drawings of Light Depicting
Light, one that is based on aesthetic values. Talbots patterns of polarised light (Figure 22),
Rosalind Franklins X-ray diffraction photograph of DNA (Figure 39) and a Bronze Age
pictogram of a sun-disk (Figure 38), have two things in common. Firstly, they are fundamentally
identical, composed of a series of concentric circles radiating outwards, with an intersection of
two lines, appearing as a cross. Secondly, all three images are representations of light,

polarised, refracted and symbolic. Franklins Photo 51, produced in 1951, represents life in its
most essential molecular form. DNA is the building block of life. Is it not extraordinary then
that its visual composition, seen in cross section, is almost identical to an ancient pictogram
symbolising divine light as divine creator? Sun symbols were common in ancient or prehistoric
cultures, such as in Egypt or Persia. These cultures worshiped the sun and fire as symbolic
representations of divinity. When Talbots patterns of polarised light are seen in relation to
Photo 51 and the pictogram, they serve to strengthen the visual and aesthetic correlation
between nature as a divine entity, capable of self representation, and the optical properties of
invisible and visible rays.
Figure 38. Illustration by Miranda Green, Early Bronze Age gold 'sun-disc' from Wexford, Ireland (1991)
Figure 39. Rosalind Franklin, R. C. Gosling, X-ray Diffraction patterns of A and B forms of sodium salt of DNA
(1951).Gelatine silver prints
Figure 40. William Henry Fox Talbot, Calotype negative (Circa 1840-42).a facsimile of a drawn Image, 1937-2511/1
By the time Rosalind Franklin was able to photograph DNA by X-ray Diffraction
photography181 in 1951, the entire spectrum of radiant energies had been discovered: visible
colours, invisible infra red and ultra violet X-rays and the gamma rays of uranium182. With
technological advances in scientific instrumentation and greater sensitivity of photographic
emulsions, infinite variations of microscopic light patterns had been permanently traced.
An off-shoot from the discovery of X-ray diffraction was the discovery of X-ray spectra, which
led to the invention of powder photography in 1916183. This technique is predominantly used,
in the present day, in the analysis of minerals and metals such as pigments (Figure 41). The
images obtained are quite striking in that they reveal light patterns that are visually analogous
with both Talbot and Crookes first efforts at photographing the optical phenomena observed

in crystals and also images of Fraunhofers absorption lines from the solar spectrum. These
images have a visual language that is valuable to science and to art.
Figure 41. X-ray powder diffraction patterns of red lead and minium (Pb3O4) (1931-1954) Reference taken from
Artist's Pigments: A Handbook of their History and Characteristics, ed. by Robert L. Feller, (Cambridge, London, New
York, New Rochelle, Melbourne, Sydney, Washington: Cambridge University Press & National Gallery of Art, 1986).
Modern photographic devices that use diffraction, refraction or polarisation techniques to
reveal previously invisible patterns of light onto sensitised films generate distinctive images. My
research Drawing with Light is also an investigation of these techniques. By employing simple
filters to fracture light I wanted to explore visual patterns inherent in light and learn to
manipulate them like one would manipulate drawing tools for tracing and marking.
Undertaking the historical research also enabled me to establish a significant correlation
between the science of light and my fascination for revelation and notions of divinity. This
divinity was reiterated in Talbots own philosophical aesthetic, which I touched on in chapter
2:2:4 A Philosophical Concept. Though practical studio investigations were determined by
methodological investigations, which are outlined in chapter 4, they were also formed by the
intrinsic nature of light itself; qualities that only light can impart. The images of spectra and x-
ray diffraction are a unique testimony of natures power to draw her own image, with her
pencil of light. As Talbot and Rosalind Franklin had, I needed to create a mechanism or
framework in my studio practice, for that phenomenon of revelation to take place.

Chapter 3: Studio Methodology
3:1 Preliminary Investigations of Gum Bichromate and Carbon
3:1:1 An Overview
To familiarise myself with the methodology of gum bichromate and carbon, both chromium
based processes, I began a series of preliminary investigations, which concentrated entirely on
the technical and chemical details of production, rather than the development of a pictorial
aesthetic.
My practical investigations began well with gum bichromate, in which a cold compound of gum
arabic or albumen, potassium dichromate and watercolour pigment is painted onto paper,
dried and exposed to ultra violet light. This sensitive layer is exposed to light by contact
printing using a negative film and by placing objects directly onto the surface as a photogram.
Once exposed, the paper is placed in cold water for development, so that the unexposed
parts of the image can simply dissolve. In contrast, carbon is a more complicated and
technically challenging process in which a hot compound of gelatine, pigment and sugar is
poured onto a temporary support as a thin film. On drying, the film of coloured gelatine is
sensitised by with potassium dichromate, then exposed to light. In the next stage, the exposed
film of gelatine is soaked in cold water and sandwiched to a substrate, such as paper, whilst
submerged. This sandwiched layer is subsequently placed under heavy weights for 20 minutes
to bring about better adhesion, and then placed in a hot water bath for development.
Once I progressed to carbon, I began to intermittently encounter a significant problem, which
hampered my progress considerably throughout the remaining preliminary investigations. With
the exception of Luis Nadeau, all of the technical texts failed to mention that some brands of
commercial watercolour and traditional recipes for making ones own watercolour were
composed of a chemical wetting or preserving agent. This agent precipitated a premature

hardening of the gelatine, before exposure and development. I, therefore, experienced
technical problems for many months before finally resolving this issue. The successes and
failures were all documented for analysis and future reference. These problems, associated
with the production of ones own materials, were not unlike those experienced by many early
pioneers and practitioners of photography in the 19th century184.
I began with a series of studies, methodically testing paper, glass and steel as supports for the
gum bichromate process. These papers were coated with a substrate of either, gum, albumen
or gelatine, and some were left uncoated. These were tested in combination with a compound
of the same colloid mixed with pigment and dichromate. Images were acquired at first by
placing organic forms, reminiscent of William Henry Fox Talbots Photogenic Drawings185, onto
the papers as photograms,186 and some small continuous tone negatives. At a later stage I
introduced photocopies and waxed paper negatives (See Appendix 1).
Figure 42. Gum Bichromate 19: Series 1-8 (2002) Albumen sized paper, with a coating of gelatine and dichromate

From series 1 through to series 6, I obtained variable results. There was, for instance, lifting or
lack of adherence to the paper; blistering and poor tone as a result of under exposure (Figure
42); with additional problems concerning the light source; sizing or coating my pigmented layer
too thickly. The major problem, however, was getting consistent results from identical
exposures. Five mercury vapour sun lamps were mounted onto a wall and focused horizontally
towards the exposure area, at a distance of approximately 400mm. As the studies progressed,
I became aware that Individual colloids needed greater or lesser exposure times; this may have
been a contributing factor to the overall results. Once I was able to resolve this, I was able to
acquire relatively consistent results from exposures ranging from 5 30 minutes.
Figure 43. Gum Bichromate 2: Series 1-8 (2002) Albumen and pigment on paper
Problems with blistering and poor tone were resolved by applying a thinner coat of the
compound onto the surfaces. I was subsequently able to achieve some sharp, delicate detail in
tonal areas and good adherence of the pigment compound to the paper. I was most excited
by the quality and delicacy of the painted applications of pigment onto fabriano satinata and
bockingford rough papers. The textures and surface characteristics resulting from the

pigments settling on the surface of the paper were distinct. The colours appeared to be
delicate and translucent on the papers, as shown in the upper portion of (Figure 43). The
inclusion of dichromate, gum or albumen187 within the formula did not appear to affect the
surface delicacy of the watercolour, though repeated applications of the compound onto the
same surface area did tend to degrade its characteristic. Contrary to the traditional use of gum
arabic, I was surprised to find that albumen proved to be a more effective colloid. The images
were fine, the colours rich and for its handling properties the albumen compound was far
superior to the other two colloids.
Figure 44. Un-Sensitised Carbon 4: Series 13-16 (2002) Carbon transfer onto paper, problem tissues
Figure 45. Un-Sensitised Carbon 3: Series 13-16 (2002) Carbon transfer onto paper, problem tissues
Subsequent investigations focused on carbon using the single transfer method. After a few
initial successes using watercolour tubes as a source for my colours, I began to encounter
problems with the carbon tissues I had prepared. I was slowed considerably in my efforts
because of continued and extremely frustrating problems with the gelatine prematurely
hardening prior to exposure. The gelatine layer would feel and look like rubber. When a
chemical reaction began to take place and the tissue still appeared to dissolve in places, I found
the developing times were very long, sometime in excess of an hour, which would cause the
gelatine to absorb too much water as in (Figure 44 & Figure 46). In these cases there was great
resistance during hot water development, whilst removing the temporary vinyl or paper
supports from the transferred gelatine layer. This resistance often resulted in the gelatine

mottling or forming rivulets (Figure 45 & Figure 47). If the hardening had taken place
throughout the tissue, which frequently occurred, the gelatine layer stuck fast to the
temporary support as an insoluble layer.
I adapted the formulas I was using and tested new ones from other sources (See Appendix 3).
I paid meticulous attention to detail and exhaustively tested the possible variables within the
process, such as temperature, dampness, drying times, ambient light and excessive use of
glycerine, pigments or gelatine that could have been contributing factors to this hardening. I
finally discovered the root of the problem to be Ox Gall188, a wetting and preserving agent
present in Winsor & Newton watercolours, I was using. It was also present as a constituent in
traditional formulas for making ones own watercolours189.
Shortly after I made this discovery, I acquired a copy of Luis Nadeaus Modern Carbon Printing,
in which he stated that Holbeins and Grumbacher watercolours, have been used successfully for
carbon, but that Winsor and Newton colours are reported to contain preservatives that have
a hardening effect on gelatine. This was a turning point in my practical investigations, because
once I omitted this hardening agent from my formulas, I was finally able to obtain successful
and consistent results in carbon, from tissue preparation through to exposure, transfer and
development. I consequently concluded that it was not necessary to make water colours,
dispersing dry pigments into glycerine and water was sufficient for the task of making effective
carbon tissue. I was able to extend exposure times and still find a soluble layer of gelatine
between the exposed layer and the temporary support, aiding release.
Figure 46. Un-Sensitised Carbon 5: Series 13-16 (2002) Carbon transfer onto paper, problem tissue
Figure 47. Un-Sensitised Carbon 6: Series 13-16 (2002) Carbon transfer onto paper, problem tissue

After becoming more confident with manufacturing and transferring carbon onto glass and
paper, I began to examine the differences obtained with carbon, from using different light
sources. When I tested the black light blue tubes, the tonal scale of the carbon prints was
extensive, and with sunlamps the same image appeared to have much more contrast. When I
made a test exposure in sunshine, the results were sharper and the darker tones more intense
(Figure 48), these were not unlike the previous results obtained from exposure to sunlamps.
The process of producing my own carbon tissues, in any colour and thickness, was labour
intensive, but I found great satisfaction in completing each stage of preparation through the
control I had in the studio. The work was executed under tungsten (yellow) light and not in
the dark, under red safe light conditions. This was because dichromate is sensitive only to ultra
violet rays.
Figure 48. Un-Sensitised Carbon 2: Series 13-16 (2002) Carbon transfer onto paper
The flexibility of transferring an image to diverse types of materials and working with almost
any colour makes transferable carbon a versatile and attractive process to work with. Carbon

has the advantage of durability, tonal range, density and fine detail over gum bichromate.
Conversely gum bichromate has a characteristic delicacy and painterly control, which is not
possible to obtain in transferable carbon.
The research intention was to explore and extend all possible avenues of image making within
the framework of gum bichromate and transferable carbon. This was achieved whilst
simultaneously investigating photograms, digital inkjet wax paper negatives and inkjet
transparencies, clich verre, continuous tone film and photocopies. These image making
techniques were examined further whilst exploring a pictorial aesthetic for my work, and
documented in the research diary, chapter 4. After completing this preliminary stage of my
research, I chose to work with transferable carbon over gum bichromate, as my primary
method and material for Drawing with Light. In order to create images from sunlight and
artificial light, I focused my attention on light itself, which I hoped to establish a pictorial
vocabulary from, through directly manipulating and tracing light onto carbon tissues.
3:1:2 Analysing Investigations of Gum Bichromate & Carbon
Gum Bichromate / Series 1-8
(See Appendix 4 for a more detailed description of the procedures) Series 1-8 were
investigations in the use of gum bichromate (gum bichromate). Paper, glass and steel were
tested as supports for a compound of dichromate and pigments, dispersed in gelatine, gum
arabic and albumen respectively. Numerous patents had been taken out on direct pigment
printing, which were simply a variation of the original invention by Alphonse Poitevin in
1855190. Some of these techniques, alone or in combination, used gum, gelatine or albumen as
a binder for the pigments. However, the majority of publications recommended gum.
In series 1, I prepared three different formulas, one of each colloid, for coating the supports
with. Figure 49 was prepared with a compound of pigment and gum arabic, Figure 50 was
prepared with a compound of pigment and gelatine and Figure 51 was prepared with a

compound of pigment and albumen. Four different weights and surfaces of watercolour quality
papers were prepared with size or left uncoated. After testing each of the three colloids as
size for supports, and as binders for pigment, I came to the conclusion that albumen was the
most effective colloid compound, with a gum size rather than the traditional combination of
gum coating with a gelatine size. This was because I found albumen had fewer air bubbles
during application, was smoother to apply, it was of a much thinner consistency and did not
suffer from resist marks appearing on the surface whilst being coated, the latter being a
problem with gum. I also found that albumen mixed from powder proved to be the most
promising colloid to use with a gum arabic size.
Figure 49. Gum Bichromate 3: Series 1-8 (2002) Gum arabic and green/black pigment on paper
Figure 50. Gum Bichromate 4: Series 1-8 (2002) Gelatine and green pigment on paper
Figure 51. Gum Bichromate 6: Series 1-8 (2002) Albumen and red/blue pigment on paper
Late 19th and early 20th century technical literature191 made reference to carbon transfers onto
glass, particularly for magic lantern slides and window transparencies, for artistic effect,
therefore, I decided to investigate its use for carbon. In series 2, I investigated glass as a
support for gum bichromate and tested the combinations of colloid as substrate for a gum
arabic and albumen coating. After several failed attempts at getting the colloids to adhere I
switched to gelatine and exposed this without pigment. In this instance, watercolour ink was
added to the exposed and developed gelatine substrate. The colours picked up the texture
and pattern of the leaves (Figure 52). The small images absorbed the inks intensely and proved
to be very exciting, enabling me to see the potential of using glass as a support for gelatine.

Figure 52. Gum Bichromate 7: Series 1-8 (2002) Gelatine and watercolour ink on glass
In series 3 and 5, albumen was tested further by undertaking comparison trials in the use of
fresh albumen, dry albumen and whole egg. What proved to be a surprise was that using yolk
in the formula rendered the mixture stronger. Albumen, used on its own, had a fragile matrix.
The remaining series proceeded by using albumen as the primary colloid, though gum arabic
on a gelatine size was also continued with.
In series 4, I investigated steel as a support for gum bichromate, and tested unhardened
gelatine, albumen and gum arabic colloids as substrates for a gum arabic coating. Figure 53 was
coated with a gum arabic substrate, Figure 54 was coated with an albumen substrate, Figure 55
with a gelatine substrate and Figure 56 was uncoated. The substrates were not hardened, as
this was not suggested in the technical literature. After completing these investigations in
metal and glass, I concluded that the experiments were premature. The coatings in most cases,
lifted substantially because the substrates also lifted in the water during development.
Transferable carbon requires the permanent support to be sized and hardened. If substrates
for the gum bichromate process had been hardened, problems of poor adherence of the

coating to the support could have been averted. The steel panels also rusted whilst the
substrates were drying. With the steel, I was surprised to find that an isolated panel, that had
been coated with dichromated gum, but given no substrate, had, had a chemical reaction
(Figure 56). The result of this was a blue image engrained in the steel. Less lifting took place
when gelatine was used as a substrate, as it dissolved at a higher temperature.
Figure 53. Gum Bichromate 9: Series 1-8 (2002) Albumen substrate onto mild steel, with a gum arabic and dichromate
coating
Figure 54. Gum Bichromate 10: Series 1-8 (2002) Gum Arabic substrate onto mild steel, with a gum arabic and
dichromate coating
Figure 55. Gum Bichromate 11: Series 1-8 (2002) Gelatine substrate onto mild steel, with a gum arabic and
dichromate coating
Figure 56. Gum Bichromate 12: Series 1-8 (2002) No substrate onto mild steel, with a gum arabic and dichromate
coating
In series 6 and 7, Fabriano Satinata paper was used as the primary support. Enlarged acetate
photocopies and inkjet paper negatives were examined in greater detail. Though these
materials were initially prone to too much contrast, than continuous tone negatives, they did
enable immediacy and a cheap method of enlargement. Paper negatives were more exciting to
work with because although the results were softer, the images had a fuller tonal range than
photocopies. My first attempts at printing from these paper negatives were very poor (Figure
57). Through trial and error, I was able to improve this procedure in later investigations,
undertaken in chapter 4:5.
In series 8, I concluded the initial investigations of gum bichromate with experiments that
explored the process of application. A compound of pigment and albumen was painted and
dragged onto paper, sized with albumen, with a paint brush and a rag, using a loose painterly
approach. Colours were thinned with a sensitised compound made up of dichromate and

albumen as an extender (Figure 58), to control the density of colour being applied. This was a
very effective technique, used in much the same way water would have been used to thin
watercolour, whilst retaining the light sensitivity of the coating. This technique was versatile
and enabled creative freedom and immediacy. I was able to establish a basic understanding of
the process involved. It was pivotal that a consistent, strong light source was used. Albumen
on gum sized paper proved to be a more successful colloid than gum arabic. Furthermore,
papers were a superior support for gum bichromate, than either metal or glass.
Figure 57. Gum Bichromate e 18: Series 1-8 (2002) Gum arabic sized paper, with a coating of albumen and dichromate
and exposed behind a waxed inkjet negative
Figure 58. Gum Bichromate 1: Series 1-8 (2002) Gum Arabic and pigment on paper
Pre-Sensitised Carbon (Single Transfer Method) / Series 9-11
(See Appendix 4 for a more detailed description of the procedures) Series 9 was an
investigation into the production of pre-sensitised transferable carbon tissue192. Temporary
tissue supports were also investigated. Plastic and acetate films did not have substrate layers.
In series 10, cartridge, graph and tracing papers were tested un-stretched, and after observing
that the papers buckled substantially during drying, they were subsequently stretched wet
onto boards and dried. Stretching proved useful only when dichromate was added as a
constituent to the formula, when making the carbon tissue. When problems with premature

hardening arose, dichromate was removed from the compound in order to investigate the
problem. It was applied to the tissues after production. Stretching therefore became
impractical as the dried carbon tissues had to be immersed in a bath of dichromate for
sensitisation, which would cause further buckling. A particular source of thin plastic film I had
used proved to be a poor support for the carbon to adhere to and was eliminated from
further investigations.
In this series I also began to investigate the use of Mercury Vapour sunlamps, made by Osram,
versus Black Light Blue ultra violet tubes for exposing carbon. The most important
observation made was the distinct difference between the tissues exposed to BLB tubes and
those exposed to sunlamps. BLB tubes generated a full tonal scale, which enabled the results
to have softer gradations of tone and a much broader mid tone range. The sunlamps
meanwhile, generated a much narrower tonal range, where the blacks were more distinct and
dense, and the highlights whiter.
In series 11, I investigated handmade preparations of watercolour for the production of
carbon tissues. Carbon necessitated large quantities of pigment for the tissue production.
Artists watercolours were not sufficient in quantity and too expensive, so I began to make my
own colours with dry pigments and a binder. Many carbon formulas were produced and
tested. An even spread of colour was essential, foreign particles and air bubbles on the gelatine
surface had to be avoided whilst pouring the hot liquid compound onto the temporary
support. Throughout this series, I had attempted to regulate the process as much as possible,
particularly the, drying and development of the tissues. However, I began to have intermittent
problems with premature hardening, and was unable to resolve the issue or to locate the
problem. This resulted in a 70% failure rate. Nonetheless, some positive results were achieved.
Initially, fixed resin coated paper was used as a permanent support for transferring the carbon
tissues to. These images had adhered well to the paper, though there was extensive frilling
around the edges, as in Figure 59, because of poor adhesion. Frilling was resolved by
protecting the edges of the image from overexposure with a safe edge. This was created by
placing thick tape or card on the edges of the image.

Figure 59. Carbon 2: Series 9-12 (2002) Carbon image on paper, the carbon layer had frilled substantially around the
edges of the image
Figure 60. Carbon 1: Series 9-12 (2002) Carbon image on paper, the paper had buckled during production and the
pigments have separated out from the gelatine
Interesting effects were also observed when the setting properties of the gelatine degraded in
series 11, because it had been left in a moist state for two days. Once the gelatine was heated
with all the constituents and poured onto the temporary support, it took much longer than
previous attempts to set. This caused the two colours of pigments to separate out. The
heaviest pigment was black and fell to the bottom, whilst the lighter pigment remained floating
in the matrix of the gelatine. The two colours can be clearly seen in Figure 60. Some samples
were further complicated by the failure of the stretched paper to remain flat, resulting in the
compound pooling in sections across the paper, which is also apparent in Figure 60 Though
unintentional, the results were visually interesting and worth noting.
Throughout these investigations, the development times of the carbon tissues were extended
in excess of what was recommended. Instead of 5-10 minutes, development took up to 30-40
minutes because of the gradual hardening of the tissues. The temperature of the bath was set
at 42C. When this was exceeded, I observed that the surface of the transferred gelatine
blistered, degrading the final image.

Carbon Substrates / Series 12
Figure 61. Carbon Substrates 1: Series 12 (2002) Gelatin substrate on glass, problem tissue
Figure 62. Carbon Substrates 2: Series 12 (2002) Gelatin substrate on glass, problem tissue
(See Appendix 4 for a more detailed description of the procedures) Series 12 was an
investigation of hardened gelatine substrates for non-porous and porous supports. Many of the
current publications describing transferable carbon only suggest paper as a permanent support
to transfer the carbon image to. However, publications on carbon193 dating back to Poitevins
patent, clearly state that all manner of non-porous and porous materials can be used as
permanent supports for carbon. Opal and clear glass, metal, ceramic and ivory were all
suggested materials. However, preparing them with an appropriate gelatine substrate was
essential though to ensure good adhesion.
Four substrate formulas were prepared and tested in series 12. Formula 1 consisted of water,
gelatine, potassium alum and sodium silicate. It was derived from a published substrate for
collotype glass plates194. The result was unsuccessful, the compound being too watery in
consistency and milky in appearance. Contrary to the published data on drying, the substrate
flaked off. In formula 2, adapted from the previous formula, there was an increased quantity of
gelatine and potassium alum was eliminated. This hardening agent was later applied onto the
dried substrate by brushing, but again, the alum proved to be problematic. The gelatine was
visibly degrading whilst drying (Figure 61) and began to lift from the glass when placed in water
(Figure 62), making the formula too unstable to use. Formula 3 was an experiment I prepared

using only gelatine, with dichromate as the hardening agent, mixed in similar proportions to
that recommended for paper (Figure 63 & Figure 64). This attempt was a success and the
gelatine adhered successfully and remained stable during hot water development. Clearing the
yellow colour of the dichromate from the glass after hardening required an additional stage in
the proceedings. This was done by soaking the glass plates in a 5% bath of potassium alum for
10 minutes, a technique I had come across in the Autotype Company technical literature195.
Formula 4 was also sourced from the Autotype Company literature196. A compound of
chrome alum, water and gelatine was recommended as a good substrate for glass. This
appeared at the outset to be a superior formula, as chrome alum was colourless in the small
quantity used. However, due to my incorrect calculations, too small a quantity was applied
resulting in the solvency of the substrate during hot water development. Further tests, with
the correct measures, proved that chrome alum was a successful hardening agent; however, I
did find that it imparted a faint grey tint throughout the gelatine substrate. Louise Nadeau
recommends its use and has published an alternative formula using chrome alum197.
Figure 63. Carbon Substrates 3: Series 12 (2002) Dichromate hardened gelatin substrate on glass
Figure 64. Carbon Substrates 4: Series 12 (2002) Dichromate hardened gelatin substrate on glass
Three glass surfaces, clear, etched and sandblasted were investigated and all were found to be
suitable supports for pouring the gelatine compound onto, though the sandblasted glass had
less consistent results. Using dichromate to harden the substrates proved to be a successful
solution; they were strong, stable and adhered well to the supports. All the glass surfaces had
to be de-greased vigorously before applying the gelatine substrate.

Post-Sensitised Carbon / Series 13-16
(See Appendix 4 for a more detailed breakdown of the procedures) I began the investigation
of series 13-16 with an examination of carbon formulas, sensitised after the production of the
tissues was complete and not as a pre-sensitised compound.
A further review of technical literature led me to find a facsimile of The American Carbon
Manual198. This is book is a 19th century manual describing in immense detail the carbon
process, with details of Joseph Swans patent in the United Kingdom. Finding this manual
helped me to understand my materials and the potential pitfalls that many of the modern
publications omitted to mention. The manual stated that premature tanning, which I was still
having problems with, could be caused by dampness, heat, the length of time the sensitised
tissues took to dry, excessive use of dichromate, glycerine or pigment. In addition to this
book, I located a carbon comparison chart on different tissue formulas199, standardised to a
100ml of water. The chart included the formula developed by Swan next to current sources. I
augmented this chart with additional references from archival material and from current
publications. I was able to see that the formula I was referencing used very high quantities of
glycerine and pigment200, which could have contributed to the tanning.
Meanwhile in order to purchase larger quantities of gelatine, I located a new supplier, Croda
Colloids. My original source was Silverprint in London; they were unable to inform me of the
bloom of gelatine I had been using, which made an identical match of this raw material very
difficult. To correctly identify the bloom, I tested both 180 and 200 bloom, photographic
grade, limed ossein. In series 14, four identical formulas with different quantities of gelatine in
each, ranging from 80 95 gms, were prepared, in order to gauge the correct consistency of
the wet compound and to observe drying times. Whilst undertaking these investigations, I
made contact with Autotype International, who sent me samples of their un-sensitised pigment
tissues for photogravure, which are essentially carbon tissues. They sent me three grades of
iron oxide pigment tissues, coated onto waxed paper and polyester supports.

Figure 65. Post-Sensitised Carbon 1: Series 13-16 (2002) Autotype photogravure tissue on glass
In series 15, I tested these pigment papers (Figure 65), in order to make comparisons with my
own tissue formulations, and to correctly judge the characteristics of the process; in relation
to timing, sensitisation, exposure, development, rate of solubility and thickness of the materials
whilst dry and wet. I observed the ease, with which the gelatine developed in water, and
transferred to paper and glass, which was in contrast to my own tissues. There was no
instance of premature hardening; this was a significant indication that the problem was not due
to environmental conditions, sensitization or long drying times, but with the formula of my
tissue compound.
Using the tissue comparison chart as a guide, series 16 was structured to investigate
reductions in the pigment and glycerine content of the formulas; and the elimination of ox gall
and honey. Reducing the pigment content from 40gms in previous formulas to 12 / 15gms, had
no effect on the premature tanning of the gelatine, however, when ox gall was removed from

the compound a dramatic change occurred in the development process. The gelatine dissolved
with complete ease, oozing from the sandwiched layers, within one minute of immersion in
hot water and completing its development in less than 5 minutes. In addition, there was no
mottling, tanning or resistance whilst separating the sandwiched layers. These characteristics
were identical to those found in tissues manufactured by Autotype. A second batch was
successfully replicated with no instance of premature tanning. There was no doubt; ox gall had
been the precipitator of insolubility in the carbon tissues.
All formulas in series 16 were prepared onto Autotype temporary vinyl and paper supports;
these proved to be superior to any previous materials used. After sensitisation, carbon tissues
with a paper base were glazed onto perspex, as recommended by Autotype. This method
ensured that the tissues dried flat with a highly glazed surface, to ensure perfect contact with
negatives, during exposure. The successful outcome of this series enabled me to conclude my
investigations into gum bichromate and carbon, and their supports.

Chapter 4: Research Diary
4:1 Preliminary Light & Shadow Studies Leading to a Hypothesis
4:1:1 Introduction
The following project is comprised of three studies in which light and shadow were both
observed. These studies were documented and analysed. The first study commenced with an
examination of shadows cast on a wall in my studio by an artificial light source, outside of my
studio. This resulted in a site specific drawing with graphite, glass and paint. The second study
examined the filtration of sunlight through small pieces of glass. Patterns of light were
generated by means of refraction and reflection, which subsequently led to the development of
a taxonomy for drawing with light. The third study investigated the nature of shadows cast by
sunlight in the built environment and how these patterns could influence a developing
aesthetic. From this study the term Negative Shadows was created. All three studies culminated
in a hypothesis for Drawing with Light. Parallels were drawn between words used for drawing,
and their related actions, with those used for light. The results established a framework for
the remaining projects in the research diary.
4:1:2 Artificial Light Studies
Intent
The research commenced with an exploration of light and its relevance to drawing. From this
emerged a taxonomy where words such as shadow, transmission, reflection, deflection,
refraction and opacity became the building blocks upon which research into the concept of
Drawing with Light has been based. In the school of Fine Art at the University of
Gloucestershire, I was fortunate in having a studio with large south facing windows. This

enabled me to work with direct sunlight as it shone through the windows, as well as artificial
light from an adjacent street lamp, and from an artificial light source within the actual studio.
Figure 66. Wall Drawing (2003).Graphite Glass and Paint
Method
The tracing of artificial light from an outdoor lamp at night time was one initial study (Figure
66). The work was executed by tracing patterns of light and shadow thrown from this lamp on
to my studio wall. I then proceeded to use graphite, glass and paint to selectively trace
shadows and light patterns cast from the window onto the south and east facing walls. The
south facing wall was opposite the window and the east facing was perpendicular to it. The
glass was cut and inserted horizontally, protruding from the wall by approximately 6cm. I
wanted to observe the shadows cast from the glass protrusions together with the shadows
cast from the window frame, whilst the outdoor street lamp was on. During these
observations I was struck by the polarised nature of light. The street lamp not only illuminated
the dark recesses of the studio but it also extended them by polarising light and shadow,
evidenced by the abstracted patterns cast onto the walls. By selectively tracing the lines and
tonal gradation evident on the wall with paint, graphite and glass, I created a minimal but
intimate record of a moment in time. During daylight hours the marks would appear light, and
the glass would convey horizontal lines of transparency. Where there was the greatest
concentrated pool of artificial light, at night on the south facing wall, I painted it red and gold.
This was because I wanted to convey a metaphor: a visual antithesis to darkness through the
symbolic use of colour.

Conclusion
On completion I concluded that I had merely copied shadows and made site specific visual
judgements about the composition of the marks. I had not drawn with light. What I had done
was to draw shadows and impose a layer of light symbolism. There were also subtleties of
pattern evident when light transmitted through the glass, which I was not able to capture by
mechanical mark making means. In retrospect the activity was too fixed to its context, the
light too dim to have any effect on the glass, it took too long to make and was essentially a
predictable mark making exercise in creating a site specific drawing. These observations,
however, had a significant impact on the future direction of my research. The combination of
materials such as glass and graphite, indicated possibilities for further investigations when
observed in sun light through my window, leading me to study the nature of the patterns
created from them. Glass has a number of inherent characteristics; many of these are made
visible on exposure to sun light. For instance, texture is transmitted through machine made
and hand made glass; shadow seen as tonal gradations are cast from transparent, translucent
and opaque glass; light patterns are projected from the reflective surface of glass; furthermore,
fragmented and linear refractions are projected from the edges of this matrix. When I worked
with artificial light, I did not obtain this variety or visual qualities. I decided, therefore, to work
predominantly with natural sun light.
4:1:3 Studies with Sunlight
Intent
From this point onwards my aim was to work on a smaller scale with constructions that were
not fixed or drawn onto the wall of my studio. Future studies needed to be produced much
faster than I had so far managed and they needed to be more adaptable to the space they
would be seen in. By using direct sunlight in my studio I was essentially working site specifically
and this was very necessary to the development of my methodology, as I could control the
level of light in the room with black out material. However, my intention was that any work

created in this environment, was not dependent on its context when the need to exhibit
arose. Completed art works were not to be dependent on sunshine.
Figure 67. Glass Study 6 (2002).Glass and Sun light
Figure 68. Glass Study 1 (2002).Glass & Sun light
Figure 69. Glass Study 2 (2002).Glass and Sun Light
Method
I commenced these studies, firstly by cutting small irregular pieces of plate glass, no more than
400mm and no less than 150mm in length. They were then placed at approximate intervals of
100mm from each other onto a glass shelf (Figure 69) (Figure 70) (Figure 71) (Figure 72). I

chose glass as a material for the shelves, in order that light patterns could be observed in their
entirety against the wall, without obstruction, through the shelf. Secondly, I proceeded by
rotating the glass fragments in the sunlight until I was satisfied that I had achieved a variety of
refractive and reflective patterns of light on the adjacent wall. I was intrigued to observe that
the visual qualities I had generated could be construed as line and tone, although they were
perceived as very white light. The glass pieces were fixed in their position and photographed.
Conclusion
Once I had completed these studies I was more readily able to see the relationship between
light patterns, formed through reflection and refraction, with drawn qualities, such as tone and
line. These observations enabled me to draw parallels between the activities of drawing, with
actions normally associated with light. The results are outlined as follows.
Reflection Transmission Refraction.
Two types of reflection were recorded in my studies. The first was derived from the even face
of the glass. This reflection was either seen as a block of intense white light on the surface of
the refractor, or as a deflection onto a flat plane, such as the wall. The angle at which the
panes of glass were positioned in sun light also affected the density of these reflections. I
tested this by rotating the irregular quadrangular pieces of cut glass, so that they reflected the
sun. The reflected light on the wall appeared to vary in density, depending on the angle of the
glass. It seemed that the closer the reflection was to the reflector, the more intense it became
and the further away it was, the more dissipated.
The second type of reflection appeared as lines of light, where the sun had caught the edge of
the glass panes. They appeared to be wavering, drawn as if by hand (Figure 73). The thickness
and length of these lines were dependent on the shape and thickness of the refractor used.

This was almost certainly a result of the cutting procedure. When glass is snapped along its
incised line, an imperceptible uneven line is formed, which is magnified when the sun is
projected through it.
Sun light also traversed the body of the glass from edge to edge, transmitting an intense green
refraction that appeared fragmented. When taking a closer look, it was possible to see the
colours of the spectrum, though this effect would have been more apparent if a crystal or glass
prism had been used.
Figure 73. Glass Shards Transmission (2004).Sun light onto cut glass resulting in the transmission of light through the
medium,
If these patterns of reflected light were to be understood within the framework of drawing,
then they could be conceptually interpreted as solid blocks of tone or gradations of grey to
black. This is illustrated by (Figure 74, Figure 75, Figure 76, Figure 77, Figure 78 & Figure 79);
the first three photographs were taken of filtered sunlight through glass, as it would be seen,
and the next three are the same images inverted in order to simulate the effects light would
have on the pigment tissues. Light transmitted through a pane of transparent glass conveyed
some subtle levels of texture (Figure 73) which, in combination with blocks of tonal gradation,
formed a variety of patterns. This transmission of light is fundamental to the development of
an alternative taxonomy for drawing with light. In a light drawing, the level of transmission or
tone would be dependent on the thickness and density of the matrix used to transmit light.

Glass for instance would absorb light to differing degrees, therefore, the relative density and
transparency of this material correspondingly affects the light it transmits. This results in
shadows being cast onto a given surface. My proposition is that transmitted shadows are
synonymous with tone and texture and that opacity is synonymous with editing and erasing.
With this in mind, it is feasible to speculate that one could construct tonal art works by using
transparent or translucent material such as glass and plastics to filter light.
Figure 74. Glass Shards Reflection (2004).Sun light onto glass resulting in the reflection of light through the medium
Figure 75. Glass Shards Refraction (2004).Sun light onto glass resulting in the refraction of light through the medium
Figure 76. Glass Shards Reflection and Refraction (2004).Sun light onto glass resulting in the reflection and refraction
Figure 77. Glass Shards 1 (2004).Sun light onto glass resulting in the reflection, refraction and transmission of light
Obstructing light, therefore, becomes as important as transmitting, reflecting or refracting
light, as a means of conveying line and tone. This subtle interplay between light and shadow
can, therefore, be justifiably termed chiaroscuro201. These light terms essentially describe

actions: to bend, to break and to send across, and are intrinsic in describing moving light. The
procedure of drawing is also made up of actions therefore comparisons can be made between
these actions and this research:
Light Term Light Action = Drawing Action Drawing Term
Reflection: to bend = to mark & trace: line & tone
Refraction: to break = to compose: composition
Transmission: to send across = to shade: tone & texture
Polarization: opposing tendencies= to intensify: chiaroscuro
Opacity: to block = to erase: edit
Figure 80. Glass Test 2 (detail) (2004).Example of refraction, reflection and transmission
Figure 81. Glass Test 3 (detail) (2004).Example of refraction, reflection and transmission
The glass studies for Studies with Sunlight were documented with a digital camera and the
effects of light reversal, during exposure, were simulated by inverting the image in Photoshop.
Light traced onto carbon tissues and transferred to good watercolour papers were remarkably
like charcoal drawings (Figure 80 & Figure 81). Though I had not obtained these results during
these photographic investigations for Studies with Sunlight, I had hoped for such a result. I chose
to work with carbon, its tissues made from coloured pigments suspended in a substrate of
gelatine, because of historic references in Autotype literature I had come across on the
process202. These publications were evidence for carbons strong associations with drawing.
The success and popularity of the Autotype process, during the 19th century, was due to two

unique benefits. Firstly, the method offered permanence and quality in photographic
reproduction, unparalleled by any other process. Secondly, the process enabled quality
reproductions to be made of master drawings from museum collections for wide distribution,
by simulating the look and feel of the original mono-chrome pigments onto hand made papers.
Carbon black and coloured pigments have been a common drawing constituent through the
centuries, therefore, employing these pigments as a core material for the carbon process
made it ideally suited for my investigations into drawing with light.
4:1:4 Negative Shadow Studies
Intent
Following the Preliminary Light Studies with glass and sunlight, and my observations of light
patterns formed from the street lamp adjacent to my studio window, I turned my attention to
patterns of sun light as they shone through window openings. A series of photographs were
taken throughout the university building, using a digital camera, of patterns formed from
corrugated skylights, large studio windows, an atrium and glass doors. These were
subsequently titled Negative Shadow Studies. The intention here was to look for shadow
patterns, created in the first instance as a result of materials obstructing the path of light, such
as objects or the window frame (Figure 82 & Figure 83), and secondly from uneven planes of
glass or corrugated translucent plastics causing the transmitted light rays to converge or form
distinct patterns (Figure 84 & Figure 85).
Method
These patterns were formed not by reflection or refraction but primarily by the transmission
of light through glass or corrugated plastics. The actual area of light was, therefore, defined
predominantly by the windows shape and its orientation to the sun, whereas the surrounding
shadow was cast by the opacity of the architecture. It would be better to term these patterns,
Negative Shadows, because the space surrounding the projected light is in shade and therefore
is actually the shadow. The photographs of these Negative Shadows (Figure 82, Figure 83,

Figure 84, Figure 85, Figure 86 & Figure 87) have been subsequently inverted so that projected
sun light in the interior of a building can be seen as a distinct pattern or form removed from
the context in which it was photographed.
Figure 82. Shadow Study 5 (2003).Photograph

Conclusion
These studies assisted my understanding of light and shadow in an interior and exterior
context, in that they did not differ. It was only my perception of them that had altered, from
observing the cast shadow of an object, to being inside the shadow of that object. Scale
distorts our perception of that light and shadow relationship. When they are large, shadows
are seen either as all encompassing, set back from the objects that occupy their space. When
small, shadows are seen as distinctive pictorial elements in the landscape or within an
architectural surrounding. So by inverting the photographs I had taken, I transposed the white
Negative Shadows into shadows; isolating them almost as if they were visually dense forms. By
transposing these elements I had turned translucent qualities into opaque ones. As I had in the
Studies with Sunlight, I came to realise in Negative Shadow Studies the importance of filters in
editing and composing light and shadow patterns. This was as a result of the transmission,
reflection or refraction of sunlight through translucent and transparent materials.
As a result of these initial investigations into the method and material of Drawing with Light, I
concluded that I could alter the patterns formed by sunlight by manipulating light and shadow
through filters. This was to be obtained by examining larger studies of plate glass, blown glass,
lenses, mirrors, plastics and water, either individually or in combination with each other.
Drawn qualities, both linear and tonal were to be investigated. The nature of the visual
aesthetic would certainly have been abstract but it would have been intrinsic to the
methodology for working with light.
These initial explorations into the possibilities of light projected through a variety of surfaces
obviously showed considerable potential, particularly with regard to how it could be
represented photographically. It was therefore decided to examine these possibilities by using
three specific types of translucent and transparent surfaces. These were categorised as follows
and investigated through a sequence of projects.

FLEXIBLE MEDIA The flexible and highly reflective characteristics of transparent and tinted
poly-vinyl and acetate films, was investigated; as was the mirror like surface of kitchen foil,
which was used crumpled, scored, bent or unmarked.
HARD MEDIA The light patterns were created from plano-convex, double convex lenses, a
concave mirror, plate glass and spherical glass.
FLUID MEDIA Water was used as a filter for sun light. Clear and coloured waters were
investigated by placing them in custom made glass vessels. These were constructed as water
lenses203, intended to converge sun rays into patterns of polarised light.
In some projects, combinations of media such as water and glass or foil and film were used to
achieve a mixture of visual effects. These filters were to become my drawing tools for editing
sunlight into patterns of light and shadow.

Introduction to the Research Diary Chapter 4:2 4:6
The following five sections in chapter 4 describe a sequence of projects that explored the
potential of hard, flexible and fluid media, as outlined in the preceding conclusion for
Preliminary Light and Shadow Studies Leading to a Hypothesis. The first project dealt
predominantly with opacity in and on materials used to filter light, such as soot, ink and
graphite with reference to clich verre204, and in the production of translucent or opaque
carbon tissues. The second project dealt with converging sun light onto flexible and inflexible
media, such as lenses, mirrors, foils and vinyl films. The third project dealt primarily with the
study of plate glass, as small and large constructions, cut to specific shapes in order to
compose and edit filtered sunlight into pictorial compositions. The fourth project dealt with
the shape and scale of apertures used to direct the amount of sunlight in the work, leading to
the creation of a solar camera. Finally, the fifth and last project, describes the application of
carbon for a commission in an arboretum, and the use of digital inkjet negatives. Desktop
negatives were investigated to complement the preceding research; this involved the direct
tracing of sunlight onto carbon tissues and transfer to glass and paper.
4:2 Experiments with Soot, Ink and Graphite
Introduction to Experiments with Soot, Ink and Graphite
My intention for the project, Experiments with Soot, Ink and Graphite, was to investigate opacity.
I established two distinct methods for investigating opacity. The first was by applying opaque
marks onto the material used to filter sunlight. I achieved this by applying soot, ink and
graphite to transparent vinyl, blocking transmitted light in degrees, depending on the density of
the surface marks. The basis for this was taken from clich verre. The second method of
investigating opacity was by altering the pigment density of the carbon tissues, this affected the

pictorial quality of the light patterns traced. These tissues were prepared with a substrate of
gelatine and pigment. They could be prepared as opaque, translucent or transparent. I
intended to make and expose polychrome carbon tissues using opaque and transparent
pigments together, further examining transparency versus opacity in the matrix of the tissue.
Figure 88. Soot Studies 1 (2002).Vinyl film shaped and sooted with the application of heat
Figure 89. Soot Studies 2 (2002).Vinyl film shaped and sooted with the application of heat
Figure 90. Soot Studies 5 (2002).Yellow ochre carbon tissue being exposed through moulded and sooted vinyl film
I was obviously not concerned with obtaining pictorial imagery in Experiments with Soot, Ink and
Graphite, but much more with tonal abstraction, realized through controlling the material
space that light and shadow occupy when transmitted through vinyl. It was vital that I had no
pre-conceived notion of a pictorial aesthetic, in order that a visual vocabulary was allowed to
emerge through the process as it evolved.
4:2:1 Experiments with Soot: Study 1
Intent
The first study began by examining gradations of opacity, achieved through the partial
blackening of transparent vinyl film with soot from a candle flame.

Method
Heat from the candle flame was used to manipulate the vinyl film into three dimensional forms
(Figure 88, Figure 89 & Figure 90). Evenly formed gradations of soot covered these forms
when the flame of the candle was placed closer to the surface. I created opacity from soot, to
block or edit light, rather than drawing black by hand because I preferred the abstract and
unpredictable marks. The vinyl films were bent, so that light and shadows could be trapped
into irregular organically formed spatial cavities. These tissues were made from two strata of
colour, Antwerp blue and Mars red oxide. Non reflective wire was also placed onto these
tissues, in order that linear shadows cast from the wire, together with tonally gradated
shadows from soot on vinyl, could be observed together in the final carbon image (Figure 91 &
Figure 92). The carbon tissues were transferred to glass and paper during development.
Figure 91. Soot Studies 3 (2002).Wire and moulded vinyl sooted by applying heat from a candle flame. The film was
then exposed upon pigment tissue in direct sun
Figure 92. Soot Studies 4 (2002).Polychrome carbon image of blackened vinyl and wire, made with Antwerp Blue and
Mars red oxide
Conclusion
When I moulded the first batch of vinyl film with heat and soot, I was able to control the
procedure using pieces of vinyl that were no more than 8-10cm square. But, when I attempted
to replicate the procedure, whilst also scaling up the work, I found tonal gradation difficult to
replicate. The heat source was difficult to control. I placed these small moulded vinyl forms
onto carbon tissue to expose to sunlight and artificial light, but these forms were too small
and fussy to pursue for pictorial compositions. However, some interesting effects were
obtained on exposing a large piece of sooted vinyl to sunlight onto polychrome carbon tissue

(Figure 91 & Figure 92). This sample measured approximately 22 x 24 cm and was exposed to
sunlight for 10 minutes. Both strata of Antwerp blue and Mars red oxide pigment were
penetrated by light. The tones ranged from pale blue highlights, where less light penetrated the
tissue, through to deep opaque red, this having the greatest exposure to light. It was
interesting to observe that where the blue and the red met in the middle strata and when seen
from the glass side of the sample with illumination from behind, a deep black blue tone was
formed from the two colours; the opacity of the red deepening the Antwerp blue.
Although I was not satisfied with the aesthetic outcome of these investigations, it did give me
an indication of what was possible to achieve if soot was used to edit or block light. Though
the images were not visually significant, effects achieved through combining opaque pigments
with translucent pigments were extremely promising and worthwhile documenting for further
research.
4:2:2 Experiments with Ink: Study 2
Figure 93. Ink Mould Studies 2 (2002).Vinyl moulds placed upside down, shaped with heat and holding dry red ink
Figure 94. Ink Mould Studies 1 (2002).Mars red oxide Carbon print exposed through vinyl moulds, shaped with heat
and holding dry red ink
Figure 95. Ink Mould Studies 6 (2002).Vinyl Moulds formed with heat and holding red ink

Intent
The initial study of soot was followed with a second study, investigating red ink as a filter for
artificial light. The intention of this was to observe the degree of refraction through the
coloured water.
Method
I placed vinyl moulds filled with liquid ink, intended as ultra violet filters, onto Mars red oxide
carbon tissues and exposed them to sun lamps (Figure 96). The moulds were formed into
containers by heat. As an alternative angle of exposure I also exposed these moulds to
sunlamps whilst upside down, once the inks were dry (Figure 93). These moulds were then
placed onto a monochrome layer of mars red tissue for exposure to sun light and to mercury
vapour sun lamps. The carbon tissues were transferred onto paper and glass supports during
development. Further tests were also carried out with empty moulds placed onto white
pigment tissues and exposed to directional sunlight; the exposure times were reduced vastly
to compensate for the colour of the tissues and the absence of opacity. These tissues were
transferred to glass during development.
Conclusion
There were distinct differences in the results of these studies with ink, when comparing
images exposed to sunlamps with those exposed to sunlight (Figure 94). This was because the
sun lamp was used directly above the vinyl moulds, therefore very little directional shadow
was generated205; conversely when the moulds were placed in the sun light with the sun lower
on the horizon, light was clearly refracted and shadows extended.
The result was mediocre (Figure 93); there was too much contrast between exposed and
unexposed portions of the tissue, with virtually no discernable middle tones or refractions.
However, when the vinyl moulds were exposed onto polychrome tissue and transferred onto
glass, an unexpected and visually interesting result was attained (Figure 97 & Figure 98); two
completely different effects could be seen, dependent on which side the glass was viewed

from. For instance, when examined from the transfer side (pigment uppermost) both layers of
colour were distinguishable, but when examined from the glass side, only the blue colour was
visible; the opaque red only serving to deepen the density of the translucent blue. The manner
in which the layers were formed on exposure to light, and then washed away in development
defined this peculiar appearance. If the transfer had been made onto paper, then the two
colours would have been uppermost. I had made the coloured water too red for any notable
effects of reflection or refraction to be traced; the concentration was too effective in blocking
the ultra violet rays. Exposure times took an average 7 minutes, in contrast to the vastly
superior speeds of silver gelatine papers. This lack of sensitivity in carbon was a limiting factor
for working with the more transient qualities of light in water at this point in the research,
though it became important later.
Figure 96. Ink Mould Studies 4 (2002).Vinyl moulds, shaped by heat and holding red ink
Figure 97. Ink Mould Studies 3 (2002).Polychrome carbon image on glass exposed through vinyl moulds, shaped by
heat and holding red ink. Made with Antwerp Blue and Mars red oxide
Figure 98. Ink Mould Studies 5 (2002).Reverse side of polychrome carbon image on glass exposed through vinyl
moulds, shaped by heat and holding red ink. Made with Antwerp Blue and Mars red oxide, though only the blue is
visible
In addition to my use of Mars red oxide and polychrome carbon tissues, I exposed white
carbon tissues to sunlight, through clear vinyl moulds. These vinyl moulds were used as filters
to refract sun light with no additional opacity. The sun was low on the horizon and shadows
cast from the moulds generated images that appeared almost three dimensional (Figure 99).
Exposure times were greatly reduced, because light penetrated the white tissue more readily
due to its colour. Furthermore the white pigment yielded gradations of tone, which were only

possible to see when viewed with light behind the image (Figure 100). Conversely these
gradations disappeared with ambient light in front of the image (Figure 101), though the
surface relief in carbon could be clearly seen.
Figure 99. Vinyl Mould 1 (2002).Clear vinyl moulds exposed onto white pigment tissues with directional sunlight
Figure 100. Vinyl Mould 2 (2002).White carbon image on glass exposed through clear vinyl moulds with directional
sun light, observed with light behind the image
Figure 101. Vinyl Mould 3 (2002).White carbon image on glass with visible relief, seen in ambient day light
This study of the effects of light passing through the moulds on white tissues was distinct from
other studies with soot and ink on vinyl because the patterns of light did not look like the
objects used to filter light. Shadow patterns were primarily formed on the white tissue by the
refractive and transmitted action of light through clear vinyl. The carbon tracings of light
looked like solid three dimensional figures on a plane. Their clarity and definition was only
possible to achieve with directional sunlight. All the remaining investigations of polychrome
and Mars red oxide tissues exposed to the sunlamps yielded visually uninteresting results.
Conversely, irrespective of the carbon tissue, the studies using sunlight yielded very promising
results. Patterns formed by refractive, reflective and transmitted light rays were comprised of
tonal and linear qualities, and only visible when seen in sun light. These characteristics were
not formed by the artists hand, only enabled by it. Though the patterns traced were small and
the pictorial composition poor, the quality of the patterns were visually distinctive and
indicative of the direction that my work was to take. Creating pictorial compositions derived
by revealing and editing the hidden characteristics of sunlight with filters, was a technical
procedure that was emerging as an important element of my research.

4:2:3 Experiments with Graphite: Study 3
Intent
In this third study I drew onto draft film with graphite. I wanted to examine graphite as a
material to block ultra violet light and to employ greater control over the nature of the marks
made, reminiscent of clich verre.
Figure 102. Clich Verre Study 2 (2002).Reverse side of polychrome carbon on glass, exposed through a Clich Verre
of graphite on draft film, made with Antwerp Blue and Mars red oxide, though only the Blue is visible
Figure 103. Clich Verre Study 1 (2002).Polychrome carbon image on glass, using a Clich Verre negative of graphite
on draft film. Made with Antwerp Blue and Mars red oxide
Method
Gradations of tone were drawn onto translucent draft film, from light to dark as vertical
bands, with some sections of film removed to allow the direct exposure of polychrome carbon
tissues to sun light (Figure 102 & Figure 103). These tissues were transferred and developed
onto glass plates measuring approximately 20 x 15cm.
Conclusion
In this study I clearly demonstrated the use of graphite as a drawing tool to create a more
conventional clich verre. The drawing was simple to accomplish. A technically successful
carbon image was subsequently created from the drawing, using sunlight, which penetrated the
carbon tissue deeply enough to generate the image from both strata of pigments. Applying the
graphite to the draft film by hand simply reinforced my role of artist as a maker. This was
contrary to the conclusion for the study of vinyl moulds on white tissues, in which I stated that
the patterns traced in carbon were not formed by the artists hand, only enabled by it.
Furthermore, because the draft film was placed flat against the carbon tissue, to avoid blurring

the image during exposure, an identical reproduction was produced from the polychrome
carbon tissue. This was again contrary to the results obtained in the study of vinyl mould on
white tissue, in which the patterns traced did not resemble the material used to filter the light.
This was because of the distance between the various points of the three dimensional form
from the carbon plane. In fact no sun light was needed at all; artificial sun lamps would have
sufficed. Drawing graphite on draft film did not give rise to refractions, reflections or shadows,
from which I was developing a taxonomy for drawing with light.
As in previous studies with soot and ink, this study with graphite yielded unusual results when
used with polychrome carbon tissues (Figure 102 & Figure 103). When the transferred carbon
image on glass was seen from the pigment side, both red and blue tones were discernable but
the tonal range appeared to be short, however when seen in reverse the colours were
distinguished as monochrome and a fuller tonal range detected.
4:2:4 Polychrome Carbon Tissues
Intent
The second approach to the study of opacity in this project Experiments with Soot, Ink and
Graphite, was in the preparation of polychrome carbon tissues. Whilst reviewing literature on
carbon printing, I found a unique reference to the preparation and exposure of multi-coloured
carbon tissues in Martons New Treatise on the Modern Methods of Carbon Printing206, published in
the United States in 1905. A. M. Marton called these materials Polychrome Tissue and cited the
work of Baumgartner in 1882 and Corwin Gitchell of San Francisco in 1896, both of whom
patented this particular method of preparation. Being a modification of the carbon or pigment
process, it consists in the use of a multiple colored pigment tissue, having the pigments or coloring
matter stratified or arranged in three distinct layers or strata, according to the effect desired to
produce the effects obtained are of the highest artistic value and are entirely different from
anything ever produced by photographic methods.207 This was a completely different procedure
to three colour carbon, wherein individual cyan, yellow and magenta tissues are manufactured,

exposed and developed independently of each other208. I elected not to use this methodology
in this research, because of the need for precision, time and technical expertise. Encouraged
by the reference to polychrome tissue in Martons book, I decided to investigate this
technique whilst examining the opacity of soot, ink and graphite.
Method
Mars red oxide and Antwerp blue pigments were used in the tissue formulations. The opaque
layer of red gelatine was superimposed during production with the transparent layer of blue.
These two contrasting stratas of colour were selected in order that light would fully and easily
permeate the uppermost layer of blue before penetrating the red pigment. Individual
exposures for the polychrome tissue studies were all significantly different depending on the
conditions of exposure to sun light and were from between 7 and 24 minutes. If the sun was
hazy or overcast the exposure times would be nearer 24 minutes and vice versa. If I wanted
to obtain sharper and more defined patterns of light I had to make exposures in full clear sun
light. Accurate timings were also dependent on colour, pigment content and opacity of the
tissues. Exposure times were greater when the tissues had higher pigment content and
opacity, and they were lower when the pigment content was reduced and transparent.
Colours that tended to block ultra violet rays, such as red, also needed greater exposure
times, conversely blue pigments reduced exposures by approximately 25%.
Conclusion
Polychrome tissues were very promising and suggested a series of investigations were
necessary to test a wide range of colours for correct concentrations of pigment opacity or
transparency. Though Mars red oxide and Antwerp blue were successful together, some other
combinations were not. For instance, when two opaque stratas were created, light did not
penetrate sufficiently to affect the second layer of colour. Conversely, transparent blue on an
opaque white pigment did yield some interesting results. By using contrasting colours of
pigments, for instance a white foreground on a dark background, an image would be positive,
which would have been negative if the colours had been reversed.

When evaluating the project, Experiments with Soot, Ink and Graphite, I concluded that the
application of graphite or soot by hand, onto draft film was not in keeping with the evolving
focus of this research into Drawing with Light. Conversely, tonal characteristics derived from
the transmission of light through inherent textures, such as bubbles, density, translucency or
imperfections on or in the glass were critical to this research.

4:3 Converging Light Studies with Flexible and Inflexible Media
Introduction
The following project Converging Light Studies with Flexible and Inflexible Media was a
development from the previous project Experiments with Soot, Ink and Graphite, in which
opacity, applied to the surface of filters, was investigated. It was my intention that the focus of
the research shift from opacity and shadows to the examination of light filters. The project
consisted of two studies. The first study examined converging sun light through transparent
flexible media: various makes of vinyl films and foils. The second study examined sunlight
through transparent inflexible media, specifically glass lenses and mirrors. In both studies, the
most appropriate method for examining and tracing patterns of light was with digital video.
4:3:1 Series I - Converging Light Studies with Flexible Media
Intent
In this study with flexible media, I experimented with converging light rays brought about by
reflecting sun light off polyester, acetate and foil. Having examined the nature of opaque mark
making onto transparent materials used to filter light, I began to investigate the nature of the
material itself. I intended to examine flexible films as reflectors for converging light, as a
precursor to further studies with glass and water.
Method
Inspired by a historic reference to burning mirrors and parabolic devices209, and informed by
the previous study 4:2:2 Experiments with Ink: Study 2, I decided to work exclusively with sun
light. I began to investigate visual patterns created from deflecting the rays of the autumn sun

onto a wall in my studio, using various types of transparent plastics: acetate, polyester and
melinex. This was reminiscent of preliminary investigations of sunlight in my studio, in chapter
4:1:2 Studies with Sunlight. These plastics were used as reflectors. Foil was also used in these
experiments. The wall was covered with a large sheet of clean white paper, so that minimal
surface textures and marks could be seen.
East facing wall

Converging light rays
Sun Beam 2-5pm
South facing window Camera
Plastic films
I chose to record the visual patterns, created as a result of reflecting patterns of light off the
flexible plastic films, by digital video camera rather than onto carbon tissue. I chose the
medium of video because I wanted to reveal the transient nature of the abstracted patterns in
real time and to control their movement. The camera was placed facing the wall,
approximately 11/2 meters away and left on to record whilst I was manipulating the plastic
films from behind the camera, approximately at a 45% angle to the direction of sunlight.
Though the room was not darkened, the east facing wall was ideal to use after 1pm, as it was
in shadow the further west the sun travelled. Autumn sunlight was used for these studies,
from 2 to 5pm, during which time the rays of the sun reached as far as the south facing wall.
I had no previous experience of working with analogue or digital video, therefore, I had to
learn how to use a camera and work with editing software. Initial films were edited in Apples
iMovie but subsequent footage was edited in Adobe Premier. From preliminary tests, I came
to realise that the success of these recordings was dependent on inverting footage into a
negative format, a facility that could be found on a camera or in the editing software. No
digital manipulation was sought, only a means by which patterns of light could be seen as dark
lines on a light background (Figure 104). Inverting video footage of light patterns was a re-
occurring theme. I had used this method of viewing photographic studies of light patterns in
chapter 4:1:2 Studies with Sunlight and 4:1:3 Negative Shadow Studies. As I had outlined in these

previous investigations, I found that by inverting the transient patterns of sunlight, reflected off
flexible media, I made them appear dense and spatial, clearly illustrated by a series of 16 video
stills in Figure 104. These unique figurative characteristics, derived through inversion, were
beginning to form a consistent pictorial aesthetic through out my research. These abstractions
took many forms, depending on which way I held or twisted the vinyl. The actual clarity of
image being dependent on the intensity of the sun light. Footage was edited on average into
three minute shorts. The sound track was sourced from the sound the plastic films and foils
made whilst being manipulated during filming. In order to place emphasis on the movement
and composition of these light patterns, the videos were slowed down by approximately 75%,
which impacted on the sound. The noise of crackling foil or flexing plastic, usually taken for
granted, became very pronounced as abstract sounds accompanying black figures moving in
space; and the distortions merely amplified the sounds.
Figure 104. Burning Mirror II - 16 Video Stills (2003).Video Stills
Four short films were created with single sheets of vinyl or as a combination of films and foils,
which were subsequently saved onto DVD disks. I did not compose a narrative for these films.
They were edited as modulated light drawings, defined by the visual tension between line, tone
and sound, of moving patterns of light and shadow.
Burning Mirror I
6 minute DVD, Pal (4:3 interlaced), 48 Khz (16bit) Audio (Figure 14, Figure 15 & Figure 16)
Burning Mirror II

Burning Mirror III
What the Eye Cant See
3 minute DVD, Pal Video (4:3 interlaced), 48 Khz(16bit) Audio (Figure 111, Figure 112 &
Figure 113)
Figure 105. Burning Mirror II - Still 1 inverted (2002).Video Still
Figure 108. Burning Mirror III - Video Still 1 inverted (2002).Video Still

Figure 111. What the Eye Cannot See - Still 1 inverted (2002).Video Still
Conclusions
I began by exploring the reflective surfaces of films and foils in my studio, as an extension of
the studies I had undertaken in chapter 4:1 Preliminary Light & Shadow Studies Leading to a
Hypothesis and 4:2 Experiments with Soot, Ink and Graphite. In these earlier investigations, the
materials used to filter light were either fixed to the ground plane or leant against the wall,
whilst being exposed to sunlight or artificial light during observation. The two studies in this
chapter 4:3 Converging Light Studies with Flexible and Inflexible Media were, however, a marked
departure from the preceding studies, in that the filters were not fixed to a given surface but
held in my hand and constantly manipulated. The flexible nature of the filters meant that I
could, more directly, influence the outcome of the light patterns I was projecting onto the
wall.
This initial period of experimentation led me to investigate, more thoroughly, the process of
reflecting sun rays off plastics and foils onto my studio wall. These experiments began with
clear and coloured vinyl, acetate and melinex, which are by their very nature flexible. They did
not reflect light as a flat plane, as one would find with a plate of glass, but instead, converged
reflected light. Unlike a parabolic reflector these rays did not converge on a central point, but
as multiple points of polarised light connected by a network of lines appearing as texture
(Figure 114, Figure 115 & Figure 116). These light patterns intrigued me immensely because of

their visual ambiguity, the patterns were reminiscent of figurative forms moving in space, but
these forms lacked identifiable characteristics. I was therefore unable to fully understand their
formation. The reflective patterns were not visible on or in the vinyl. I can only assume that
they were light refractions, deflected from the cellulose structure of the film, a visual anomaly
that was invisible to the eye.
As light was deflected off the highly reflective surface of the plastic films, it was also
transmitted through the film. However, the reflected patterns did not correspond to the visual
qualities transmitted through the film. How curious then that the highly polished surface of
these films, with no discernible kinks should project these multiple points of converging light,
revealing unique cellulose structures (Figure 117). These patterns were made up of line and
tone and differed from one make of plastic to another. Coloured films did not reflect their
colours, the patterns remained white. The only time colour was projected was when I
sandwiched two films together; the clear film was the reflector and the coloured film was
placed behind this. Further more, the same patterns of light projected off the reflective
surface, despite the opaque or transparent nature of the film. Glossy, silken or mat substrates
defined the nature of the image as sharp or soft: linear or tonal. Conversely foils created only
tonal areas of light (Figure 118) which when inverted into a negative format, would appear as
shades of grey through to black (Figure 119). Foil was sometimes combined with vinyl to
polarise textures and marks into a visual dynamic and to enhance the effects of chiaroscuro.
Due to the flexibility of these films and the transient nature of light, it was impossible to hold
these patterns of light in a fixed position for 6-14 minute exposures onto carbon film, which is
why video was so suitable for tracing such ephemeral qualities.

Figure 114. Raw Video Footage 1 (2003).Video Still
Light has an almost infinite number of characteristics, many of which are almost invisible to the
human eye. The science that deals with these phenomena is spectroscopy. Spectroscopic
instruments are used as filters to bend or break light beams into unique identifiable
frequencies. Vinyl films are similarly used in this research as optical filters, bending and
breaking light to reveal tonal and linear patterns of light that on inversion take the appearance
of organic forms moving in space, for instance birds, butterflies or moths beating their wings in
flight. Though the vinyl films were two dimensional, the projected images were clearly three
dimensional. This spatial quality was emphasised further when I twisted or bent the films in a
particular direction. In What The Eye Cannot See I used several films simultaneously and was
able to generate two organic forms, spherical and conic in appearance, but clearly hollow
within (Figure 112 & Figure 113). These forms were manipulated intuitively, resulting in an
improvised narrative; a visual tension between two elements. The transmutation of the two
led to the appearance of one unified entity, to be split once more into two distinct entities. In
Burning Mirror I, these forms are analogous to insects as linear and nodular, constantly
metamorphosing from one skeletal arrangement to another. The general appearance of the
forms were defined by the composition of the plastics and foils used, therefore, acetate and
vinyl could be employed to generate specific images composed of line and texture or tone and
texture or simply tone or line.

Figure 117. Burning Mirror I - Still 2 Inverted (2003).Video Still
Figure 118. Burning Mirror I - Still 1 (2002).Video Still
Figure 119. Burning Mirror I - Still 1 inverted (2002).Video Still
Although burning mirrors were the initial motivation for my investigations into projected
sunlight, a further reference to Magic Mirrors210 revealed a distinct and highly relevant
precedent for these investigations. These mirrors, called light-penetration mirrors, were in use as
religious artefacts in China and Japan from circa 700BC to 1100AD. The principal construction
of these mirrors, wherein a pattern of light was derived from the composition of the material
used to reflect the light but not visible on the reflective surface, was analogous with my own
investigations.
As a consequence of these studies of projected light in my studio, four short films were edited
and attributed with titles that referenced burning mirrors and magic mirrors. What was
achieved was highly significant, primarily because the digital process enabled me to work much
faster than I had done with carbon transfers, which were still proving to be technically
challenging. Working with video gave me insight into the processes at work. I was beginning to
conceptualise the relationship between the method and materials of the processes used to
generate light patterns with the concept of drawing with light. I was swapping one set of
drawing tools for another, but the intent remained the same. Instead of using charcoal to trace
my mark, I used gelatine and raw pigment; instead of using my hand to make my mark, I used a
glass or plastic filters to reflect or refract light onto sensitised surfaces for the desired mark.

The analogy was as pertinent to cameraless images by Moholy-Nagy (1895-1946) as it was to
my research. For Moholy, the light sensitive layer was a clean sheet on which notes could be made
in light, just as the painter used brush and pigment on canvas, thus the possibilities of working with
light became more fully opened up than by all earlier painting211. Having control over the intensity
and quality of the mark was dependent on ones familiarity with the tools employed. A visual
aesthetic was finally emerging from the process; from discovering that light has hidden
characteristics intrinsic to the materials used to filter it, and that these unique characteristics
can be manipulated by the artists hand to create modulated light drawings.
4:3:2 Series II - Converging Light Studies with Inflexible Media
Intent
Progressing from previous studies of converging light rays from flexible films and foils, this next
series was to be an exploration of converging light rays from inflexible media: involving a
plano-convex lens for transmitting and a concave mirror for reflecting sunlight. The studies
were recorded onto digital video and edited into a series of short studies on modulated light.
East facing wall

Sun Beam 2-5pm Converging light rays
South facing wall
South facing window Camera 1
Concave Mirror
Camera 2
Plano-convex lens
Method
As in the previous study, southerly spring time light, from between 2 to 5pm, was used for
working on the mirror and the lens. Reflected light from the mirror was filmed on the east
facing wall of the studio as before, but the south facing wall was used for the plano-convex
lens, which needed the close proximity of the surface for the transmitted image to be in focus.

A camera was placed 30cm from the wall and the image was no bigger than 8-10cm in length
or breadth. The wall was covered with a sheet of clean white paper so that textures and
marks would be hidden from view during filming. Four short films were created as follows:
Drawing Reflections - 3 minute DVD, Pal Video (4:3 interlaced), 48 Khz (16bit) Audio.
Drawing Reflections (Figure 120, Figure 121 & Figure 122) was produced with a 9cm diameter
plano-convex lens. The video footage was not inverted into negative format as the others had
been. The pattern of light transmitted onto the wall was in fact an inverse image of my studio
window. In this image the sun was shining and clouds were clearly visible and moving. It was as
if my whole studio had become a camera obscura, though it was not darkened. The image of
the sun was intense and distortions were obtained by pivoting the lens, or by moving it closer
or further away from the wall.
Figure 120. Drawing Reflections - Still 1 (2003).Video Still
Drawing the Sun - 3 minute DVD, Pal Video (4:3 interlaced), 48 Khz (16bit) Audio.
Drawing the Sun (Figure 123, Figure 124 & Figure 125) was also produced with a 9cm diameter
plano-convex lens. The image was inverted into negative format and filmed in the early evening
hours, about 2 hours before sunset. As a result the footage had a warm orange glow, which
turned blue on inversion. When the lens was moved closer to the wall, the inverse image of
my studio window condensed to an intense orange ball of light, becoming a semi circular

sphere on pivoting the lens. It was this ball of light that intrigued me the most. This semi-
circular form appeared to have surface texture, which I was not able to identify. This image
appeared extremely spatial and three dimensional.
Figure 123. Drawing the Sun - Still 1 inverted (2003).Video Still
Breathing Light - 3 minute DVD, Pal Video (4:3 interlaced), 48 Khz (16bit) Audio.
Breathing Light (Figure 126, Figure 127 & Figure 128) was produced with a 15cm diameter
concave mirror. When it was held to the sun at a 90% angle the mirror projected the
converging light rays onto the south facing wall. The mirrors circular reflection was distorted
by the angle at which it was deflected onto the wall. The point at which the light converged
was recognisable as an intense blue/black length of light in the inverted video. By slowly
pivoting the mirror backwards and forwards I was able to produce a visual rhythm. During the
editing stage, the footage was slowed down by 80%. As a result, a visual breathing motion was
simulated. The less intense region of the reflection would appear to fold and then open
rhythmically.

Figure 126. Breathing Light - Still 1 inverted (2003).Video Still
Platos Sun - 3 minute DVD, Pal Video (4:3 interlaced), 48 Khz (16bit) Audio.
Platos Sun (Figure 129, Figure 130, Figure 131, Figure 132, Figure 133 & Figure 134) was also
produced with the same 15cm diameter concave Mirror. When I held the mirror at a 45%
angle, the reflected image of the sun was projected onto the east facing wall. The elliptical
image was not distorted by the angle at which I was holding the mirror but because of slight
distortions in its concavity. The footage was reversed so that the image of the sun would
appear as a dark form, somewhat reminiscent of a solar eclipse. I stood close to the wall and
tried to hold the image steady. The reflection appeared small. Over the course of five to seven
minutes I began to walk backwards in my studio, but continuing to hold the image steady.
Obviously, the further back I moved the larger the image became and as the mirror fell into
the shadow of the window frame, the image split into two, like a nucleus, reforming as I
continued my movement until the entire video frame was filled with the image of the black
sun.

Figure 129. Plato's Sun - Still 1 inverted (2003).Video Still
Conclusions
The quality and patterns of light I had developed from the numerous procedures evolved in
the studio were reminiscent of Lucia and Laszlo Moholy-Nagys photograms212, many of which
were produced by moving artificial light and objects in space. Certain visual parallels can be
drawn between these photograms and the modulated drawings that I had created with
inflexible media. Common concerns found in both works were, the manipulation of objects in
space and using intense light sources to create abstracted patterns. What stood my work

apart from their experiments with light and shadow was the means by which I had revealed
hidden patterns and characteristics inherent in sunlight, of reflected, refracted and transmitted
light and shadow. From these characteristics, I was attempting to develop a coherent visual
taxonomy for drawing with light. For instance, traces of light, such as those in Burning Mirror I,
II & III were not photographic in appearance, but appeared drawn, as if by hand. I had authored
the compositions and the sequencing of the footage, but the drawn images of light were
derived from the reflective and refractive action of light. No two moments was the same.
Environmental conditions, such as the position of the sun, the movement of the clouds across
the sun, the daily and seasonal cycles, were all influential factors in the making of the work. I
had simply created a mechanism, whereby some of the hidden patterns of sunlight were
revealed and subsequently edited into a series of visually poetic works of art.
Another factor in my work that lays claim to some originality is the creative mechanism, that
enabled me to transmute two-dimensional ephemera into spatial figurative abstractions,
reminiscent of charcoal drawings, particularly in Burning Mirror I, II & III and Platos Sun. With
inflexible and flexible media, an illusion of three-dimensional figuration was visually plausible,
albeit abstract.
I was aware during the production of these videos, of the impact they were having on me and
on the focus of this research. For the first time, I was able to fully appreciate the parallels
between light terms and drawing terms, light actions and drawing actions, as I had previously
outlined in chapter 4:1:2 Studies with Sunlight. Talbots notion that Natural Objects May be
Made to Delineate Themselves, Without the Aid of the Artist's Pencil213, was a constant thought in
my mind. Was it possible to substitute a draughtsmans traditional drawing tools for glass, film
or water, to create drawings that are defined more by their activity than the materials used to
create them? I was beginning to think that this was indeed possible to achieve. Both series of
videos alluded to a process wherein drawing was defined more by the activity than its material.
The results of these studies were significant.

Having created kinetic drawings with light using digital video, I again focused my attention on
glass as a filter for light. These modular drawings were works in progress that complemented
the static carbon studies on glass and on paper. It was not obvious at first, but the video
images and the mechanism I had developed to produce them, shared a certain characteristic
with the mechanism I had been examining for tracing light patterns onto carbon tissue. This
characteristic was time. With Converging Light Studies with Flexible and Inflexible Media, the
element of time was always present as moving patterns of light. The movement was generated
by my handling of the reflective materials. The speed at which the patterns of light were
composed was also controlled by me.
In contrast, whilst working with carbon, the element of time was clearly present but so slow
that it was almost imperceptible. Furthermore, I did not control the movement of light; this
was dependent on the slow transit of the sun in the sky. Because of lengthy exposure times
for the carbon tissues, averaging at 8 minutes, sun light would quite literally be dragged across
the surface of the tissue, leaving behind a trace of this movement. The time frame would be
enough to alter the linear or tonal values of the image. Primed with this knowledge, I began a
more methodical examination of how a fixed and less flexible material like glass could be used
to create carbon drawings: pictorial compositions of light derived from sunlight.

4:4 Glass Studies: Series 1- 7
Introduction
The following six series of studies proceeded investigations of flexible and inflexible media, in
which I had used digital video to trace the transient and ephemeral nature of light. The
particular focus of these investigations was a detailed examination of plate glass as a filter for
sunlight and in some cases artificial light. I commenced series 1 and 2 by working with patterns
of light formed through window openings. These studies led to a series of wall mounted
constructions which filtered sunlight onto carbon tissues. Furthermore, components of the
glass constructions served as final supports for the transfer of the carbon tissues which were
then incorporated back into the wall mounted constructions. From these smaller works, a
larger more fragmented construction was created in series 3. This facilitated a more flexible
approach to using glass, which concentrated on the reflective, refractive and shadow forming
properties of the filter. In the remaining series, 4, 5, 6 and 7, I placed greater emphasis on the
relationship of time and sequencing as an important element in the light drawings.
4:4:1 Series 1&2: Glass & Charcoal Studies Leading to Glass Constructions
Intent
I commenced with two series of studies, Glass and Charcoal Studies Leading to Glass
Constructions, which were initiated at the same time I was investigating chapter 4:3 Converging
Light Studies with Flexible and Inflexible Media. The combination of natural and artificial light was
examined in these projects. However, the Glass and Charcoal Studies were a more focused
investigation of work done in chapter 4:1:2 Studies with Sunlight and 4:1:3 Negative Shadow
Studies. The intention of these two series was to work with photographic images I had taken

of light patterns formed through window openings. Artificial light and sunlight were both used
to simulate these patterns by projecting directional light through a variety of wall mounted
glass compositions. Natural sunlight was pivotal to preceding studies, chapter 4:3 Converging
Light Studies with Flexible and Inflexible Media, because the images were formed from the
refractive and reflective properties of sunlight. When using vinyl films, foils, lenses and mirrors
I established a mechanism for drawing light patterns involving projected sunlight, videoing the
transient patterns and editing the inverted footage. With these studies though, I intended to
investigate the spatial and compositional qualities of glass as a material for pictorial
compositions and as a filter for transmitting artificial light as shadows.
Figure 135. Glass & Charcoal Drawing 1 (2002).Glass, Charcoal & Paper
Method
Three separate charcoal and glass compositions were positioned onto the studio wall and
worked on simultaneously. These compositions were made up of asymmetric quadrangles of
glass, approximately 70 x 50cm in size. Their shapes were cut to simulate light patterns
formed by window frames, resembling the two dimensional Shadow Negatives I had
photographed in chapter 4:1:3. These transparent panes were composed in groups of two or
three and leant against the wall, placed onto wooden shelves which were fixed to the south
facing studio wall. Drawing paper was mounted directly behind the glass panes. An outdoor

non-actinic spot light, approximately 150 watts, was then positioned one meter away from the
shelves and at an angle to the flat surface of the glass and turned on. The interplay of lines and
tonal marks formed by the directional light were selectively traced by hand with charcoal.
Glass templates leaning against South facing wall

South facing
Window
Wooden Shelves
Spot lamp
Conclusion
These studies were an exploration of the Negative Shadows of chapter 4:1:3, from which I
extracted patterns of directional light. I reproduced these shapes firstly by cutting asymmetric
layers of glass and secondly by using charcoal to mark the shadows cast from them. I focused
the drawings on the characteristics that still conveyed the notion of directional light. The glass
quadrangles and the spot light were intrinsic to their production. When the glass was removed
from in front of the drawings they lacked almost any visual significance. There was very little
obvious patterning of transmitted light through the glass. As a consequence, I had primarily
traced edges of the glass and the edges of shadows cast from the glass. It was this relationship
that directed my choice of marks. I was interested in the three-dimensional layering of the
glass, leaning against the wall, and the two-dimensional shadows cast from them onto a flat
plane. When seen together, the vertical, horizontal and diagonal lines in black were defined
and given substance by the layers of glass in front. However, without the presence of the glass
the work lacked these spatial qualities and contrast of materials when seen together.
Furthermore, I found that artificial light was too limiting for the qualities of marks I was
seeking to trace. Though the light given off the spot lamp was strong and directional, virtually
no reflective or refractive characteristics were visible against the wall, only transmitted light,
appearing as shadows.

I can now appreciate, in retrospect, that employing charcoal was not necessary. Using charcoal
and paper represented a conceptual link with traditional modes of mark making that I had not
yet dispensed with. If I wanted to embody the notion of drawing with light, I had to develop a
procedure that enabled light to reveal itself as refracted, reflected and transmitted traces of
light and shadow for me to manipulate and edit. It was not an easy conceptual transition to
undertake. As I had done in chapter 4:3 Converging Light Studies with Flexible and Inflexible Media,
I had to develop a paradigm for drawing with sunlight onto a fixed surface plane and use
carbon to trace the movement of sun across its surface. In the digital videos, the paradigm for
drawing moving light consisted of me bending, fragmenting and editing sunlight directly onto
the wall of the studio with optical filters, simultaneously filming the process. The work was
completed once the footage was edited into a short film.
4:4:2 Series 2: Glass Constructions
Intent
Figure 138. Glass Construction 4 (2002).Glass

I commenced this series, first, by dispensing with paper and charcoal, and second by using light
sensitive carbon tissues to trace sunlight onto. Contrary to the previous Glass and Charcoal
Studies, I elected to work with sunlight because the variety and quality of the projected traces
of refraction, reflection and transmission was much more varied than artificial light. I also
began to acknowledge the importance of movement and trace in the work, no matter how slow
or fast; of sunlight being dragged across a light sensitive surface, during a 6-14 minute
exposure. I began to work smaller in order to speed the procedure up and made three more
glass studies (Figure 138, Figure 139 & Figure 140).
Method
Glass shards leaning against East facing wall

1pm
12pm
Winter sunlight entering South facing window

Blackout material hung to cut out excess light
In the three smaller glass constructions, the supporting structure was integral to the fabric of
the composition. The shelves were cut from asymmetric quadrangles of glass, to correspond
to the vertical plates of glass. They were recessed onto the east facing wall, which received the
greatest amount of directional sun light from the south facing window (Figure 141). The
incoming light was low on the horizon because it was nearing winter and, therefore, it cast its
rays on the entire wall.
The process was split into four stages: 1. composing a glass structure by first cutting the glass
templates. 2. Preparing a hardened gelatine substrate onto the surface of the glass, ready to
receive the carbon transfer. 3. Exposing sensitised blue/black carbon tissue to fragmented
reflections and refractions for approx. 6-8 minutes behind the glass construction
Figure 141. Glass Construction 7 (2002).Glass & Sunlight

Figure 142). 4. Transferring the exposed tissue onto the glass plate and developing it in hot
water. Once the process was complete, the glass plate was placed back onto the glass shelf
(Figure 143).
Figure 141. Glass Construction 7 (2002).Glass & Sunlight
Figure 142. Glass Construction 8 (2002).Glass, Carbon Tissue & Sunlight
Figure 143. Glass Construction 9 (2002).Carbon Transfer onto glass
Conclusion
The glass constructions had become more compositionally complex, in the manner that I had
cut and positioned the quadrangles of glass to reflect and refract, and cast shadows of sunlight
as it entered the studio. The process was further developed, in that these patterns of light,
projected from the glass constructions and traced onto carbon tissue, were made up of linear
and tonal qualities. When this developed tissue was transferred onto the surface of the same
glass used to filter the light, a distinct and intimate relationship was established, between the
tools used to edit the light and the nature of the mark itself. These tools, in this instance the
glass filters, were now intrinsic to the fabric of the drawing, because they had become the
transparent template for the drawing. The translucency of the carbon emulsion working
together with the supporting glass enabled the viewer to perceive the inter-relationship of the
geometric patterns traced to the quadrangles of glass behind and below the image.
Though a procedure was slowly developing from this process, I still felt the glass constructions
were inflexible and not versatile to quick alterations, whilst the glass shelves were fixed to the
wall. Further more I was not convinced I had devised a framework that gave me control over

the nature of the marks created when drawing with light. Therefore, I began to create a larger
freestanding structure made from smaller fragments of glass that had the flexibility I desired
for composing drawings made up of opacity, translucency, refraction, reflection and
transmitted shadows.
4:4:3 Series 3: Fragmented Glass Studies
Figure 144. Glass Shards 8 (2003-4).Hand cut glass and sunlight
Figure 145. Glass Shards 6 (2003-4).Hand cut glass and sunlight
Intent
In the previous study Glass Constructions I established a framework for transmitting sun light
through plate glass, but found it to be too fixed to the wall to be versatile. As a result of this I
began to investigate the flexibility of glass by constructing a self supporting structure that could
be moved, and each component changed at will. I also wanted to obtain greater depth and
variety of line and tone when tracing light onto carbon tissues.
Method
Individual fragments of glass were cut by hand into lengths ranging from 100cm to 150cm, with
a width ranging from 8cm to 15cm. The individual shards were not cut straight but in a wavy
pattern and lent against the wall at irregular angles to one another. The shards were placed
close to each other in rows so that the construction was dense with glass. They were cut in a
wavy pattern, so that extensive variations of line and tone could be traced from the movement

of sunlight through the glass. The top and bottom of each individual glass fragment was also
angled approximately between 30 70% in alternate directions, in order that a more secure fit
could be made between the floor and the wall. The construction was placed against the east
facing wall, so that the suns rays would be cast onto the glass fragments side on.
Consequently, reflections, refractions and transmitted light were projected at varying
intensities onto the east facing wall.
Green carbon tissues exposed behind glass shards

2pm Transmitted Light
1pm Refracted Light
12pm Reflected Light

Autumn / winter sunlight entering South facing window
Conclusions
Depending on the angle at which sunlight shone during its morning, afternoon or evening
transit, and depending on which part of the building I used for this work, a marked difference
could be observed in the patterns of light. In my studio the autumn sun shone on the east
facing wall where the glass had been constructed between 12 and 2pm.
Figure 146. Composition Study Detail - 7.12pm (2003) Hand cut glass and sunlight
Figure 147. Composition Study Detail - 7.52pm (2003) Hand cut glass and sunlight

When the sun shone onto the structure and depending on the angle of the glass fragments,
reflected, refracted and transmitted traces of light would always be present, though to varying
degrees. From 12 to 1pm the sun shone mainly through the flat surface of the glass onto the
wall, therefore, transmitted light and strong black shadows predominated (Figure 146).
Between 12.45 and 1.15pm when the sun had moved further round, very little transmitted
light was visible on the wall. Reflected and refracted lines, textures and tones of light were
traced onto the wall as secondary light, with the result that the patterns had softened in
appearance and a whole spectrum of marks could be observed. Further more, from 1.15 to
2pm, strong linear refractions of light, projected from the edges of the cut glass began to
emerge as dominant, alongside some traces of reflected light (Figure 147). Reflections would
have been more visible between 1.30pm and 2pm.
Figure 148. Glass Drawing 6 (2003).Carbon transfer onto glass
I prepared green carbon tissues made from combining Permanent green, Antwerp blue and
Spinel black pigments at 7% strength. The colour green was not selected for any pictorial
purpose, merely to test as many of the dry pigments I had available to work with at this stage
of my research. Glass plates cut for Glass Studies: Series 1 were prepared with a hardened

gelatine substrate to which the exposed tissues were transferred. The studio was prepared by
blackening out large sections of the windows to eliminate excess light and to achieve greater
contrast in the exposures. During the autumn months, the suns rays would enter the exposed
section of the window approximately between 12 and 2pm and cast its rays onto the East
facing wall. Exposures made during this period were not sequential and the position of the
tissues for tracing light was selected for compositional value. This was my first attempt at
transferring carbon onto such large plates of glass.
The results were successful, though during the process I realised that to get definition,
contrast and sharper imagery, I had to expose the tissues close to the glass. The first attempts
were at least 20cm away but the images were ill defined. Subsequently, and by taking several
exposures from 12 to 16 minutes, I found that the tissues could either be placed flat, but
within touching distance of the glass, or looped in and out of the glass; so that unexpected
patterns of light could be traced. These were perceived as either soft or sharp lines, broad
expanses of tone gradating to clear areas of glass where shadows had been cast (Figure 148,
Figure 149 & Figure 150). The results were always unpredictable, but I knew that with more
experience I could obtain particular effects by being familiar with the light action or position of
the glass and the tissue.
It became apparent that the arbitrary nature of placing the carbon tissues behind the glass was
problematic. This was because the patterns traced did not convey the modulating qualities of
light, which if incorporated could alter ones experience of the images on glass. Furthermore
the quadrangle panes of glass did not correspond to the visual qualities I had traced onto their
surface and appeared to be irrelevant to the pictorial composition. I came to the conclusion
that it was important to keep the shape of the glass support simple, and to place greater
emphasis on the scale and quality of the pictorial marks.
Emerging from these studies was also a realisation that time was an essential factor in the
process. Working with video had brought me closer to this realisation, enabling me to make
the conceptual link between the carbon works on glass and the modulated drawings from

vinyl. I was obviously dealing with modulation in both instances, though with carbon the time
ratio was extremely slow, though still present. During the suns transit through the glass, the
fragmentation of light and shadow would change quite dramatically. No moment was ever the
same and during a 14 minute exposure, traces of refraction and reflection would quite literally
be dragged across the surface of the pigment tissues. Therefore, the image would not be
representing a static moment in time, but quite literally a specific sequence or event.
Refractions for instance would be heightened or broadened in shape because of this transit.
Nonetheless, the final image was depicted as static; therefore, it became appropriate to
investigate this modulation by constructing a series of time related light drawings, rather than
by producing a single image.
Figure 151. Composition Study - 6.12pm (2003).Hand cut glass and sun light
As a consequence of these studies with carbon I began new, time related investigations, by
observing and photographing the movement of the sun across the glass shards with a digital
camera during the summer of 2003. At the height of the summer the sun was obviously very
high above the studios south facing window, therefore, direct sunlight was only cast into the
room, onto the floor, by a metre and a half. This was in contrast to winter light, when the sun
is low on the horizon and the studio is fully illuminated. Because of the limited projection of
sunlight into the studio during the summer I set up the glass construction in an adjacent
studio, next to a west facing window. This gave me very strong evening illumination, because

the setting sun sat lower on the horizon, from 5pm to 7pm. Over a period of two days, I
documented the movement of sunlight by taking photographs at approximately every ten
minutes. Once I examined these photographs I created a series of small mock ups in my
sketchbook, taking a selection of timeframes approximately 20 minutes apart. The upper and
lower sections of these images were masked to define the areas from which I intended to
compose my next series of studies on glass (Figure 160, Figure 161 & Figure 162).
I was pleased with the outcome of the time spent observing and documenting light. The
photographs offered me a precise framework from which I was able to make decisions on how
I would compose and edit the light patterns onto carbon tissues, in relation to the time of day.
These images also helped me to see the value of sequencing in my work. I could place
emphasis on the greater composition, made up of a series of works, whilst still conveying the
diversity and ephemera of fragmented light.
4:4:4 Series 4: Drawing Fragments of Black
Intent
A vital element of this next series of works is time: tracing the movement of light through
fragmented optical filters. It is no longer relevant merely to trace light as a pattern of abstract
marks from glass, more significant is the tracing of light within the context of time.
Method
From my sketchbook, I prepared six panels of tempered glass, each measuring 58cm x 120cm.
The glass was prepared with a substrate of transparent gelatine, dried and hardened. To this
surface I transferred black/brown carbon tissues, which I had made using a combination of
Spinel black and vermillion red pigment in powder form, at 6% strength. The tissues were
exposed for approximately 6 61/2 minutes in a very sunny September light, behind the glass
construction on the East facing studio wall. Six exposures were made from 12.45 2pm with
15 minute intervals. The Met office website specified the ultra violet levels at 3 with
temperatures ranging from 25-35 degrees.

Figure 157. Black Carbon 2 Detail (2003) Carbon transfer onto glass
Conclusion
There were difficulties with the carbon tissues. They possessed a surface residue of impurities
appearing as a black/grey marbling, derived from using dry pigments (Figure 157). Some
combinations of pigments also proved to be very problematic. For example, a chemical
reaction between vermillion reds and potassium dichromate resulted in some of the prepared
tissues no longer being soluble. I had intended to alter the colour of the tissues from a cold
black to a warm red/black throughout the six panels, in order to heighten the visual
composition of the suns transition through the glass. The chemical reaction could clearly be
seen across the surface of the pigmented gelatine: the drawing with the greater ratio of red.
The gradations of black were uneven and highly textured; unintended black and white spots
were also prevalent throughout the image (Figure 158 & Figure 160). These problem tissues
developed in hot water with difficulty; the separation of the tissue from the glass support
during development was very resistant and the gelatine dissolved at a much slower rate. The
difference of timing was between 3 - 5 minutes with good tissues to 15 - 20 minutes with
tissues that had a chemical reaction. Nevertheless, I did manage to successfully develop several
sheets of the tissue onto glass, particularly those with a strong ratio of black pigment to red,
which had very fine gradations of black (Figure 161 & Figure 162 and Figure 159).
Despite the problems I experienced with chemical reaction in the tissues, I was very pleased
with the outcome of four out of eight light drawings on glass. They were my first successful
compositions on glass, scaled up from the small photographic studies. The smaller pieces of

glass used in chapter 4:4:3 Fragmented Glass Studies, did not convey the diversity and quality of
the refracted, reflected and transmitted light rays. The fragments of glass in the construction
used to filter the light were just too large. The 120 x 56cm size glass panels used for
transferring the carbon tissues to in this study were large enough to convey the movement of
light across the tissue surface. The panels were dominated by vertical lines. They had strength
of presence and spatial depth, either as a result of curving the tissue behind the glass during
exposure, or because the shadow of the window frame was cast across the glass. On this scale
the compositions were significant. I had exposed eight black tissues to the afternoon sun, with
20 minute intervals over a period of two days. They were transferred onto the glass, but only
four were visually successful and only three survived, as one was shattered in transit.
Unfortunately this left the remaining images without a clear time sequence. The remaining
images were strong nonetheless and did relate well to one another, even if the movement of
light through the three images was not very transparent.
Figure 160. Black Carbon 1 (2003).Carbon transfer onto glass
Figure 161. Black Carbon 2 (2003).Carbon transfer onto glass
Figure 162. Black carbon 3 (2003).Carbon transfer onto glass
Though the images were essentially photographic, they had a strong visual correlation with
charcoal drawings. This is because charcoal drawing sticks are made from a carbon compound,
the same compound used in the pigment dispersion that I had used to manufacture the carbon
tissues. This influenced my choice of the carbon process to trace light onto. The texture of
the image was heightened as a result of the problems encountered during development, this
also contributed to hand drawn appearance of the images.

During this study, I also discovered another way to create textures or patterns on the surface
of the image, which did not involve manipulating light rays with filters, but instead by chemical
means. This works as follows. During the process of sensitisation, the carbon tissues are
placed in a bath of potassium dichromate and then squeegeed onto glass to remove excess
dichromate. If during this process a residue of the chemical is left on the reverse of the vinyl
support, and left to dry, this residue will transfer to the surface of other tissues when placed
into contact with them during storage. The dichromate is constantly active and if an uneven
layer is placed onto the gelatine then the greater concentrations of the chemical will begin to
act on the gelatine before exposure to sunlight. I found the patterns created looked like black
water droplets (Figure 157); this was simply because I had used a large sponge to wipe the
shiny vinyl backing, of dichromate. The textures were of great interest to me, I knew that the
effect could be replicated; therefore, the patterns were recorded for future reference.
Over two to three months, I observed the pigmented gelatine lifting in small sections off the
glass. This concerned me, as it was imperative the drawings on glass be stable and permanent
for exhibition. The substrate lifting was probably caused by foreign bodies getting between the
carbon tissue and the glass during transfer in water, or to the glass not being cleaned
sufficiently. Grease marks cause poor adhesion. On closer inspection however, I realised that a
very fine layer of glass had also come away with the gelatine. Whilst this indicated good
adhesion to the glass it also suggested that the gelatine substrate was too thick, therefore, if
the gelatine dried too quickly under hot conditions, then the glass underneath would
delaminate. To counter this problem and other potential problems concerning adhesion, I had
to ensure all the glass was cleaned with a stronger solution of detergent and that a thinner
layer of gelatine was transferred to the glass.

4:4:5 Series 5: Drawing Sequential Lines of Black
Intent
During the making of Drawing Fragments of Black, chapter 4:4:4, I produced another series of
light drawings onto glass, using the same batch of black tissues, which proved to work well. I
exposed these under the same light conditions that Drawing Fragments of Black was exposed to.
I wanted to create a sequence of four images, long and thin in appearance that placed greater
emphasis on the changeable nature of moving light through the glass filter. I continued to
investigate the notion of time sequencing in the work.
Method
With Drawing Sequential lines of Black the light drawings were transferred onto long lengths of
horizontal glass prepared with a hardened substrate of gelatine, measuring 117cm x 10cm. All
four panels of glass had a fine etched finish to one side. Four, six minute exposures, were
made between 1pm and 2pm in September sunshine, with 15 minute intervals. The Met office
website specified the ultra violet levels at 3 with temperatures ranging from 25-35 degrees.
Two of the exposed carbon tissues were transferred onto the surface of the etched glass and
the other two were transferred to the polished surface. I wanted to primarily test the effect of
using an etched surface on gelatine, to see if it was possible to improve the bond between the
two materials, and secondly to diffuse the glass for viewing the image.
Conclusion
Figure 163. Black Carbon 1 of 4 (2003).Carbon transfer on Glass
Figure 164. Black Carbon 2 of 4 (2003).Carbon transfer onto glass
All four light drawings were successfully traced onto carbon and transferred to the glass,
though in due course and with some handling I did observe that on two panels, which had the
pigmented gelatine coating transferred to the etched surface, the gelatine was flaking off the

edges of the glass making the entire coating vulnerable. This was useful to note for future
reference, however the other two panels did not show any signs of poor adhesion.
I did not lose any light drawings from the time sequence, through either breakage or poor
development; therefore, the four images successfully conveyed the movement of sunlight
through the glass. Stronger fragmentations of light and density of colour were apparent from
the left panel, leading to a thinning or weakening of light in the right panel, the fourth in the
series, as the sun moved away from the glass (Figure 163, Figure 164, Figure 165 & Figure
166). However, I decided that the scale of the glass was too narrow for someone observing
the work to fully appreciate the traces of light and shadow in the refracted and reflected light.
The panels were also too dark to be seen against a white wall and needed some level of
illumination to make more visible the intricacies of the patterns.
4:4:6 Series 6: Tracing Light with a Prayer
Intent
Tracing Light with a Prayer was devised as a more immediate and continuous method for
observing the movement of light across the glass construction. The still photographic studies
taken for Drawing Fragments of Black, chapter 4:4:4, were crucial to the development of a
working process for drawing with light. I felt that video would augment the investigations from
an alternate perspective.
Method

2pm Transmitted Light
1pm Refracted Light
12pm Reflected Light
Digital video camera

Winter sunlight entering South facing window

On a partially sunny day during winter, I set up my digital video camera approximately two
meters away from the glass construction, facing the east facing wall of my studio. Filming began
when the rays of the sun first made contact with the glass at approximately 12pm. Filming
continued whilst the sun moved through the glass fragments until its rays no longer shone
through the glass. This would have been just after 2pm. To condense the time frame to fit the
6o minute DV tape, I left the video to run for only 2 minutes at 5 minutes intervals. During the
intervals I also took still photographic images using the facility on the video camera. This again
ensured that all the still images were taken from the same perspective as the video footage.
The video footage was then edited using Adobe Premier Software and shortened to 3 minutes.
The 2 minute sections of footage were condensed by Premier by speeding up their playback
and overlapping one clip at the beginning with another at the end of a 2 minute section. This
resulted in a relatively smooth transition, though there were some visible transmissions, which
I thought added to the visual aesthetic of the video. The complete film was finally inverted in
Premier, transformed from a positive to a negative image, so that colours as well as light and
shadow were polarised into opposites.
Conclusion
The video images were cast with a pale green tint, as the colour of the glass predominated.
When inverted the green tint was replaced with its complimentary colour, a soft pinkish red.
Refracted, reflected and transmitted traces of light were also made much more prominent
when transmuted from light to dark, by inverting the positive footage to a negative one.
Figure 167. Tracing Moving Sunlight 2 (2003-4).Hand cut glass sunlight and video

Figures 167 175 are a selection of still images taken with the video camera, depicting the
colour and environmental conditions of the glass construction. Sunshine was intermittent
during the two hours of filming; the sun would emerge from hazy or denser clouds to periods
of clear sunshine. However, these constant changes in the environmental conditions made the
visual effects more interesting and unpredictable. Linear and tonal traces were sharp when
sunny, soft and undefined when cloudy or hazy. Wind was also a contributing factor in how
fast these transitions took place, but it was particularly instrumental in conveying movement in
the glass fragments. When the video footage was shortened by speeding it up the time frame,
a distinctive characteristic was noticeable; this was the visible movement of dark and light
clouds in the sky interspersed with sunshine. These appeared as fragmented reflections on the
surface of the glass fragments, those which faced the window. Once the footage was inverted,
(Figure 176, Figure 177 and Figure 178) these images were conveyed as tonal gradations of
yellow ochre shadows and highlights in a constant state of flux. The movement of these ochre
colours was accompanied by the movement of reflected and refracted light, appearing as
charcoal yellow shadows. Where the Negative Shadows were strong the colours took on an
almost burgundy brown hue and where they were pale they had soft pinkish tints. The
movement of sunlight through the glass was clearly central to the work and the subtle colours
and tones of the footage enhanced the overall visual aesthetic. In chapter 4:3 Converging Light
Studies with Flexible & Inflexible Media videos images were comprised of only reflected or
refracted light. Conversely, in Tracing Light with a Prayer, the glass filters used to reflect and
refract light were included in the pictorial composition.
As in previous videos Burning Mirror I, II and III, the process of inversion was successfully used
because the glass fragments were no longer at the forefront of the composition and no longer
distinguished as glass but merely as abstract and transparent linear patterns. The curvature of

the glass intensified this further, because of visible distortions in the projected traces of light
and shadow.
Figure 176. Tracing Light With a Prayer 2 - Video Still (2004).Hand cut glass and sunlight
Because of the visually poetic appearance of the patterns of light and their colours on the glass
fragments in the video footage, I decided to call the work Tracing Light with a Prayer. The
midday sun weaved its rays slowly through the glass fragments, and was reminiscent of light I
had sometimes observed in churches or cathedrals fragmented by stained glass windows. I
used the sound of a man reciting the holy Quran in prayer as a soundtrack to the three minute
long video. I wanted to draw parallels between the presence of illumination and the
experience of prayer.
4:4:7 Series 7: Drawing Veiled Light
Intent
Following on from the successful outcome of chapter 4:4:6 Tracing Light with a Prayer and the
carbon drawings on glass, I began a new series of works using morning summer sunshine. I
wanted to examine the use of watercolour and drawing papers as supports to draw onto. This

was because of the association of paper with drawing, as a medium, and because paper would
enhance the surface quality and permanence of the carbon image. Another consideration for
choosing paper was that gelatine was lifting along the edges of the glass support in chapter
4:4:4 Drawing Fragments of Black.
Method
The drawings were exposed from 8 10am, from between 9 -11 minutes in an adjacent studio
where the sun shone through the west facing window. The room was prepared by hanging
black out material to block out excessive light. A length of red vinyl was used to block out the
active ultra violet rays from the window, whilst still allowing me to see the fragmented effects
of sunlight on the glass structure. I covered the window with the red vinyl, so that when I
placed the carbon tissues behind the glass filters, they would not be exposed to ultra violet
light. An additional narrow length of thick card was taped to the window, parallel to the
window frame, to edit some light from the composition, which appeared as a beam of light in
the final image. At this juncture in the research I had found a good supplier of carbon black
pigment made up as a fine liquid dispersion214. This was available in larger quantities and ideal
for working in large format. The pigment tissues did not chemically react to potassium
dichromate, nor did they have a surface residue of impurities.
Blackout Material hung to cut out excess light
Long strip of card used to edit sunlight
10am Reflected Light

9am Refracted Light
8am Transmitted Light
Glass shards leaning against South facing wall

Summer sunlight entering East facing window
I transferred the carbon tissues prepared with 2% pigment content onto 410gm Somerset
Satin papers, measuring 110 x 35cm and sized with a hardened substrate of gelatine. The
papers needed to be this thick to withstand the buckling caused by the drying gelatine. Though

these papers were hot pressed, they still possessed a slight texture. Furthermore, the pigment
content was reduced from 6 % when working with dry pigments to 2 % when using the liquid
dispersion, because the latter was so highly concentrated.
Conclusion
The results were highly successful on paper. The colour of the carbon black was a warm
black/brown, and as such was more in keeping with the traditional blacks used in archival
examples of carbon prints. The visual aesthetic was still ambiguous, the tonal and linear
compositions appeared to be drawn by hand, yet were essentially photographic. The activity
was of tracing, a literal dragging of light across a light sensitive surface just as one would drag a
stick of charcoal across paper. Even a matrix of paper seemed to be better suited to the
carbon process than glass. The finished drawings were stable, permanent, waterproof, once
hardened and resistant to scuffing and scratching. The absorbent nature of the Somerset Satin
papers resulted in the surface of the images having a matt and velvet like finish. There were no
problems with development and the tonal gradation in each of the drawings was exceptional.
Figure 179. Drawing Veiled Light 3 Detail (28th June 2004 - 9am).Carbon Transfer onto Somerset Satin paper, 10
minute exposure in full sun, 11/2% pigment content,
Figure 180. Drawing Veiled Light 4 Detail (2004 2nd July 2004 - 9.13am).Carbon Transfer onto Somerset Satin paper,
11 minute exposure in full sun, 11/2% pigment content

Two distinct textures were obtained in this series; the first was a perfectly smooth tonal
gradation of carbon black across the surface of an image (Figure 179) and the second texture
consisted of pitted marks, appearing as if they were acid etched (Figure 180). This latter effect
was accidental but desirable and was obtained because a particular batch of carbon tissues had
developed mildew whilst being stored over the winter season. The mildew had not hardened
the entire batch as I had suspected, on the contrary the hardening was local and superficial.
Figure 181. Drawing Veiled Light 1 (2004 1st July 2004 - 8.15am).Carbon Transfer onto Somerset Satin paper, 111/2
minute exposure in full sun, 11/2% pigment content
Figure 182. Drawing Veiled Light 2 (2004 1st July 2004 - 8.33am).Carbon Transfer onto Somerset Satin paper, 111/2
minute exposure in partial sun, 11/2% pigment content
Figure 183. Drawing Veiled Light 3 (2004 22nd June 2004 - 9am).Carbon Transfer onto Somerset Satin paper, 101/2
Figure 184. Drawing Veiled Light 4 (2004 22nd June 2004 - 9.17am).Carbon Transfer onto Somerset Satin paper,
111/2 minute exposure in partial sun, 11/2% pigment content
Figure 185. Drawing Veiled Light 5 (2004 2nd July 2004 - 9.37am).Carbon Transfer onto Somerset Satin paper, 111/2
Due to vagaries of the climate at that time and poor levels of sun shine, I had less control over
the exposures than I had hoped, with only very short periods in which to work, with only 15
or 30 minutes of sun shine, some mornings. But as with Tracing Light with a Prayer I found
these constant changes became intrinsic to the visual aesthetic. I may have created a
mechanism for drawing with light, but in reality dame nature had the ultimate control over
whether an image was sharp or soft, dark or light, diffused or defined.
Over a period of two weeks in June, I was able to complete a series of drawings conveying the
movement of sunlight across the glass fragments (Figure 181, Figure 182, Figure 183, Figure
184 & Figure 185). Cast shadows appeared as beams of sunlight in some of the images,
weaving in and out of the linear compositions Drawing Veiled Light. This added another spatial

dimension to the drawings. These diagonals of light moved across the compositions, emulating
the movement of the suns rays from 8 to 10am and giving the images their distinctly modular
appearance. Shadow and reflected light were predominant in the exposures made between
8am and 8.30am, as a result the contrast between the highlights and shadows in the patterns
traced were evident. At 9am the contrast and tonal variations were more subtle, but by
9.30am an excess of transmitted light made the images look progressively dark.
Drawing Veiled Light was the first successful sequence of works undertaken with carbon on
paper. Several other sequences of works were undertaken onto paper and glass, some
successful and some not, but they were all created by using the same procedures and tools
developed during this period of work. The only difference being the type of pigment used and
the quantity used for making the carbon tissues, either as a transfer for paper or glass.

4:5 Westonbirt Arboretum: Carbon and Glass Installation
Intent
Figure 186. Westonbirt Commission 12 (2003) Sketch book, Photographs and drawings of design
Figure 187. Westonbirt Commission 10 (2003) Model of glass Installation, made from draft film
During my practical investigations of the carbon process in the spring of 2003, I was asked to
create a temporary site specific art work for Westonbirt Arboretum in Gloucestershire, for
the International Festival of Gardens. This was an opportunity for me to examine digital
negatives for use with carbon: an alternative facet of my research. The commission was an
ideal opportunity for me to test the practicality of using carbon on glass as part of an external
glass installation. Nineteenth century innovation in Science and Botany was my inspiration for
creating this photographic installation of ten glass forms. My aim was to direct attention to the
beautiful and complex microcosm existing within the flora of the forest floor. The walk I had
made, from which the photographs had been taken, was made memorable because of what I
found and documented in the undulating mounds of moss and lichen that made up the forest
floor. Small hollows, within which existed a complex network of spider webs were made
visible by the morning dew: a microcosm of reflected and refracted light. The installation for

Westonbirt was entitled Photogenic Tracings. I wanted to draw a visual analogy with
microscopes and Henry Fox Talbots Photogenic Drawings; scientific developments that enabled
the invisible to become visible and the transient to become fixed through the new art of
photography. My hope was that this work would compel visitors to rediscover the wonder
experienced by the 19th century public. I wanted to use the images of forest fauna (Figure 186)
for this project, because of their thematic relevance to the arboretum. I decided to replicate a
selection of these images as carbon transfers onto glass and began by creating a model of my
intended installation (Figure 187).
At about this time I obtained a copy of Making Digital Negatives for Contact Printing by Dan
Burkholder, a professional photographer and educator living and working in the United States.
In his publication he outlines an innovative technique, which he had devised, for creating digital
negatives for use with historical photographic processes, such as carbon. I was very keen to
examine his methods, and to master the technique for inkjet negatives by printing them onto
either paper or OHP film. My purpose was, therefore, two fold. Firstly, I wanted to examine
the viability of using carbon imagery in contemporary glass installations, for interior and
exterior contexts. Secondly, I wanted to investigate digital inkjet negatives for contact printing
onto carbon tissues. This examination of digital negatives, in the context of the Westonbirt
commission, was to complement my research into drawing with light, in which I was using
glass, plastics and foil as filters to edit sunlight directly onto carbon tissues.
Method
The design for a temporary artwork consisted of ten conical glass stems. Each one of these
stems contained a carbon image on a glass disk illuminated by a light source below ground.
These stems were sited under a grove of trees within the arboretum. They were produced for
me by a local glass blower and tapered so that the holes at the top of each stem were
approximately 30-35mm diameter. I wanted to encourage people to look within these glass
sculptures, as if they were microscopes. As they were hand made, no two stems were
identical and their forms varied in height. They were approximately 600 - 700mm high, with a
168mm diameter base. The stems were sandblasted on their exterior and left shiny within.
The ground was prepared with a layer of soil, into which electric wires for lighting were laid,

followed by a layer of plastic cells which were then filled with soil (Figure 188). Into the
cellulose structure, ten 200mm diameter holes were cut for placing the steel casings.
Figure 188. Westonbirt Commission 20 (2003) Installation, The ground was prepared with a layer of soil followed by a
layer of cellular paving which was subsequently filled with soil
Figure 189. Westonbirt Commission 21 (2003) Installation, 200mm diameter circles were cut into the plastic cells for
fitting the steel casings, On completion the cells were filled with soil and a layer of turf lain on top
Figure 190. Westonbirt Commission 22 (2003) Installation, The steel casings fitted with the stainless steel clamps and
buried in the soil
Powder coated steel casings were designed as 10mm thick, 168mm diameter circular
containers without lids, for housing the lights (Figure 190). They were painted with white
enamel inside and perforated at the bottom for drainage. A 25mm diameter hole was also cut
into the bottom of each casing, for hammering one meter length steel pins through. As the
installation was to be sited in the Arboretum, the stems needed to be secured to the ground
and the lights hidden from view.
The steel casings were initially designed so that I could clamp, at three points, specialist double
ended glass clamps made of stainless steel. These fixings clamped, the glass stems to the bases
directly above the lights. However, I had problems with unequal tension between the clamp
and the glass, which led to some of the pieces breaking at the base. I had to remove the fixings

and apply silicone between the glass and metal base as a temporary solution, which worked for
the duration of the installation. These bases were buried at ground level under grass turf.
Joints between the glass and steel were hidden from view.
Figure 191. Westonbirt Commission 4 (2003) Image production, Waxed Inkjet negatives before exposure to Sun
lamps,
Figure 192. Westonbirt Commission 5 (2003) Image production, The production of carbon tissue for transfer to glass
discs,
Figure 193. Westonbirt Commission 6 (2003) Image production, Developing the carbon tissue in hot water after
transfer to glass discs, then removing the vinyl support from the dissolving pigment
Producing the carbon images for transfer onto glass was undertaken in five stages as follows. In
the first stage I manufactured carbon tissues in varying colours of blue, green and black, onto
round vinyl templates, which measured 156mm in diameter (Figure 191). In the second stage I
prepared the photographs of forest fauna in Photoshop, by applying various Contrast Adjustment
Curves215(Figure 194) for printing them as Spectral Density Negatives216 (Figure 195 & Figure
196).
Figure 194. Westonbirt Commission 14 (2003) Inkjet negative, Black and White digital photograph with Carbon curve
6 applied and inverted for comparison with colourised and colour tabled image
Figure 195. Westonbirt Commission 16 (2003) Inkjet negative, Black and White digital photograph with the carbon
curve 6 applied, inverted and colourised,
Figure 196. Westonbirt Commission 17 (2003) Inkjet negative, Black and White digital photograph with the carbon
curve 6 applied, followed with the colour table (inversion is automatic),

In the third stage the photographs were printed onto inkjet paper and immersed in hot
paraffin wax, to make them translucent. In the fourth stage these waxed inkjet negatives were
put into contact with the sensitised carbon tissues and exposed to sun lamps (Figure 192),
followed by hot water development (Figure 193 & Figure 197) and hardening in an alum bath
(Figure 198). In the final stage I fixed the carbon images on glass disks into the lower section of
the stems with waterproof glass glue (Figure 199), ready to install on site.
Figure 197. Westonbirt Commission 7 (2003) Image production, The pigment transfer onto the glass has been turned
upside down and supported whilst the pigment is left to dissolve downwards
Figure 198. Westonbirt Commission 8 (2003) Image production, The develped images on glass are put into an alum
bath to harden
Figure 199. Westonbirt Commission 9 (2003) Image production, The completed glass discs are glued into the cones
ready for installation
4:5:1 Conclusion
My intention was to test the suitability of carbon for use in an installation outdoors, for the
duration of three months and to examine the use of digital inkjet negatives for carbon. Firstly, I
was pleased to find that the condition of the carbon transfers had not altered during the
period, in sunshine or rain. Although insects and the occasional slug had found their way into
the glass stems, they had not, as I had feared, attempted to eat the pigmented gelatine. I took a
risk in using carbon, but their unaltered condition clearly indicated a potential application for
carbon on glass in an indoor and outdoor setting. Carbon is archivally permanent. Depending
on the quality and permanence of the pigments used the images can be very stable. I had not
tested the use of ultra violet laminates to protect the colour permanence of the pigments
from sunshine, but this was certainly worth researching at some later date.

Successful adhesion was obtained in this work in contrast to previous problems I had
experienced with gelatine lifting in chapter 4:4 Glass studies. The gelatine layers were hardened
in potassium alum, as a result, the images became scratch resistant and easy to handle. In Glass
Studies: Series 1-6, I had investigated the transfer of carbon images onto glass, using no gelatine
substrate. I made sure the glass panels had been degreased well. The images adhered well to
the glass without any signs of peeling. It became apparent to me, however, that without the
gelatine substrate, the pigmented layer was extremely liable to scratching, even after
hardening.
Precedence does exist for the use of glass as a support for carbon transfers, particularly for
19th century lantern slides, created using the three colour carbon process217. There was a very
limited appeal for carbon on glass, though, I suspect this was because the procedure was
labour intensive and difficult to mechanise in a fast developing industry.
I felt that the methodology that Burkholder had devised for creating digital inkjet negatives was
useful and innovative. My attempts, however, at creating digital negatives were not as
successful as I had hoped for. They were unresolved. I had worked on the images to the best
of my knowledge in Photoshop, but I still felt like the negatives lacked the necessary tonality
and definition to obtain a visibly striking carbon image. The problems I was experiencing were
primarily with image quality and with the contrast adjustment curve. The original images had
been taken on a medium setting on my digital camera, so though they were sufficient for small
images, they became visibly pixelated on enlargement. I had resolved this to some degree by
using Photoshop filters. The problem was further augmented by my choice of sunlamps over
the black light blue tubes. The sunlamps created a shorter tonal range in the carbon images,
making contrast in the images more extreme. In retrospect, if I had used the black light blue
tubes, I would have obtained a longer tonal range, therefore, less contrast. Overall though, I
was pleased with the outcome of the project and my first experimental efforts.

Figure 200 . Westonbirt Commission (2003) Three views. Glass cones installed at Westonbirt Arboretum, carbon
images transfered onto glass disks and suspended with low voltage lights beneath

In my final assessment of the project, I was pleased with the general outcome of the
installation on site. The concept of glass microscopes was visually simple and the glass stems
intended as subtle interventions in the landscape of the Arboretum. I had wanted the public,
when walking through the Arboretum, to happen upon these strange glass protrusions,
appearing to rise from the ground below the very tall Douglas Fir tree. A public intrigued
enough to discover for themselves the nature of the installation, were encouraged to interact
with the glass objects. The work was very popular amongst the very young visitors. I had
designed the stems to be tall enough for easy access for adults but not so high that it
precluded young children from looking within the objects. In my discussions with visitors, I
was pleasantly surprised to find that people generally described the stems as kaleidoscopes in
the ground.

4:6 Solar Camera: Series 1- 4
Introduction
The following project Solar Camera: Series 1-4 represents a major departure from previous
work undertaken in this research, because I altered the environment in which light filters were
exposed to the rays of the sun. In chapter 4:4 Glass Studies: Series 1-7 the studio was an
enclosed space, in which I was able to control the narrow cast of incoming sunlight with black
out material hung from the window. Because of my dependence on the studio environment
and the West facing window, I had only a short time to work with the incoming direct
sunlight, which was from only 12.30-1.30pm each day during the winter. During the summer I
moved to an adjacent studio and worked with the sun from the East facing window between
8.30and 9.30am. In each scenario I had an optimum period of approximately one hour to
expose the carbon tissues to filtered sunlight. If the sky was overcast, cloudy or it was raining,
I could do nothing but wait until the following day. To overcome this time limitation, I decided
to condense the studio environment into something more mobile and versatile. This resulted
in a box with a round aperture for controlling incoming light. I called this construction the
Solar Camera. This camera could be placed in any position on a horizontal plane and at any
altitude. I could continue to work indoors with the camera, or take advantage of the new
possibilities of working outdoors.
The first camera I built was made from cardboard and was essentially a mock up, which I
tested in the studio, from which I had hoped to develop a more permanent construction. The
work I did with the solar camera evolved into four studies. The first study began with the
construction of the cardboard model and preliminary tests examining round glass filters with
carbon. In the second study, I built a full scale wooden solar camera in which the potential of
spherical glass filters and a water lens were explored. The third study consisted of patterns of

light derived from filtering sunlight through water and glass, and filmed with digital video. In the
final study, I investigated alternative shapes to use as apertures for the solar camera.
4:6:1 Cardboard Model: Series 1
Intent
In Glass Studies: Series 1-7 I created a construction made from long lengths of glass, cut into
wavy fragments and lent upright against a wall. Light was therefore conveyed as fragmented
linear patterns of light and shadow. In contrast to these linear patterns, I decided to work with
hand blown glass spheres (Figure 201), in order that more circular characteristics of reflected
and refracted light could be explored. I wanted to examine the differences between the two
approaches, in the use of filters and in pictorial compositions. To facilitate control over the
amount of sunlight illuminating these spheres, I aimed to construct a box made of cardboard.
Method
Sunshine Cardboard Box with a large aperture
South facing
Window
Glass Ball
In order to get distinct patterns of refracted and transmitted light conveyed through the cast
shadows, I created a temporary structure from card board which I called a solar camera
(Figure 202 & Figure 203). This was not a camera obscura, as the aperture was too big to
project an inverse mirror image. This box had a round hole in the front panel which was
approximately the same size as the 12cm diameter glass sphere. The reason for this size of
aperture was so that the exact amount of light could be transmitted through the sphere
without creating a halo of peripheral light around its shadow.

The back of the box was left open for ease of access and to observe the effects of sunlight on
the glass spheres. These studies were undertaken in the winter months, therefore, the sun
was low on the horizon and the shadows extended. During sunshine the solar ultra violet
index was at a low 1. My first attempts at exposing glass spheres to sunlight with this camera
were in my studio between 3 and 6 in the afternoon. After five tests, I found that 14 minutes
was the optimum exposure time when using the Mars red oxide carbon tissues I had available.
I made six larger exposures, which were transferred onto glass plates measuring 30cm x 30cm.
Figure 201. Filtering sunlight 2 (2004) Solar camera with glass sphere exposed to sunlight
Figure 202. Cardboard model of solar camera (2004) As seen from front with large aperture
Figure 203. Cardboard model of solar camera (2004) As seen from behind
Conclusion
I exposed six tissues to filtered sunlight and transferred these tracings onto glass. Because of
the variable transparency of the glass sphere and irregularities in the thickness of glass, the cast
shadows consisted of textures of light, shadow and refracted light. These patterns were not
unlike water ripples: concentric lines radiating outwards from a central point. Depending on
the position of the glass ball, which was weighted at the top of the sphere with extra glass
beading, alternate visual effects were obtained in tracing these patterns onto carbon tissue.
For instance, in three carbon images, the glass spheres were positioned with the weighted end

facing the shadow, with the result that the patterns lacked definition and detail. The three
remaining carbon images were obtained when the weighted glass bead was pointed away from
the transmitted shadow. In this position, refracted light, and some reflected light, was cast in
the opposite direction to the shadow, creating circular radii of lines, which were distinctive
and sharp (Figure 204, Figure 205 & Figure 206). From further away, however, these three
carbon images were ambiguous. The Negative Shadows, not unlike the studies done in chapter
4:1:3, were dark and solid in appearance, in contrast to the white space surrounding them.
From close up however, particularly in the shadows where the radii patterns of the upper and
lower spheres of the glass were projected counter to each other, the shadows were
reminiscent of water. The tonal gradations were subtle and soft and like the radial lines they
undulated between light and dark, which imparted a sense of movement on the surface of the
carbon image. These textures made me think about the molten nature of glass and its physical
relationship to water.
Figure 204. Glass Sphere 1 (2004) Red carbon transfer onto glass, 14 minute exposure to full sun, 3-6pm, UV index 1
When comparing these abstract patterns of light on glass, in this study, to those light patterns
created in chapter 4:4 Glass Studies: 1-7, I perceived a visual distinction of planes on which I
had been working. The water like images here were visually identifiable as a horizontal plane,
the forms located on a ground. In comparison, in chapter 4:4 Glass Studies: 1-7, all the studies
derived from the long fragmented filters of glass lent against the wall, gave rise to a vertical

plane. The patterns on this plane did not appear to be fixed; the lines appeared spatial. Though
I found the light patterns derived from the Solar Camera intriguing, there was not enough
versatility in the manipulation or variety in the visual patterns to consider these as successful
light drawings. I had merely created a mechanism for controlling the light conditions for
exposure to sunlight. I did not edit the light, nor extend the realm of light patterns. What
primarily caught my imagination was the visual resemblance of the transmitted glass textures
with water, which I hoped to investigate further, perhaps in combination with another filter.
How altered would these Negative Shadows be at different times of the year? I wondered if by
altering the seasonal time from which sunlight was traced onto carbon through these round
forms, I could develop a sequential composition of light patterns. In Glass Studies: Series 1-7,
more general differences could be observed in winter light versus summer light when working
with long lengths of glass. The experimental nature of the investigations with the solar camera,
therefore, led me to examine the effects of seasonal light on the glass spheres by undertaking
some preliminary tests. In the next series Solar Camera Scaled Up: Series 2, the position of the
sun, in relation to shadows cast, became the focus of the investigation.
4:6:2 Solar Camera Scaled Up: Series 2
Intent
Following from the cardboard model of the solar camera, in chapter 4:6:1, I scaled up the solar
camera into a more permanent light fast structure that could be taken outdoors. I did this by
constructing it in wood and card. The intention was to investigate the effects of seasonal light
on the glass sphere during the winter solstice, spring equinox and summer solstice
respectively. This was to be a preliminary examination for further seasonal investigations into
the use of transparent and translucent filters for more intricate editing and manipulations of
light and shadow.

Figure 207. Solar Camera 1 (2004) Mobile solar camera made from wood, with large aperture
Figure 208. Solar Camera 2 (2004) Mobile solar camera made from wood, with lens
Figure 209. Solar Camera3 (2004) Mobile solar camera made from wood, with diffraction grating
Method
The solar camera was made of wood and thick card and designed with a curved front so that
three large apertures could be cut into the card in appropriate positions for the solstice and
equinox (Figure 207). The positions of these holes were calculated, relative to the position of
the sun in the sky at 15, 40 and 65 % from the ground plane. The solar box was made 120cm
long, 50cm wide and 65cm high. This was big enough for large scale experiments to take place
and for me to place my torso inside the camera for observation and easy manipulation of the
materials. The opening was constructed at the back of the box with a heavy black cloth used
to cover the opening, whilst I was operating the camera.
I had two larger glass spheres made, identical in shape to the small ones but with extra
transparent circular threading and bubbles blown into the glass. By increasing the scale of the
glass, I had hoped to increase the surface area on which the Negative Shadows would be cast. I
also requested the glass maker to increase the textures in the glass, so that the transmitted
and refracted patterns of light would be more defined than before. These spheres were 30cm
in diameter. As before, the holes in the card were cut to approximately the same size in order
that excess light could be eliminated during exposure to the sun. Black tissues were prepared

with new transparent liquid pigment dispersion, and the optimum exposure time was
established at 11 minutes in full sun with an ultra violet index of one. The tests were
transferred to both glass and paper for comparison. A series of three large images were
exposed during the winter solstice from 11 -14 minutes.
Summer Solstice
21st June -
65%
Autumn /Spring Equinox

21st Sept. / 21st March
40%
Winter Solstice
21st December
15%
50 x 65cm
Conclusion
The image transferred to glass measured 110cm x 35cm. Though I was pleased with the radii
patterns transmitted through the large glass sphere (Figure 210), I was not satisfied with their
tracing onto carbon (Figure 211). This was because the pigment was too thin on the glass to
have significant density. In retrospect I should have continued to use the dry pigments when
making carbon tissues for transfer to glass, as fuller colour and depth is obtained when the
pigment is translucent and not when transparent.
I had not taken into consideration that during the winter, with the extended Negative Shadows,
that the transmitted patterns would go out of focus and lose all their distinctive water-like
patterning I had admired in the earlier study, 4:6:1 Cardboard Model: Series 1. This was because
the distance from the top of the glass sphere to the ground was too great. This result was
quite unlike the smaller glass spheres. Other test exposures were undertaken within close
proximity of the summer solstice and the radii lines on Somerset Velvet paper were very
sharp, generally lacking any subtlety of tone (Figure 212). Unlike the light tracings taken during

the winter, those made during the summer had virtually no extended shadow. The light
patterns were predominantly transmitted lines of refraction.
I was disappointed with the visual work undertaken during the winter and the summer. The
light patterns, transferred to glass, surprisingly lacked linear definition and the black pigment
was too translucent on glass to give the image sufficient density. I was uncertain of the
direction this approach to the research was taking. Though there was clear potential for the
solar camera to be used for experimenting with sunlight and filters, I felt I needed to reassess
the manner in which I was using the solar camera to trace light patterns and the objects used
to filter sunlight. An alternative approach to this project was needed, in order to capitalise on
the scale, adaptability and mobility of the Solar Camera.
Figure 210. Filtering sunlight 8 (2004) Solar camera with large glass sphere in full sunlight
Figure 211. Filtering sunlight 16 (2004) Black carbon transfer onto glass,
Figure 212. Filtering sunlight 14 (2004) Carbon transfer onto Somerset Velvet paper,

4:6:3 Divining Lines: Series 3
Intent
In the earlier series 4:6:1 Cardboard Model: series 1, I noted the limitations of using a glass
sphere to obtain and edit patterns of light. Instead I began to experiment by combining these
spheres whilst in motion or whilst still with sunlight transmitted through round globes of glass
filled with water. I had hoped to expand the visual vocabulary of reflected, refracted and
transmitted patterns. The concept of using water filled glass spheres came as early as the 16th
and 17th century, from references to Water Lenses in a book on Pre-Cinema History: An
Encyclopaedia and Annotated Bibliography of the Moving Image Before 1896218.
Method
During the initial investigations of the solar camera in Cardboard Model: series 1, using glass
spheres to filter sunlight, I also filmed modular patterns of light and shadow with my video
camera using the glass spheres and the glass globes filled with water. The water filled globes
were technically double convex lenses. These globes were also made to rotate. Two sizes of
glass globes were made to my specifications, the larger one had a 10cm diameter spherical
body and the smaller one a 7cm spherical body. The larger globe was held against the aperture
of the solar camera as the first filter and the sphere was placed in the position of incoming
light as the second filter. This solar camera was adapted so that I could position the video
camera from an opening along its side. The transmitted modulations of light and shadow were
then filmed and subsequently inverted by Adobe Premier software and edited into a 3 minute
DVD - Pal (16:9 interlaced), 48Khz (16bit) Audio - titled Divining Lines.
Conclusion
Because the projected images were reminiscent of water patterns when inverted, I entitled the
work Divining Lines, indicative of water divination (Figure 213, Figure 214 & Figure 215). The
patterns were obtained from combining two glass filters, a globe filled with water and a sphere
with inherent textures of radiating circular lines. The glass globe filled with water was a water
lens and as such an optical lens with a focal point. In these experiments the projected image

was beyond its focal range, therefore, the sharper more distinctive qualities of the glass sphere
were softened by the incoming water refractions (Figure 216, Figure 217 & Figure 218). Whilst
the glass globe was rotated in the sun, the projected modulations, combined with radii
patterns from the still and sometimes moving sphere, created extensive combinations of light
and shadow patterns. These were more suitable to trace onto video than carbon tissues
because of the speed at which they moved and because water refractions were too transient
to hold in position for an 11-14 minute exposure to sunlight.
Figure 213. Divining Lines - Still 1 (2004) Video Still
As in 4:6:1 Cardboard Model: Series1, I was distinctly aware of the relationship of the figure in
the footage to the horizontal plane of the ground. The Negative Shadows were fluctuating in
circular motions on this horizontal plane. Whilst the more defined refractions of the glass
sphere were kept from moving, the motion of the water lens generated a combination of soft
focused and undulating visual effects. During the editing process, the footage was slowed down

from 10 to 15%, in order that the variety and detail of the projected light patterns could be
observed. The sound track was formed from distorted sounds of moving water. The rhythm
inherent in this motion was not unlike the visual modulations of transmitted light, which I had
filmed.
I assessed all three series of studies dealing with the solar camera. I came to the conclusion
that Divining Lines: Series 3 was more successful than the preceding 4:6:1 Cardboard Model:
Series1 and 4:6:2 Solar Camera Scaled Up: Series 2. This was because I had used several glass
filters simultaneously, to create a broader range of patterns that were edited into a modulated
light drawing. When I used long lengths of glass in chapter 4:4 Glass Studies: Series 1-7, I placed
up to 40 lengths of glass at varying angles and distances from each other, in order to create
numerous lines of refraction and reflection, as well as tonal areas of reflected and transmitted
light and shadow. Infinite formations to this glass construction were possible. On their own
the glass spheres were not versatile enough, but in combination with other filters the potential
for creating a broader range of light and shadow patterns was much greater.
4:6:4 Solar Diffraction: Series 4
Intent
My intention was to explore further potential applications of the solar camera as a means of
creating light drawings. Because of the compositional strength evident in the drawings derived
from vertical fragments of glass in 4:4 Glass Studies, I decided to examine this same vertical
principal in another form. I altered the aperture of the wooden construction from a large
round hole to much smaller holes, taking the transformation further by altering the aperture
of the solar camera into a diffraction grating.
Method
The aperture of the camera was reduced from a 30cm diameter to 8cm and then to a 5cm
diameter onto which a variety of plano-convex, double concave and double convex lenses
were placed (Figure 208). For the various combinations of lenses used, I placed a 12cm or

30cm diameter glass sphere inside the solar camera in the path of the suns rays. After
observing the effects, I altered the aperture by replacing the round hole, with a long narrow
opening - a diffraction grating measuring 30cm long (Figure 209). I had read about diffraction
gratings in relation to spectroscopy. The grating was made from two long lengths of thin steel,
measuring 40cm x 12cm. These were given a slight curvature in order to fix them very close
to one another securely onto the curved front of the solar camera. As a result only a narrow
light beam could enter the solar camera. I constantly altered the narrow space between the
two steel sheets and finally found that the optimum width was 0.75mm. Whilst testing the
diffraction grating I placed no glass objects inside the solar camera, as I was keen to see the
effect of this aperture on light. I placed black carbon tissue on the base of the solar camera,
where the light beams were cast, in order to trace these moving patterns from one side of the
camera to the other during a five hour period. The carbon tissue was then transferred onto
sized Somerset Velvet paper.
Conclusion
Solar movement during the 5 hour period

Partial cloud cover
Inverse mirror image of studio window frame
Cloud cover during the 5 hour period Faint tracings of diffraction lines
Figure 219. Diffraction Drawing 1 (2004) Black carbon transfer onto Somerset Velvet paper
Firstly, I observed the effects of combining a combination of lenses with the different sized
apertures, and I found them all to be unsuitable as filters because they did not significantly alter
the patterns of light other than to darken, lighten, soften or sharpen the radii lines from the
glass ball inside. I altered the round aperture by reducing it to a 2mm diameter hole, and found
that without the aid of a lens, the solar camera became a camera obscura. An inverted image
of the exterior view was visible inside the box. Though this was interesting to observe, it was

not my primary intention to create a camera obscura. At this juncture I decided to alter the
shape of the aperture entirely, so that I could investigate the hidden properties of light,
through its association with spectroscopy.
What was interesting to note was that the very narrow slit had two functions. The first
function was to operate as a camera obscura aperture, through which an inverse mirror image
of the studio window was projected onto the camera base, although this time the image was
distorted almost beyond recognition. The second function was to act as a diffraction grating,
separating out the colours of the spectrum into 1mm faint lines either side of one strong beam
of light, 3-5mm wide. The combination of the camera obscura image and the diffraction of light
resulted in an interesting array of long linear patterns of light that on a slightly windy and
partially cloudy day were constantly in motion. The most distinct and traceable results were
obtained on a sunny day.
These linear modulations of light were distorted images of the sky. During a cloudy moment
the beam of light would soften to a very faint line, but as soon as the sun re-emerged from
behind a cloud this light would strengthen and all the other faint lines would become more
visible. A constant in the projected light patterns was the distorted inverse image of the studio
window frame, which appeared as a shadow, in the same spot, throughout the five hour
exposure.
Cloud cover during the 5 hour period

Solar movement during the 5 hour period Faint tracings of diffraction lines
Inverse mirror image of studio window frame Partial cloud cover
Figure 220. Diffraction Drawing 2 (2004) Black carbon transfer onto Somerset Velvet paper

I estimated that the strong beam of light took approximately 3-4 minutes to move 4mm across
the base of the solar camera, therefore, I decided to leave the carbon tissue exposed for
several hours, from 11am to 4pm. I was unclear as to whether the carbon tissue would be
sensitive enough to trace the very faint lines of diffraction, or if a 5 hour exposure would over
expose the entire tissue of carbon.
Figure 221. Murray, G. H., Photographed Spectra (1877) Nickel Arc, Niobium Arc, Palladium Arc and Platinum Arc,
Photographs taken by Surrey Photographic Company for a book on One Hundred and Thirty-six Photographs of
Metallic, Gaseous and Other Spectra Printed by the Permanent Autotype Process
Once I developed the first test, I was pleased to note that a pattern of light was traced onto
the black tissue, which I subsequently transferred onto paper (Figure 219). The lines traced
varied in density, which was due to the strength of the rays. The rays gradated from a faint
grey which depicted cloud cover, through to mid grey as partial cloud cover and finally into
the dark blacks, which represented intense sunshine. Every day, during each hour of exposure,
different patterns of lines would be formed by sunshine and clouds, which evidenced the suns

movement across the daytime sky. Physically evident was the dragging of sunlight across the
surface of the carbon tissue. The mechanism I had put into place enabled a more literal light
drawing to be created by the elements themselves. This process did not employ glass filters
and the process was more rigid than the Glass studies: Series 1-7, however, I found the resultant
images to be reminiscent of this earlier work with vertical lengths of glass. The linear
characteristics of the compositions were also suggestive of spectroscopic images, such as
those in Figure 221219 and Joseph Fraunhofers dark absorption lines in the solar spectrum,
which I cited in chapter 2:3:2. The distinctive compositions of vertical lines traced onto a
horizontally formatted paper, in the spectral and solar studies and from my solar camera, were
all reminiscent of mapping, tracing and sequencing light.
Solar Diffraction: Series 4 proved to be a new initiative in my research into drawing with light,
primarily because drawing tools such as glass or water filters were not used to trace sunlight
onto carbon tissues. At its most fundamental, the solar camera enabled the sun to mark its
own path across the sky, edited by environmental conditions. The images are light drawings
traced and edited by nature, unaided by human intervention. This aspect of the research was
halted due to lack of time, but nevertheless it suggested significant potential for future
research.

Chapter 5 Conclusion
5:1 Drawing with Light: The Pencil of Nature
William Henry Fox Talbots use of metaphors is explored in chapters 1 and 2 of this research
into Drawing with Light, particularly the nomenclature of The Pencil of Nature220 and
Photogenic DrawingsThe Process by Which Natural Objects May be Made to Delineate
Themselves, Without the Aid of the Artist's Pencil221. The principle analogy, of nature possessing a
pencil of light with which she was capable of delineating her own image, is a singularly
significant concept about light. This concept formed the basis of my research. Could light be
literally traced or dragged across a surface to form an image of itself? How would the sun
make such a drawing? What linear and tonal characteristics would form the pictorial aesthetic?
Did a visual precedence exist for drawing with light by essentially photographic means? Were
there examples in the pre-history of photography for this genre of work, wherein patterns of
light derived from the agency of light were traced directly onto the surface of a chemically
sensitised material?
Drawing with Light, poses two distinct questions. Firstly, how could the physical and conceptual
characteristics of photography be successfully employed within the precepts of drawing to
explore visual patterns inherent in light and shadow? And secondly, how could pigment
processes222 be integrated with the physical activity and production of mark making to create
drawings that are dependent on this light? To investigate these questions, I created a
framework for practical studio investigations of light and shadow using natural and artificial
light. Gum bichromate and transferable carbon were also examined as surfaces onto which the
medium of light was traced. Whilst undertaking the practical investigations, I referenced
scientific, optical and proto-photographic history. These contextual references not only
informed the research but directly influenced the direction of the studio practice.

After undertaking a basic examination of the pigment processes in chapter 3: Preliminary
Investigations of Direct and Transferable Carbon, six studio projects were developed in chapter 4:
The Research Diary. The projects were studies of reflected, refracted, diffracted light and
transmitted shadow from which a taxonomy for Drawing with Light was developed. In the
Research Diary the activities of mark making and tracing were examined by using glass, vinyl
films, lenses, foils and water, as singular or combined filters, to reveal and simultaneously edit
the hidden characteristics of light. The movement of sunlight in relation to time was also
examined as a series of sequential artworks. On completion of this research, two distinct
themes emerged. Firstly, the influence Talbot had on this research Drawing with Light through
his scientific, philological and theological activities and secondly, the significance of time and
movement to the production of light drawings.
5:1:1 Talbots Influence
I explored the textual references, from as early as the 17th century, and visual evidence from
the 19th century, which is outlined in chapter 2:1:1 Proto-Photography and Optics. Thomas
Youngs Royal Society223 demonstration with Newtons Rings and silver salts in 1803 heralded
the dawn of optical research by photo-graphy / light-drawing. This experiment was momentarily
traced by the agency of light onto paper and was significant because it was the first pictorial
representation of light. Four decades later the concept of drawing with light, and the physical
evidence of that activity, was provided by Talbots chemical, scientific and optical researches in
the first half of the 19th century. I presented archival evidence in the form of Photogenic
Drawings by Talbot and by William Crookes in chapter 2:3 Photogenic Drawings of Light, Derived
by the Agency of Light. These drawings represented patterns formed by polarised light through
crystals, which were traced onto salt paper by Talbot and onto wet collodion by Crookes.
These are the earliest known examples of scientific photographs depicting visible and invisible
rays. I was struck by the unique visual appearance of these patterns, formed of light and dark
tonal values that can only be obtained through the medium of photography. Further more they
had transparent and opaque characteristics, as a result of being traced onto glass and paper.
As a consequence of these observations, glass and paper were chosen as drawing supports for
this research. Another significant observation of these images was their reversibility as either

black images on a white background or as a white foreground on a black background. This
theme was to prove influential in my studio investigations of light and shadow in chapter 4:1
Preliminary Light and Shadow Studies Leading to a Hypothesis, which led to the creation of a new
term, Negative Shadows, describing an inverted pattern of light.
In the earlier chapter, Henry Fox Talbots Dame Nature and her Pencil of Light, in chapter 2:2,
Talbots fascination with the concept of light, as a divine entity capable of self representation,
was conveyed through his work on the chemical property and symbolism of light. He
successfully married the physical with the symbolic through the nomenclature of the new art
of photo-graphy / light drawing and scia-graphy / shadow drawing. This fascination with the
physical and theological facet of light made Talbots choice of terminology and metaphor all
the more significant. This perception was particularly prevalent in the Victorian age, when
photo-chemical activities were seen to be synonymous with alchemy and light with divinity.
Talbots influence was also evident in my choice of research methods. His important discovery
that bichromates harden colloids led to the invention of pigment processes by Alphonse
Poitevin in 1855 and consequently to Fargier and Swans developments of single and double
carbon transfer224. The activity of drawing, and drawings historical association with pigment
processes in the 19th century, informed and directed my choice of carbon for this research.
The rich tonality, quality and versatility of carbon transfer, in contrast to gum bichromate,
made it a suitable material for investigating light. Although exposures times took up to 14
minutes, the slow time frame was to prove advantageous to the production of light drawings.
5:1:2 Motion and Time
In chapter 4:3 Converging Light Studies with Flexible & Inflexible Media and 4:4 Glass Studies, two
forms of movement were identified as fundamental actions for drawing with light. The first
motion involved the flexing, turning, bending and shaking of foils, poly-vinyl, acetate and
melinex filters in sunlight. The patterns formed by refracted and converging light rays were
projected as kinetic forms onto the studio walls. These proved to be difficult to fix in one
position due to their ephemeral nature and speed of motion. The kinetic forms were,

therefore, filmed by digital video rather than traced onto carbon tissue. The edited footage
took the form of a series of sequential snapshots, woven together as a single sequence. The
transit of the sun in the sky had no impact on the formation of the kinetic forms, because each
unedited film clip was no longer than 15 seconds and in some instances only 4 seconds. The
patterns, therefore, were like frozen moments in time. The motion of the forms was
controlled with subtle and gestured hand actions, affecting composition and the quality of tonal
and linear marks. The refractive origin of those marks, however, remained dependent on the
reflective action of the sun on the surface of the filters.
Figure 222. Wilson, Richard, Halo (working detail) (1986).Installation created for the Venice Biennale, Made with
wood, thermal paper and lead
Figure 223. Wilson, Richard, Halo (1986).Installation created for the Venice Biennale, Made with wood, thermal paper
and lead

A useful analogy for this association of light with motion is found in a drawing installation by
Richard Wilson entitled Halo, which was created for the Venice Biennale in 1986225. Wilson
created his drawing by ejecting molten lead onto the surface of heat sensitive thermal paper
(comparable with light sensitive paper) mounted onto a large tilting dais (Figure 222). As a
result of moving his entire body in circular motions on the dais, whilst ejaculating the molten
lead, blue gestural traces appeared in the places where lead had been shot across the surface
of the paper (Figure 223). This thermal reaction was analogous with the refractive action of
sunlight on vinyl films. The environmental conditions of production and the visual outcome of
these two examples were somewhat different. Nonetheless, the thermal agency of heat and
the refractive agency of light, augmented by the motion generated by mark making, were both
a mechanism from which tonal and linear patterns were formed and consequently traced.
Wilsons Halo also shared distinct pictorial characteristics with the modulated drawings from
chapter 4:3 and similarly with Talbots images of polarised light through crystals. These visual
correlations were evident, particularly in Talbot and Wilsons work, as tension. Tension
between light and dark, radiating linear forms caught in a visual time frame and contrasting
geometric forms. In relation to time, Talbots transmutation of light was slow, Wilsons
transmutation of heat was immediate, and his actions performative, and in my work, the
transmutation of light was captured as rapid sequences of motion.
These visual abstractions traced by video were presented as Negative Shadows. Several short
edited films, such as Burning Mirror I, II and III, had aesthetic correlations with charcoal
drawings, which were perceptible as black gradations of tone and line forming a visual tension
between light and dark areas in the composition. The hand drawn appearance of the kinetic
forms and their associated visual and auditory qualities were a significant and unexpected
development in drawing with light. These modulated drawings aided my perception of motion
and its significance to this research. Additionally, the association of light terms with drawing
terms, which I had outlined as a taxonomy, for Drawing with Light, in chapter 4:1 Preliminary
Light and Shadow Studies Leading to a Hypothesis, also proved to be significant. The insight gained
from these kinetic studies, which were an unintended consequence of examining light and

shadow, led me to uncover the second form of movement as an action for drawing with light:
the motion of the sun.
The second motion was generated by the slow transit of the sun in the sky. In this scenario
the glass filters were placed into a fixed position for the duration of a 10-14 minute carbon
exposure to the sun. The fractured rays of the sun, transmitted, reflected and refracted
through the glass filters were quite literally dragged across the surface of the carbon tissues.
The etymon of the word drawing is dragan, an old English word to drag, to pull and to draw226.
An intriguing appendage to this is that the etymon of the word trace is trahere, from the Latin
to drag, making the two words virtually interchangeable227. Dragging and tracing are, therefore,
another means of conveying the drawing action. When the suns rays are dragged across the
sensitised surface, a trace is left along its path. Contrary to the visible motion, apparent in the
time frame of the digital videos, the motion of the sun on carbon is virtually invisible. The
patterns of light and shadow are, however, distinctive in that tonal and linear details,
chiaroscuro, and spatial depth are formed as a direct result of a 10-14 minute solar transit. If
this transit had been reduced to seconds as opposed to minutes on a more light sensitive
surface, the quality and visual effects may have been quite altered. Furthermore, the spatial
linear compositions may not have appeared drawn, as if by hand, but more photographic. This
longer time frame was significant. A slow exposure time enabled the sun to alter the visual and
aesthetic nature of the marks. Environmental conditions, such as intermittent appearance of
clouds moving fast or slow, augmented the drawing power of the sun by altering the tonal
values to soft or sharp, light or dark. Additionally, when the rays of the sun were more
intense, as it can be in the summer with a higher index of ultra violet radiation, the linear
patterns on carbon appeared distinct and the tonal values had greater contrast. This was
clearly evidenced in chapter 4:6 Solar Camera, in which the environmental conditions
determined the pictorial composition of the Negative Shadows formed through a diffraction
grating. The pictorial patterns of light in chapter 4:4 Glass Studies were constantly changing,
depending on the vagaries of the climatic conditions and the position of the sun to the glass
construction.

I began to create series of works that were sequential in order that the effect of this solar
transition was conveyed more distinctly from one drawing to the next. Though the movement
of light in these sequences was subtle the series of works now had a visual and conceptual
correlation with the kinetic drawings created with video, which were also sequential. Individual
carbon images, whether transferred onto glass, or onto paper supports, were compositionally
distinctive, and were accentuated more when viewed as a series. The concept of time was
more noticeable when the viewer had to physically move from one panel to the next to view
the series of carbon drawings, such as Drawing Veiled Light in chapter 4:4:7 Series 6.
In both modes of motion a mechanism was set into place which enabled the sun to reveal and
trace its refractive and reflective patterns as tonal gradations and linear marks, composed on a
two dimensional plane. These two dimensional Negative Shadows appeared distinctly spatial and
figurative, albeit abstract. The element of time was the crucial factor for my assertion that the
sun was capable of self representation in a more literal sense than Talbot had proposed. The
supposition was now supported with a visual body of work, particularly studies I had
undertaken in chapter 4:6 Solar Camera. In this project, a solar camera was built and used
indoors and outdoors in order that experiments with the sun could be more versatile in
execution. The diffraction grating examined in one of the studies, proved to be a latent
development of my research. In it, the sun was enabled to trace its daily passage onto carbon
tissue, over a five hour period. The composition and pictorial qualities derived from linear and
tonal marks traced were directly influenced by climatic conditions. The light drawings
produced drew attention to the potential use of this mechanism for developing unique
pictorial compositions, entirely controlled by the movement and position of the sun in the sky,
and by the vagaries of the climate.
As a result of studio investigations in the Studio Diary, I showed that by adopting the taxonomy
of light I was able to create a parallel taxonomy for drawing with light that was dependent on
the precepts of drawing, such as mark, trace, edit, shade and erase.

5:1:3 Carbon
In the Glass Studies in chapter 4:4, carbon proved to be the ideal choice as the method and
material of this research Drawing with Light. To my knowledge carbon has never been used as a
material for tracing direct abstractions of light, nor as a pictorial element in an installation,
which makes the basis of my research unique. As a process with minimal water based organic
constituents and as a pigment transfer system, carbon is sufficiently versatile to be able to be
transferred onto any surface to produce continuous tone images. The production of carbon
tissues may be labour intensive, but the potential for directly drawing with light, or the
combination of carbon with digital negatives, is evident as I have proved in this research. In the
19th century carbon was primarily a means of making permanent reproductions of photographs
and drawings. In the 21st century, carbon has the potential to be a versatile medium in the
hands of fine artists wishing to push the boundaries of image production but wishing to
develop a tactile studio based process. This research may have focused on using carbon as a
monochrome process, but it has shown, in chapter 4:2 Experiments with Soot, Ink and Graphite,
that polychrome tissues or multiple transfers of individual colours can be undertaken.
Both glass and paper were successfully used as supports for the carbon transfer. The quality
and permanence of this pigment transfer onto paper was more stable than on glass but the
visual aesthetic of carbon on both supports, conveyed as either opaque or translucent, was
striking. Glass, though more vulnerable, was more advantageous than paper as a material for
contemporary installations within an architectural or outdoor context. This technical facet of
this work needed further development, but the potential for applying carbon and glass to
contemporary installations was evident in a project I was engaged in, in chapter 4:5 Westonbirt
Arboretum: Carbon and Glass Installation.

~ Appendices
~ Appendix 1 Glossary
Albumen
This protein is derived from the white of an egg and is water-soluble in cold water. It can be
used fresh or bought as a pasteurised powder from a supermarket. I did find that fresh
albumen, beaten thoroughly, left to stand for several hours and subsequently filtered, was as
easy to apply as the dry product. The benefit of the dry albumen is its ease of storage. Eight
grams of dry albumen dissolved in 60ml of water forms a solution equal to the fresh white of
one egg. Albumen is coagulated by heat at 150f or 65.5c and by alcohol. Historically It had
been used as a substrate for albumenised papers, glass, for photo-etching228 and as a binder for
watercolours and tempera229.
Chromium Salts
Potassium Dichromate, K2Cr2O7, (a known carcinogen) is a bright orange-red alkaline salt; a

chromium compound obtained from chrome iron ore, which is only soluble in water. It is one
of three dichromate salts that can be used for chromium-based processes. It is favoured above
the other two salts; and historically known as potassium bichromate. The other salts are
sodium and ammonium dichromate; the latter being soluble only in ether or alcohol. By itself,
it is not light sensitive. It acquires this property when it is absorbed by organic colloids such as
gum arabic, albumen and gelatine. A chemical reaction, better understood as a polymerisation,
takes place. This results in the irreversible hardening or tanning of the previously soluble
colloids. This process is greatly accelerated by exposure to ultra violet light. Dichromate is a
poisonous chemical and must be handled with extreme care. Large quantities of old
dichromate must be given to specialist handlers for disposal.
Chromium Strength
A dichromate solution is prepared by mixing the salt to distilled water. The strength of this
solution varies according to published sources, ranging from 2% through to an 11-12%
saturated solution. The measurements are 11-12gm of dichromate to every 100ml of water. I
began by preparing a 4% and a 7% solution for use with gum bichromate (gum bichromate) and
found there appeared to be no visible difference in the images produced with the two different
strengths. However, the exposure times were affected to greater or lesser degrees, by the

concentration of dichromate. For carbon tissue sensitisation, a 2-3% solution of potassium

dichromate is the recommended standard.
Colloids
The name is derived from the Greek kolla (glue) and eidos (appearance); colloid is the word
given to water soluble, non-crystalline substances. There are two forms of colloid: Lyophilic and
Lyophobic (Eastman 2001). The former is solvent in water; the latter is not, it is however
soluble in mineral spirits, alcohol and resin. This research has focused solely on three
particular types of lyophilic colloid: gum arabic, albumen and gelatine; the most commonly
used colloids for historic photographic processes. Gelatine is still extensively used in the
manufacture of modern photographic papers as a substrate for the compound of silver salts.
Contrast
Contrary to recent research on dichromate salts230(Zoete 1988), traditional publications state

that the strength of dichromate can be altered to adjust the contrast of an image. A greater
concentration results in less contrast, a lesser concentration in greater contrast. The results
are only slight. A more effective contrast control is obtained by altering the quantity of
pigment to gelatine. The Autotype Company231 produced 3 different grades of carbon tissue in
a large range of colours, prepared with greater or lesser quantities of pigment, and sold for
use with negatives of different densities. In my own tests, I have found that a 2-3% pigment
concentration will produce an extensive tonal range and a 7-8% pigment concentration will
produce a much narrower tonal range.
Developed Out Paper
In contrast to this, many silver based processes use what is termed as the developed out
method of producing images. This process requires a minimum period of exposure, a fraction
of a second, depending on the light conditions. No change is visible on the surface of the
paper. The latent image is only made visible by applying a developing chemical agent, which
amplifies the action of light232.
Dichromate Salts See Chromium Salts

Diffraction
In Physics, diffraction is "a deviation in the direction of a wave at the edge of an obstacle in its path"
and "any phenomenon caused by diffraction and interference of light such as the formation of light
and dark fringes by the passage of light apart + frangere - to break. A diffraction grating is a glass
plate or a mirror with a large number of equidistant through a small aperture."233 The word comes
from the Latin diffringere - to shatter, from dis - parallel lines or grooves on its surface. It
caused diffraction of transmitted or reflected light ultraviolet radiation, or X-rays. A I mm thin
aperture of any given length will also function as a diffraction grating.
Exposure Times
The speed of exposure for transferable carbon and gum bichromate is dependent on the
nature of the light source used. From my own research I have established that if direct sun is
used, an average exposure time would be 4 10 minutes. With Ultra Vitalux Mercury Vapour
Sun Lamps an average of 10 20 minutes is needed and with low-pressure Mercury Vapour
discharge lamps Black light Blue fluorescent tubes, at least 20 - 30 minutes. These times were
dependent on a standardised distance between the light source and exposed surface. For the
Ultra Vitalux Mercury Vapour Sun Lamps this had been set at 400mm and for the Black Light Blue
light box, 350mm.
Gelatine
Gelatine is a complex protein obtained by partial hydrolysis of the collagen contained in animal
bones and skins. It was the traditional choice of colloid for photomechanical and photographic
processes such as single or double transfer carbon, collotype, photogravure, woodburytype,
photolithography and bromide papers. It will absorb cold water readily, and dissolve easily in
hot water, though repeated heating can degrade its gelling properties. It is also very effective
as a size for papers or as a substrate for glass, metal or other non-permeable materials, for use
with transferable carbon. Few sources specify in detail the specific source and bloom of
gelatine needed for the production of carbon tissues. Some modern publications recommend
cooking gelatine, which is not graded and can only be bought in smaller quantities, or the use
of photographic grade: 150 250 bloom of gelatine234. As a result of my discussions with
technical personnel at both Autotype International (makers of carbon tissue for photogravure)
and Croda Colloids Ltd. (who were the primary suppliers of gelatine for industry until 2003) as well
as sourcing supplementary information on the Internet (Europe 2002), I was able to ascertain
that at present there are two primary sources of photographic quality gelatine:
Acid - Ossein Gelatine: 50 300 bloom, with low viscosity, ph levels 7 - 9
Limed Ossein Gelatine: 50 300 bloom, with high viscosity, ph levels 4.7 5

If the bloom of gelatine is greater, then it is harder, and has a higher melting point; it absorbs a
large quantity of water. The lower the bloom, the softer the gelatine and the lower its melting
point; in this state it absorbs less water. The normal melting point of gelatine is approximately
35c, but once it has been mixed with dichromate salts and exposed to light, the tanning
action renders the gelatine insoluble below 95c (nearly boiling point). In this state its ability to
absorb water is greatly diminished.
Glycerine
Historically sugar was an ingredient introduced to improve the manufacture of carbon tissue,
by preventing the gelatine from desiccating and becoming brittle235. Glycerine is a 20th century
product and can be used in place of sugar though some publications recommend the use of
both constituents. Glycerine functions as a humectant - holds on to water - and serves to keep
the gelatine from drying out. Sugar functions as a plasticizer. Sugar and glycerine also aid the
gelatine substrate to adhere to the modern poly-vinyl supports that are recommended for the
manufacture of carbon tissues. Sugar enables the gelatine to dissolve with more ease and
speeds up the rate of development in the hot water bath.
Gum Arabic
This acacia gum is a natural resin from the bark of the Acacia Senegal trees. It is water-soluble
in cold water, insoluble in alcohol and was historically the primary choice of colloid for the
gum bichromate process (Gum Bichromate), from which the process was named.
Hardening & Preserving Agents
Potassium dichromate, potassium alum, chrome alum and formalin (an aqueous solution of
formaldehyde) are all hardening agents used as additional chemicals to harden gelatine, either
as size for paper or as a substrate for glass. Ox gall, formalin and thymol (in an alcohol
solution) are also known preservatives. They are all used in extremely small quantities in
these processes.
Light
Light is "the medium of illumination that makes sight possible and is also called visible radiation"236
Electromagnetic radiation has wavelengths from about 380 - 780 nanometers. The solar
radiation is also made up of invisible light, infra red, ultra violet and gamma rays.

Artificial light used in traditional photography, such as in darkroom enlargers, does not emit
enough ultra violet rays for historic processes. This is because many of these processes, such
as carbon are less sensitive to yellow light; in contrast to silver gelatine papers.
Bulbs and fluorescent tubes with different ultra violet characteristics (wavelengths) can be
purchased to suit the type of work being undertaken237. For this research the following lights
were constructed, Ultra Vitalux Mercury Vapour Sun Lamps (300watts each) and low-pressure
Mercury Vapour discharge lamps Black light Blue fluorescent tubes (30 watts each),
recommended for use with carbon and gum bichromate.
Negatives
1. Continuous Tone Film: The characteristics of continuous tone film are an even tonal
gradation of tiny stochastic silver grains on a gelatine emulsion: a random arrangement of very
small ink spots that when varied in concentration, simulate gradation. This is the standard
photographic film used in the photographic industry. The Ilford Ortho Plus film is insensitive to
red light and is recommended for creating inter-negatives. It is available in sheet form and
could be used for contact printing.
2. Dura Tran or Dura Clear Film: As an alternative to continuous tone film and where large
negtives are needed, it is possible to get the image file produced as a DuraTran or DuraClear
positive film238, such as those produced for commercial light boxes.
3. Imagesetter: Another option for creating a half tone film for contact printing, is to take
your image file to a specialist Image setter (specialists in producing screen printing films) to
output the work as a stochastic half tone film239.
4. Transparent Inkjet Films & Photocopies: I examined different sources of OHP film: Folex,
Cotech, Dataline and Pictorico for printing my inkjet negatives onto. OHP films are generally
problematic because of poor ink absorption. The first three films I tested were UK sourced
and were very similar in surface finish and print quality. Conversely, the Pictorico film240 was
sourced from the United States and was unusual because of a new patented coating; a
transparent ceramic substrate engineered to receive greater quantities of ink without losing
image definition. I printed sample images on each film and found all of them to lack the density
of black needed for blocking out light. The Pictorico film did have the best definition and print
quality of all four samples and showed great potential as a material on which to print digital
negatives. In combination with an image produced using the colour table method, I imagined it
would be very successful. But this success was dependent on many factors, not least making
the contrast adjustment curve accurate.

Photocopies on the other hand are cheap to acquire and use denser more opaque powder inks,
which make them suitable for blocking out ultra violet light. However, the tonal range is very
limited and the quality of machine printouts can be variable. It is a good medium to use if
contrast and immediacy are needed for preliminary work.
5. Digital Inkjet Printing: The primary benefit of using desktop printers is the way in which
they have been designed to simulate the grain formation of silver deposits in a conventional
photographic paper or film. This patterning is called stochastic: a random arrangement of very
small ink spots that, when varied in concentration, simulate gradation. Semi professional
printers like the range that Epson offer, are very affordable and have extremely high print
resolutions, making them very suitable for producing continuous tone digital negatives, for
contact printing. The main problem with inkjet negatives is that inks used in desktop printers
are not designed to block out ultra violet light. Conventional films and screen printing films
used by imagesetters are made of dense silver deposits and are ideal for blocking out light:
visible and invisible. Further more the quality of the printed image, producing from a desktop
printer, is dependent on colour management settings and on the number and types of
cartridges used. Whilst printing a greyscale image, the black ink option can be selected for
printing, in this scenario only the single black cartridge is used. The results are extremely
poor: lacking density and tonal range. If a greyscale image is printed using the colour
management option, then all five colours and one black cartridge are used to print the image.
The consequence is that the images have greater density, but because the black is made up of
coloured inks, the quality is still not good enough for blocking out light. Alternatively,
Quadtone black ink cartridges can be used to simulate grey scale colour by replacing the cyan,
pale cyan, magenta, pale magenta and yellow colour cartridges with five shades of grey241.
These specialist inks are designed to help eliminate the speckling of output that can be caused by
the unequal absorption of light by dots of different colours242, and to obtain a full tonal range for
archival black and white photographic printing. Though the quality of the gradation in the
image is rectified by using Quadtone inks, the problem of density still remains. Desktop inks
are basically not designed to block out light.
6. Clich Verre / Glass Negatives: Clich verre is a hand drawn negative and the name literally
translates as glass picture, initially termed by William Henry Fox Talbot as Photogenic Etching in
an Addendum to his first paper on Photogenic Drawing in 1839243. The Addendum was
submitted and read to the Royal Society on the 21st march 1839. He had devised this
technique at least 5 years previously, during his first experiments with photography. The
method was adopted and used extensively by late 19th century French painters, such as Corot
and Millet244, to produce reproductions of their drawings, without the expense of producing
etchings. For a detailed review of clich verre please see Glassman and Symmes Clich Verre:
Hand-Drawn, Light-Printed.

Photoglyphic Engraving
Talbots discovery that colloids are hardened by potassium bichromate salts in 1852 eventually
led to his patenting a new process called Photographic Engraving in 1852245. In this new
invention copper is coated with gelatine and dichromate, an image placed in contact with the
plate and exposed to light. The plate was then immersed in a bath of acid; the hardened
gelatine resisting the action of acid, whilst the softened gelatine was bitten into. An
improvement in Photoglyphic Engraving was patented in 1858246. The great improvements
made to this process led to modern developments, specifically in the technique known as
Photogravure247. Talbot was also known to have used the term Photographic Engraving, when
describing improvements he made to the Photoglyphic process248.
Photogenic Engraving / Etching
Photogenic Engraving, sometimes inter-changeable with Photogenic Etching is a term William

Henry Fox Talbot employed in 1839 to describe his invention for creating hand drawn
negatives, my method of imitating etchings on copperplate249, which has since been named
Clich Verre. Priority for this technique is clearly evident in an Addendum to his first paper on
Photogenic Drawing in 1839 sent to the Royal Society, which was read on the 21st of March
1839.
Pigments
Colours can be derived from both organic and synthetic sources, though historically they have
been primarily the former. Commercial makes of watercolours can be purchased. However,
for large quantities, as is needed in carbon photography for the production of carbon tissues, I
have found that using dry pigments to make colours to be more economical, though more
labour is needed to disperse the pigment into a binder250. This can be achieved by using a
muller with a glass, stone or marble slab. Certain colours have trace elements of chromium,
such as chrome yellows, chrome greens, vermillion reds and ultramarine blues. These
pigments are known to react to potassium dichromate by precipitating premature tanning
(hardening) in gelatine and are best avoided.
Polarisation
Polarity is "The condition of a body or system in which it has opposing physical properties at different
points, esp. magnetic poles or electric charge". In physics polarisation is "the process or phenomenon
in which the waves of light or other electromagnetic radiation are restricted to certain directions of
vibration". Polarisation is used in the study of crystals, interference figures generated by

polarised light help scientists to identify minerals as being either non- crystalline (isotropic) or
crystalline (anisotropic).
Preserving Agents - See Hardening.
Print Out Paper
Chromium processes are unusual in that they are similar to both a print out and a developed out
method of producing photographic prints. Print out paper is specially formulated to darken
instantaneously if it is exposed to light. The unexposed elements of an image remain
unchanged in proportion to the density of black in the negative; once the image has acquired
the correct density of black the print is removed from the light and immersed in a fixing agent.
Problem Tissues
Figure 224. Problem Tissues 1 (2002) Black Carbon Tissue, crystalline and bacterial patterns
An excessive use of dichromate salts in a formula can precipitate premature tanning251 of a

colloid and cause crystalline or bacterial patterns to appear on the prepared tissue surfaces,
rendering them unusable (Figure 224). There are numerous other factors that can contribute
to premature tanning of a colloid. This could be due to excessive heat, damp conditions, long
drying times or excessive use of glycerine252. Furthermore, certain pigments, ox gall, potassium
alum, chrome alum or formalin can harden the colloid. Most publications state that freshly
sensitised carbon tissues, unless refrigerated or frozen, do not keep well beyond 48 hours.
Contrary to this information, The Autotype Company did patent an air tight storage box in

1901, called the Autotype Pressure Box, designed with a receptacle for a special desiccating
compound that enabled a safe storage of the sensitised tissues up to a period of 3 months253.
Once dichromate salts have been combined with a colloid, the process of polymerisation
begins, though inconsequential to begin with, this dark effect254 as it was termed, begins to
accelerate after 48 hours, even if the sensitised material is kept in complete darkness. Unlike
silver salts in photography, dichromate salts continue to act on colloids, even after removal
from an ultra violet light source after exposure. This was called the continuing effect255,
therefore it is vital that the carbon tissue is developed in water as soon as possible after
exposure, to wash away the salts and cease the acceleration of tanning.
Reflection
Reflect is "to undergo or cause to undergo a process in which light, other electromagnetic radiation,
sound, panicles, etc.. are thrown back after impinging on a surface" and reflection as "the act of
reflecting or the state of being reflected and something reflected or the image so produced as by a
mirror"256, It is from the Latin reflectere - to bend back. A highly reflective substrate will deflect
a percentage of sun light from the reflector to a given surface. In transparent media, the
remaining percentage of light is transmitted through the matrix. Conversely, mirrors deflect all
the rays of the sun, because of the impermeable and highly reflective silver coating behind the
transparent layer of glass.
Refractions
Refraction is "The change in direction of a propagating wave, such as light or sound, in passing from
one medium to another in which it has a different velocity". Refractor is defined as "an object or
material that refracts"257. The word comes from the Latin refractus - broken up. In the right
environmental conditions, transparent filters such as glass, water, plastics and crystals can
refract the sun's rays into a visible spectrum of colours, known as the solar spectrum.
Shadow
Shadow is "a dark image or shape cast on a surface by the interception of light rays by an opaque
body". It is also "an area of relative darkness, the dark portions of a picture"258. The etyma of shade
is skotos in Greek, which means darkness.

Spectroscopy
Spectroscopy is the science of analysing spectra by employing spectrometers and

spectroscopes. The techniques are extensively used in chemical analysis and in studying the
properties of atoms, molecules and ions.
Sugar - See Glycerine.
Supports (Temporary & Final)
Quality Print / Drawing Papers: To achieve satisfactory results, an appropriate weight of a

paper, sufficiently sized and hardened is required, that is unlikely to buckle substantially on
drying, from repeated immersion in water. I used the following papers, chosen for their
differences in weight and texture:
Aquarelle Arches Paper, 300gm weight, Hot Pressed

Fabriano Satinata, 200gm weight, Hot Pressed
Somerset Satin, 300gm weight, Hot Pressed
Bockingford Rough, 300gm Weight, Rough
Fabriano Water colour Paper, 280gm weight, Rough
Polyester Vinyl & Waxed Paper Supports: Polyester is of the poly-vinyl family of plastics and is
used by Autotype International for the production of pigment sheets for Photogravure,
technically termed as carbon tissue. They recommend it as the most suitable material for
supporting for the pigmented gelatine layer. I have since discovered that draft films and
melinex vinyl films are good alternatives to polyester. Melinex is 100% transparent film.
Glass, Metal, Ivory & Ceramic Supports: All these materials are appropriate supports for the
pigment processes as stated in all 19th century publications on carbon. Experience has shown
that paper is better suited to gum bichromate. However, carbon tissues are transferable to
any surface that has been appropriately prepared with a hardened gelatine substrate. In the
19th century, monochrome or tri-colour carbon tissues were transferred onto glass for use as
Magic Lantern Slides259, before the advent of cellulose colour film. The Photoceramic Process was
invented in 1855, employing silver salts. By 1859, however, ammonium dichromate, mixed with
sugar and pigment, was found to be superior compound to all previous developments in silver
and iron salts260.

Temperature
Direct carbon images are developed in cold water, no specific temperature is given for this.
Transferable carbon however, is specified as follows. The temperature of the dichromate bath
for sensitisation is generally recommended cold, 13 18C, though it could be altered
depending on the climate. The Autotype Companys in-house literature recommends an
optimum, consistent temperature of 13C; the colder the temperature, the slower the
chemical reaction of dichromate with gelatine261. In a conversation with technical staff at
Autotype International I was recommended the following immersion times for carbon tissues:
Paper supports - 2 minutes in a 3% solution of Dichromate
Polyester supports - 1 minute in a 3% solution of Dichromate
Sensitised carbon tissues take approximately 2-3 hours to dry. This depends on the thickness
of the gelatine substrate. If the dichromate is added to the warm pigmented gelatine formula as
a pre-sensitised tissue262, then drying time takes approximately 30-36 hours, which can lead to
problems with hardening in the tissue.
Transferring carbon tissues to their final support, after exposure, takes place in a bath of cold
water, making sure it is no higher than 20C. For subsequent development, carbon tissues
require immersion in two baths. The first bath is prepared at 43C and the tissues, sandwiched
to their support, immersed for approximately 5 - 20 minutes. After 1 - 5 minutes the gelatine
begins to visibly ooze from the edges of the tissue. This is a sign that the gelatine has begun to
dissolve. After 20 minutes of immersion, the temporary support is removed and the
transferred image is left to develop in water that should be no more than 40C. Finally the
developed image is immersed in a bath of cold water, so that the remaining gelatine is gelled.
Transmission
Transmit is "to pass or cause to go from one place or person to another; transfer" "to allow
the passage of panicles, energy etc,.." and it comes from the Latin transmittere - to send
across. When light is transmitted through a transparent or translucent material, textures and
patterns appearing as shadows are cast which are formed by the internal or surface matrix of
that material.
Water (Distilled)
Due to the variable quality of water, available in different regions, distilled water is historically
recommended, though not absolutely necessary for the production of carbon tissues and for
the preparation of dichromate solutions. As an alternative, filtered water can be used or cold
pre-boiled water.

Wetting Agent
Photoflo263 is a wetting agent used in the photographic industry. This agent has an alcohol base
that acts to reduce the surface tension of film whilst drying, helping to eliminate air bubbles.
Ox gall is the equivalent of a wetting agent and is used in the manufacture of artists paints as a
dispersing agent for pigments, and as a preservative. Another wetting agent referenced is
thymol, which is dissolved in alcohol264. Contrary to published references, I do not
recommend the use of any wetting agents in the production of carbon tissues. A chemical
reaction with the dichromate is likely and can lead to a premature hardening of the gelatine.

~ Appendix 2 Chemistry
Understanding the Chemical Reaction
Colloids are made up, of a compound of protein segments, these segments, also termed
polymer chains (Diagram 1), have positive and negative electrical charges along their entire
length, and are in constant motion because of their attraction and repulsion to each other.
Fresh solutions of albumen and gum arabic dissolved in cold water are in this molecular state
whilst wet. However, gelatine is a complex protein and cannot dissolve in cold water; it
requires an initial period of immersion in cold water in order to absorb 6-10 times its own
volume. Once in this state, it is gently heated to 36C into a uniform and fully dissolved
solution. On cooling the gelatine solution forms a gel, with repeated heating it can be dissolved
again, though there is a limit to how often gelatine can be re-heated without degrading its
ability to set; excessive heating above 50C can also have a detrimental effect on this gelling
property.
(Diagram 1)
Potassium dichromate, at a molecular level, is made up of chromium Cr2 and oxygen O7.
When dichromate is exposed to ultra violet light, the chromium and oxygen are converted
into trivalent chromium ions Cr3+ (Diagram 2).
(Diagram 2)
When dichromate salts are mixed with a colloid, such as gelatine, a chemical reaction begins
to take place, accelerated by ultra violet light. The electrically charged polymer chains attach
themselves to the chromium ions and form a network of cross-links (Diagram 3), this process
is irreversible, resulting in the insolubility of the colloid. This chain reaction begins to take
place within two to three days, once the dichromate has been applied to the gelatine, even if

the gelatine is kept in the dark. Keeping it stored in a fridge prolongs its solubility by weeks. If
the environment in which the material is stored is warm, the chain reaction takes place much
quicker.
(Diagram 3)
Chromium Development
With chromium processes a visible change is effected on the surface of the sensitised surface
after several minutes of exposure to ultra violet light. The exposed dichromate darkens, how
visible this is, is dependent on the colour of pigment used; the lighter the pigment, the more
visible the effect; the darker the pigment, the less visible it is. However, the discolouration in
the dichromate is not a means of gauging exposure times, unlike printing out paper. To see the
image, the colloid substrate has to be developed in hot water. Once the soluble parts have
melted, the final image becomes visible.
ULTRA VIOLET LIGHT
INSOLUBLE GELATINE
SOLUBLE GELATINE
Temporary Support
(Diagram 4)
The following diagrams illustrate the tanning effect of light on carbon tissue (Diagram 4). The
hardening of the gelatine is proportional to the amount of light going through the negative
during exposure to ultra violet light. To maximise on the extensive tonal characteristics of a
carbon print, the tissue has to be transferred to another support by adhering the moistened
uppermost surface of gelatine, which was in contact with the negative, to a permanent
support. This has to be done, because of the presence of a soluble layer of gelatine
underneath. If the transfer is not made and the image developed, mid-tones and highlights
would lift away.

Temporary Support Removed
SOLUBLE GELATINE Negati
INSOLUBLE GELATINE
Permanent Support
(Diagram 5)
Once the hardened layer has become firmly attached to its permanent support, the
sandwiched layers are weighted down for 20 minutes and subsequently immersed in hot water
for development. Within a short time the soluble layer begins to dissolve and the temporary
support removed (Diagram 5), to enable the remaining soluble gelatine to dissolve. The result
is a hardened gelatine layer of variable density. The thicker the gelatine is the more colour has
been trapped within its matrix and visa versa. This results in a long continuous tonal image.
This procedure for development is what makes the chromium process unique.
In gum bichromate, no transfer is necessary. The pigments, sensitizer and binder are painted
onto paper, dried and then exposed to light. The paper is placed directly into cold water for
development. The painted surface has to be very thin for the procedure to work, as the
intermediate tones tend to lift during development.

~ Appendix 3 Tissue Formulations
The comparison table was adapted and augmented by me, from a chart created by J. Wayde
Allen for the Internet265. It was an attempt by him to form a quantitative comparison of carbon
tissue formulas, by converting the various measuring units to standard (cgs) units, and
normalizing the values based on the volume of the mixture produced, in this case to 100ml of
water. He states, One problem was that the recipes seldom specified the final mixture volumes. For
this reason, it was decided to normalize all of the recipes to use a common 100 ml of water.
Normalizing on the quantity of water seemed reasonable since nearly all of the mixture components
are water soluble and as such would not increase the mixture volume appreciably.266
The gelatine blooms are not individually stated, as published sources are not specific with
regard to this. However they do give an approximate grade of 150 250 bloom. The
pigments are listed either as liquid inks, watercolours or powdered pigments and are difficult
to judge, one against the other. They can be seen as approximate values to work from.
Using this comparative chart was extremely helpful in gauging aspects or measures of one
formula against another, and to highlight abnormalities or changes in trend within the more
recently published formulas. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, there was little need for
individual practitioners to make their own carbon tissues, as this material was readily available
in numerous colours, grades and on numerous supports. The Autotype Company in London
was the principal supplier in the United Kingdom. In the present day carbon tissues are very
difficult to purchase for carbon printing. Autotype International Ltd continues to produce
carbon tissue for photogravure, but the colour and grade of the tissue is limited to a single
sheet. As demand has dropped, so has supply. The procedure for making ones own tissue is
not complex, it is however labour intensive and the quality variable if the procedures are not
correctly adhered to.
What is clear in this chart is the variability of the formulas included, and the marked difference
in the gelatine and glycerine contents. My first choice of formula was taken from Richard
Farbers book Historic Photographic Processes267. There were three listed for carbon, including
one by Pollmier. It was obvious to see once the chart was made up that Farber recommended
an approximate 500% increase of glycerine and pigment, in comparison with the other
formulas. I began my experiments using Farbers pre-sensitised formula and because of
problems with premature hardening of the gelatine tissues, I changed to a formula, which
required sensitisation subsequent to the manufacture of the tissues. The difficulty of tanning
still continued to be a problem and so I began to alter aspects of each formula, sometimes a
small increase or decreased quantity of ingredients. During this experimentation, Autotype had

recommended, by personal communication to me, to use a 15% solution of gelatine. They are
still producers of tissue for Photogravure and as such do not publish a set formula for their
product. Even though they use a 15% solution for producing their make of carbon tissue, their
process is mechanised. This has a strong bearing, on the production of these tissues by hand. I
found the 15% solution too thick and difficult to apply as a thin coating, which ultimately made
development very difficult and long. By trial and error I found the following to be the most
suitable formula, per 100ml of solution, for producing tissues by hand under the environmental
conditions of my studio.
100ml Water (filtered or pre-boiled)

10gm Gelatine (200-210 Bloom)
1ml Glycerine
40gm of Caster Sugar
2-8gm of Pigment (either liquid dispersion or dry pigment)

Chart attached separately to this file

~ Appendix 4 Preliminary Findings of Gum Bichromate and Carbon, Series 1-13
Gum Bichromate / Series 1 8
Series 1
Fabriano Satinata, 200gm weight, Hot Pressed

Somerset Satin, 300gm weight, Hot Pressed
Bockingford Rough, 300gm Weight, Rough
Fabriano Water colour Paper, 280gm weight, Rough
Formula 1 (Farber 1998)
5ml Gum Arabic 1:3 part solution (dry source)

5ml Potassium Dichromate 4% + 7% solution
0.51gm Cerulean Blue & Ivory Black (Winsor & Newton)
Formula 2
5ml Gelatine 1:5 part solution (dry source)

0.51gm Cadmium Yellow, Cerulean Blue & Ivory Black (Winsor & Newton)
Formula 3
5ml Albumen 1:6 part solution (dry source)

0.51gm Rose Madder, Cerulean Blue & Ivory Black (Winsor & Newton)
Observations
Gum Sized Paper / Gum Arabic Coating:

Fabriano Water Colour: Size was too thick, and was lifting off the paper.
Somerset Satin: With overly thick gum as size, and a gum coating, there was substantial lifting in
darker areas of the sample, it did have better mid tones.

Fabriano Satinata: Delicate mid tone in the leaf area, though the colour lifted in the darkest
areas, resulting in some loss of definition.
Bockingford Rough: A tendency for the coating to bubble and lift off all over, however there
were some mid tones present in the darkest areas.
Gum Sized Paper / Gelatine Coating:

Fabriano Water Colour: A tendency for the gelatine coating to lift off like skin, with no holding
power in the dense areas of pigment.
Somerset Satin: Very poor result: the coating lifted substantially.
Fabriano Satinata: A tendency for the coating to lift all over.
Bockingford Rough: Poor result, with no mid tones and substantial lifting of colour.
Gum Sized Paper / Albumen Coating:

Fabriano Water Colour: Good results were achieved with gum as a size for albumen; sharp
outlines and some mid tone established in the mid to light areas of the paper, with very little
lifting, though some took place in the darker areas of the coated surface.
Somerset Satin: The pigment adhered well, but details in the image lacked tonal variation.
Fabriano Satinata: Best result so far, sharp definition and no lifting of the colour. Delicate mid
tones adhered well in the darkest areas.
Bockingford Rough: Very good result; image had sharp definition, good colour and mid tone.
Albumen Sized Paper / Gum Arabic Coating:

Fabriano Water Colour: Negative result overall. Most of the coating had lifted off, leaving a
coarse and grainy surface.
Somerset Satin: Lighter areas had good mid tones in leaves. However, there was lifting and loss
of detail in the darker areas of colour.
Fabriano Satinata: Some good mid tones were present, but dark areas did begin to blister.
Bockingford Rough: None
Albumen Sized Paper / Gelatine Coating:

Fabriano Water Colour: Coating was tending to lift off like skin. In the thickly coated areas,
there was poor definition in the image, though more mid tone was present.
Somerset Satin: Poor results, with substantial amounts of colour lifting.
Fabriano Satinata: Extensive lifting, like skin, in the darkest areas of the image with an overall
lack of definition; some mid tones present.
Bockingford Rough: Very poor result, substantial amount of colour lifting.
Albumen Sized Paper / Albumen Coating:

Fabriano Water Colour: Negative result, most of the detail lifted and the colour stained the
paper where highlights should have been present.
Somerset Satin: Poor results, substantial lifting and pigment staining on the paper.
Fabriano Satinata: Image had extensive contrast, much of the coating lifting off in development
and additional staining on the paper.

Bockingford Rough: Very good results; no lifting of colour, some good mid tones and sharp
definition throughout, but there was some staining on the paper.
Gelatine Sized Paper / Gum Arabic Coating:

Fabriano Water Colour: No definition in the darker areas, fine detail had a tendency to lift off
the paper, though better mid tones were achieved.
Somerset Satin: Best results achieved with this combination. Some good mid tones in the
darkest areas of the image, tendency to lift.
Fabriano Satinata: Good mid tones were present in the image, less definition in darkest areas of
the paper.
Bockingford Rough: Poor definition, though no colour lifted off the paper.
Gelatine Sized Paper / Gelatine Coating:

Fabriano Water Colour: Good holding power overall. Excellent mid tone details present,
tendency to lift off the paper.
Somerset Satin: Good colours with little lifting, no mid tones were adhering.
Fabriano Satinata: Good definition and better mid tones in the mid to dark areas of the image,
some lifting of colour in the darkest area.
Bockingford Rough: Good coating of colour with no lifting, but the mid tones were insubstantial.
There was also some sharp definition.
Gelatine Sized Paper / Albumen Coating:

Fabriano Water Colour: Good colour, but lack of fine details in the darker areas.
Somerset Satin: Gelatine and albumen reacted with one another; substantial powder like lifting
in the darkest areas, poor definition on the edges of the image.
Fabriano Satinata: Very poor result, with coating lifting off like dead skin, the lighter section of
the image adhered satisfactorily.
Bockingford Rough: Very good results, sharply defined colour and tones, but some lifting in the
denser areas of the coating.
Uncoated Paper / Gum Arabic Coating:

Fabriano Water Colour: More mid tone present in the image, but poor definition.
Somerset Satin: Gum adhered well to the paper, good mid tones in middle sections of the
image, and no lifting.
Fabriano Satinata: Substantial staining on the paper.
Bockingford Rough: Darker areas lifted. Middle areas of paper had good definition.
Uncoated Paper / Gelatine Coating:

Fabriano Water Colour: Negative results, poor definition and no details in the image; only the
colour had adhered to the paper.
Somerset Satin: Lifting in darker areas but most odd was what appeared to be an overexposed
portion in one half of the image. Delicate mid tones were present in the leaf.
Fabriano Satinata: None

Bockingford Rough: Poor result, due in part to using a poor quality inkjet negative. No lifting of
colour, possibly because of over exposure.
Uncoated Paper / Albumen Coating:

Fabriano Water Colour: Image had sharp definition, with delicate mid tone in the leaf area.
Somerset Satin: Good definition on the image, with no lifting, and no mid tones.
Fabriano Satinata: None
Bockingford Rough: Excellent definition, the colour adhered to the paper, but no mid tones
were established.
Conclusions
Gum arabic applied, as a size under albumen was far superior to any other colloid
being used.
Uncoated paper with an albumen coating had promising results though staining onto
the paper surface was commonplace. This was common to all the uncoated samples. The size
prevents the colour from working its way into the fibres of the paper, and the soluble
dichromated colour can then be easily washed away, leaving the highlights clear.
Gum Arabic applied, as a size under gelatine was problematic with substantial lifting of
the coating. This was because the gelatine needed to dissolve at a higher temperature than the
gum, and the latter cannot withstand the necessary temperature.
Gum arabic applied, as a size under a gum coating was too thick, causing bubbling and
lifting throughout. If the pigment layer is very dense and the size thickly coated, an insoluble
layer of size remains in contact with the paper; during development this dislodges the insoluble
layer.
Albumen applied, as a size was extremely ineffective, this colloid must be more
permeable than either gum or gelatine, to the penetration of colour, resulting in substantial
staining to the paper. I would be inclined to harden the albumen prior to use.
Gelatine applied, as a size under albumen had very poor results, the two colloids do
not mix well at all. Albumen tended to lift like powder when coated onto a layer of gelatine.
Gelatine needs less time for exposure than either gum or albumen.

The best results were achieved on the Hot pressed Fabriano Satinata paper, contrary
to what some of the publications state. Surprisingly good results were also had with
Bockingford rough paper, which I thought would be too textured. Watercolour is suited to
cold pressed or rough papers, delicate watercolour marks pooled in the texture of the paper,
however, the detail tended to be grainy. Bockingford rough would be suitable for larger scale
work because of this characteristic, where sharp detail is not desired.
The darker / thicker coatings of colour tended to lift off. This may be due to an
insufficient amount of ultra violet light; large pigment content can block these rays and allow a
soluble layer of coating to dislodge the upper hardened layer.
The lighter / thinner coatings had more tonal range in them, though somewhat limited
in density. This is a characteristic of gum bichromate and one where historically, multiple
coatings of the same image have been applied and exposed onto the same paper, to establish
depth and density of colour.
Albumen was an easy colloid to apply and had good consistency and ease of
application. The mixture did not tend to bubble as much as gum arabic, nor were there such
problems with resist spots appearing on the surface of the paper whilst coating the colour on.
The stronger solution of potassium dichromate tended to stain the papers yellow,
especially the uncoated papers, even after remaining in clean water for some time. A clearing
agent can be used, but I would prefer to limit the amount of chemicals I use in this research
because of the organic and versatile nature of the process.
Most of my attempts at using continuous tone film in this series had poor results,
though many of the photograms did prove to be successful. Sharp image definition was
achievable and some delicate mid tone was acquired. The samples had to be handled with
extreme care, as the pigmented surfaces were vulnerable to touch, whilst wet.

Series 2

5ml Potassium Dichromate, 4% solution
0.51gm Winsor & Newton Watercolour
Formula 2
5ml Albumen 1:6 part solution (dry source)

0.51gm Winsor & Newton Watercolour
Observations
Paper: The best results were on the Bockingford Rough uncoated. In general, I had poor
results throughout; the albumen coatings were substantially disintegrating in the development
stage. I may have applied too much colour and gum as size, though I am certain in retrospect
that they were underexposed and needed substantially greater light.
Glass: Again, I had poor results over all. I had prepared the glass with an etched surface-
using acid etch paste - for the various coatings to adhere to. However, most of the soluble
substrates just didnt harden with an exposure of 10 minutes and lifted during developing.
Conclusions
I found I needed very long exposures to get results. The developed images had no mid
tone whatsoever, only extreme contrast. This may have been due to using the wax ground too
thickly, but to test this I took the glass samples to the dark room and exposed them under
normal conditions under an enlarger with resin coated paper and found that light had no real
problem penetrating the wax, the results had a good tonal range.
Two small tests with gelatine as a substrate and gum as a coating were successful in
retaining the image of a leaf with some fine detail. These were initial tests done with no colour
mixed in with the gum coating and one half with a little addition of colour. Subsequent to the
water development and prior to drying, I applied a concentrated solution of watercolour inks
to the samples to see what effect they would have. In order to get an even covering of colour,

I had to pool the ink onto the surface. I was quite excited by the result, as the gelatine
substrate absorbed a more intense quantity of colour than the gum coating, which is why
there is a distinct difference in tone.
Series 3
Formula 1
20ml Fresh Albumen

20ml Potassium Dichromate @ 4% solution
4gm of Ivory Black and Rose Madder (Winsor & Newton)
Formula 2
20ml Fresh Albumen & Yolk

4 -5gm of Pthalo Blue and Rose Madder (Winsor & Newton)
Observations
Uncoated / Albumen:
Fabriano Satinata: A positive result was achieved with good tonal range, density of colour and
detail on the left half of the exposed paper; there was also some mild staining. Due to
problems with achieving an even spread of light, one half of the image did not harden
sufficiently and lifted in development (Fig. 6).
Bockingford Rough: Good result overall, with some mid tones. The coating adhered well with a
20-25 minute exposure.
Gum Sized / Albumen:

Fabriano Satinata: A poor result, with most of the albumen lifting in development, most likely
the image was underexposed.
Bockingford Rough: Again the albumen lifted, though I suspect it had been over sized with gum
and the light did not penetrate far enough into the substrate to harden it.
Uncoated / Whole Egg:

Fabriano Satinata: There was much staining on the paper and contrast (Fig. 7)
Bockingford Rough: There was extreme staining, though the coating adhered well to the paper;
fine detail was achieved and though the image had a great deal of contrast (Fig. 8).

Gum Sized / Whole Egg:

Fabriano Satinata: Good adhesion, but a poor image with little detail or tonal range.
Bockingford Rough: Good result overall and the coating adhered well to the paper with some
visible detail.
Conclusions
Fresh albumen needed to be broken down by beating then left to settle and filtered, as
small insoluble particles tended to float in the solution.
The whole egg was unusually strong and could handle brushing during development,
certainly much more resistant than albumen. A brush was applied to the process, when
developing in water, to aid the removal of soluble whole egg.
Thinner negatives needed about 20 minutes of exposure; dense negatives 25-35

minutes under the sun lamps.
There was still a problem using too much size on the paper, this caused the hardened
colloid to lift. This may be remedied by hardening the size.
Albumen was smooth to apply and tended not to bubble in the way gum did with a
brush. An albumen and yolk mix was smooth and did not alter the quality and translucency of
watercolour.
Series 4
Formula 1

1gm of Ivory Black (Winsor & Newton)
Observations
Albumen Substrate / Gum Coating:

The albumen was evenly coated but some gritty particles were floating. Though the steel was
thoroughly de-greased, there were still resist marks on both sides and centre of the steel.
During development the albumen and gum lifted substantially, breaking up into crystalline
shapes. Thinner coatings of gum around the edges of the plate adhered satisfactorily.
Gum Arabic Substrate / Gum Coating:

Whilst the wet gum coating was applied to the dry gum substrate, reticulation started to
occur. There was reaction to traces of rust on the steel. With closer observation the gum
surface, on drying, was cracking substantially. During development the gum had a tendency to
come off like skin (Fig. 9).
Gelatine Substrate / Gum Coating:

The gelatine was evenly coated. There was good adhesion on the steel and a good spread of
colour. However during development the gum was coming right off, except in one corner
where there was a thin coating of gum, adhering well to the surface with traces of an image on
it. This corner was the best result I had in the entire series (Fig. 10).
No Substrate / Gum Coating:

The gum coating lifted off the steel, within seconds into development, even though it had a
10/20 minute exposure. The second plate, which had a 25/30 minute exposure also lifted off.
Once dry, I discovered that the uncoated panels, which had no visible trace of gum or pigment
on them, had an impregnated image. This must have been due to some chemical reaction
between the steel and the dichromate salt causing a metallic blue colour of the image to be
ingrained. This was by far the most interesting, though unexpected, result out of the whole
series (Fig. 11).
Conclusions
I was curious to test the use of metal as a support for gum bichromate. Though the
entire test was unsuccessful, I found the reaction of dichromate to steel very interesting and
worth noting for future experimentation. For the steel to have worked as a support for the
process, I would have had to use a hardened substrate for the metal, in order that the tanned
coating of gelatine, gum or albumen would adhere successfully. Gelatine was the exception, as
it required a higher temperature, than the other colloids, to become soluble.
I found that where colour was applied too densely, the entire surface just lifted off the
metal. Colour should have been applied in thin coats, as it was vital for light to penetrate the
pigmented coating to the substrate.

Series 5
Formula 1
50ml = Albumen 20ml, Yolk 30ml

5gm Winsor & Newton Watercolour
Formula 2

Observations
Whole Egg Coating / Gum Arabic Substrate:

All four whole egg and gum combinations were over exposed and hardened to the glass, even
though they had varied exposures of between 20 30 minutes. I observed an interesting
effect, not unlike the effect of solarization occurring on the glass, whilst the highlights
darkened through over exposure and had adhered to the surface; the shadow areas lifted off
in development, leaving the surface of the glass clear.
Gum Arabic Coating / Gelatine Substrate:

The two panels coated with gelatine had better adhesion, though again overexposed and too
thin. The two uncoated panels had poor adhesion, though crisp edges and finer detail on one.
Conclusions
Clearly the substrates for glass, metal or any other non-absorbent surfaces need to be
hardened in order to support the exposed coatings.
I have also noted that using whole egg in a formula seems to necessitate less exposure
time; the addition of the yolk gives the colloid an inherent strength.

Series 6
Formula 1
50ml = Fresh Albumen 40ml, Yolk 20ml

Formula 2
50ml Fresh Albumen

Formula 3

Observations:
Gum Size / Albumen Coating:

Some good mid tones present with greater detail than achieved before. A photocopy directly
printed onto acetate was used. Two thin coats of colour were applied to the paper (Fig. 12).
Gum Size / Albumen & Yolk Coating:

Again, I have achieved another very positive result, with great details and mid tones, and the
application of two thin layers of colour to give depth. I may have possibly over exposed this
test by 5 minutes, as there appears to be some fogging in the highlights (Fig. 13).
Gelatine Size / Gum Arabic Coating:

Positive results, fine details and tone achieved. These prints were exposed for 30 minutes to a
periodically cloudy sky. The surface is delicate on this paper, though not as vulnerable as
earlier tests with paper; the colour could have been applied with more density.

Conclusions:
The first few tests were exposed at 10-15 minutes; however I found them to be too
vulnerable, with some of the image lifting in development. That is why the exposure was
increased to 20-30 minutes.
These samples were a great success, as the colours adhered well, had contrast and
tone with improved detail in the imagery. I am certain that using the sun as my light source
had been the defining factor in this success.
The photocopies worked well, even though the images had a shorter tonal range than
continuous tone negatives. To achieve the right density of photocopy, a much darker copy
was needed to successfully block out the light during exposure.
Applying thinner coats of a pigmented colloid, and building up a dense colour was very
successful, with little to no colour lifting during development.
Series 7
Formula 1
50ml Fresh Albumen

50ml Gum Arabic 1:3 solution (dry source)

Observations
Photocopies Direct From a Colour Print
Gum Sized / Albumen Coated:

5 minutes Exposure: this was too short and the image was lifting substantially, except for the
less dense patches of colour.
15 minutes Exposure: the highlights substantially fogged (Fig. 14).
10 minutes Exposure: there was a better balance of contrast and detail, though still a little
overexposed in the highlights.
8 minutes Exposure: perfect timing, but unfortunately I didnt get a right spread of light with the
sun lamps. One half of the image lifted whilst the other half had good detail (Fig. 15).
8 minutes Exposure: patchy results, because of the problem with lights.
8 minutes Exposure: good contrast and detail was achieved. I may have displaced some colour,
within the shadows with my overzealous brushing during development.
Gelatine Sized / Gum Coated:

10 minutes Exposure: These images appeared to be softer when using this combination, quite
different to using an albumen coating. There were still problems with the sun lamps not
spreading their light evenly on the prints.
10 minutes Exposure: unequal and patchy in places; these were large samples and may have been
too big for the spread of light.
8 minutes Exposure: images showed signs of fogging. The photocopy used may have not been
dense enough to block out the light in the highlights.
Inkjet Transparency From a Digital File
Gum Sized / Albumen Coated:

The first print was overexposed at 10 minutes. The top half of the image was completely dark,
I suspect this was because the inkjet negative was too thin and could not hold back the light.
The paper also appeared to be strangely effected, looking worn with very poor definition.
The second print was much the same as the first.
Gelatine Sized / Gum Coated:

Both first and second prints were over exposed, and patchy, though there was an interesting
softness in the tone of the images. There was really no detail in the first image but some
better ones in the second. The transparent inkjets do not make good negatives; the 300dpi
output on inkjet printers is too poor.
Conclusions
Facilitating an even spread of light has been a big problem so far. The distance
between the sun lamps and the exposed area would need to be increased, though this would
increase exposure times accordingly.

The transparent inkjets had neither the detail, density, nor resolution, to be useful as
negatives for gum bichromate. Photocopies were an improvement on inkjets, but they had a
short tonal range. However, some positive results were had through increasing scale.
Series 8
Formula
5ml Fresh Albumen

Conclusions
The small samples were a great success, they had good definition in the images,
contrast, and density in the colour; areas that had an extender used were exposed correctly
and had a soft gradation of tone.
Brush strokes were spontaneous and easy to apply and on this occasion the albumen
size did not degrade the effects, though a hardened size would have been more beneficial
where a rag was applied, as the paper tended to stain with the pressure.

Pre-Sensitised Carbon / Series 9-11
Series 9
Pre-sensitised Tissue Formula (Farber 1998)
200ml Distilled Water

32gm of Gelatine (Silverprint bloom not known)
20ml Glycerine
0.50ml Wetting Agent
12-14gm Winsor & Newton Watercolour
100ml Potassium Dichromate @ 4/11/7 % solution
Observations
The compound in FORMULA ONE was applied to temporary plastic sleeves and tracing paper.
There was extensive frilling around the edges of the images, this was because I had not used a
safe edge; a term describing the use of opaque material to protect the edges of the carbon
tissues from overexposure. Using a safe edge would have prevented the excessive hardening
of these areas and the subsequent frilling or lifting of the gelatine during development. The
more soluble gelatine is, the more adhesive its properties.
The compound in FORMULA TWO was applied to temporary acetate supports. An increased
11% saturated solution of dichromate was used in the formula with disastrous results. The
consequence of this increase was the appearance of visible crystalline formations on the
surface of the tissues, some looking more like bacterial spots. This increase was also
detrimental in tanning the gelatine: rendering the sheets unusable.
The compound in FORMULA THREE was prepared, using a 7% solution of dichromate, applied
to acetate and plastic sleeves. Using acetate did prolong the drying time, however, the plastic
took much longer to dry it was less porous. Nevertheless, I continued to have problems with
the release of gelatine from the temporary support; all the samples were prematurely tanned.

Conclusions
The transfer of the carbon tissue to the final support was initially problematic. The
initial wetting of the carbon tissue in water, prior to contact, was recommended as follows: 2-
3 minutes (Farber 1998), 1.5 minutes (King 2000), 1.5 minutes (Reed and Webb 1999), 1.5
minutes (Nadeau 1986a), 45 seconds (Crawford 1979). I had opted to reference Farbers
book, however, I found the recommended time was too long, resulting in poor adhesion. This
was because the gelatine had absorbed too much water and its adhesive properties were
substantially degraded. The wetting time was subsequently reduced to less than 1minute with
good consistent results.
The release of the gelatine from its temporary support, during hot water
development, had also proved to be problematic; the gelatine in most tissue samples was
impossible to remove without a knife. This was a problem in the second and third batch of
prepared tissues.
Using tracing paper as a temporary support was workable, though problematic when
drying, as it tended to buckle badly. It was a strong material when wet and released from the
gelatine relatively well, except when overexposed. To resolve this problem, I propose to
stretch all the paper supports onto a board, and once dry, apply the carbon compound.
Using the plastic sleeves as a temporary support had also proven to be problematic, as
the gelatine came off the material too easily on drying, and as with tracing paper, there was
extensive problems with curling, making the tissue very difficult to flatten. I discontinued the
use of this support, based on these results.
Sizing the permanent support was extremely vital for a successful bond to be achieved
with the carbon tissue. I found that certain quality rag papers were better suited to the task
than others; I tested cream arch paper and found it to be very absorbent, the surface
application of gelatine was made much more difficult and uneven. Key to using the correct
paper is identifying ones that are internally sized. An additional two coats, of a 5% solution of
gelatine, subsequently hardened with either a 3% solution of potassium alum or 5% solution of
chrome alum was vital. If the gelatine was not hardened, it would dissolve during the hot
water development and dislodge the coating of tanned gelatine. This procedure was
unnecessary with fixed resin coated paper, as these already had a prepared surface of
hardened gelatine.
I had also observed that due to poor contact during exposure with the negative, the
image was extensively fogged and unfocused in patches.

Series 10
Pre-sensitised Tissue Formula (Farber 1998)

20ml Glycerine
100ml Potassium Dichromate @ 7/7/2.5 % solution
Observations
In FORMULA ONE positive results were achieved, though with inconsistent results; patches of
gelatine lifted from the permanent support and uneven development took place.
In FORMULA TWO all the samples were tanned. The exposure times had been slightly
increased for the wax negatives; I had thought that the paper content would impede the
transmission of light through to the gelatine, this was not the case. The gelatine appeared to be
overexposed and had stuck like rubber to its temporary support.
In FORMULA THREE the dichromate was substantially reduced to a 2.5% solution, in order to
boost contrast in images that were going to be exposed to the BLB tubes, as previous results
lacked contrast. Yet again, I failed to get positive results, because of excessive tanning. This was
becoming a major concern to me, especially as I was uncertain of the reasons for the problem.
Some of the tissue was prepared 2 days prior to use and may not have kept well. However,
according to technical publications on the process, the sensitised tissue should have kept well
within this time frame.
I did nevertheless have one positive result from formula three, which was not consistent with
the overall results. A 30/45 minute exposure of a tissue with an acetate base. The left side of
the image had been given the longer exposure, resulting in greater contrast, because a thicker
layer of coloured gelatine has been tanned. The sandwiched layers came apart quite easily after
10 minutes or so in hot water. There was also very good adhesion, definition and depth of
colour. I had used an enlarged photocopy negative. Why did this one work and not any of the
others? The conditions for exposure and development were the same.

Conclusions
Stretching the paper supports prior to the application of the compound worked well,
though tracing paper proved to be a little difficult to stretch flat consistently. Drying times
were not overly extended.
Transferring the carbon tissue to the aquarelle arches paper was successful though
there was some fraying and lifting around the edges of the print. However, there was still
some blurring of the image, due to poor contact with the negative.
There was a distinct difference in using the BLB tubes versus the sunlamps. The
former imparted a longer tonal scale with greater mid tones and a softer overall effect; the
latter imparted a shorter tonal scale with greater contrast and sharper details.
Many of the samples exposed to the sun lamps had mottled surfaces and uneven
tanning of the gelatine. There also appeared to be similar markings on the BLB exposed prints.
Series 11
Pre-sensitised Tissue Formula 1 (Farber 1998)

20ml Glycerine
38gm Colour made from raw Pigment, Glycerine, Honey, Gum Arabic & Ox Gall
Pre-sensitised Tissue Formula 4 (Farber 1998)

49ml Glycerine

Observations
FORMULA ONE was prepared with gelatine that had been left wet for two days prior to use.
The effect of this was quite curious; the setting properties of the gelatine had been lowered, so
the gelatine took much longer than usual to gel. As a result of this, the two pigments dispersed
within the solution separated out; black, fell slowly to the bottom of the gelatine matrix,
creating a thinner translucent upper coating of tan brown and a heavily pigmented lower
coating of black. Despite this, I was still able to use the tissues, as detailed below.
BLB Light Box:
CARTRIDGE PAPER SUPPORT: 20/25 minutes

Though the colour had separated, an interesting effect resulted. The image had great
definition and tone, though rather lacking in colour.
Ultra Vitalux Sunlamps:
TRACING PAPER SUPPORT: 101/2 minutes

Some success, the image had adhered well to its final support and released easily from the
temporary support. An interesting surface was affected by the tracing paper buckling under
the wet gelatine (due to poor stretching). The additional separation of pigments from the
gelatine was also a contributing factor.
CARTRIDGE PAPER SUPPORT: 5/6/7 minutes
Good image and tonal scale were achieved; however there was extremely poor adhesion,
the image dislodged from the final support. This was due to the size not having been
hardened (Fig. 16).
GRAPH PAPER SUPPORT: 7 minute
Good image, adhesion and tonal scale even though the colour had separated from the
gelatine (Fig. 17).
FORMULA TWO tissues were prepared and left to dry without a fan for two days (over the
weekend). However, I found that the sheets had completely tanned. This may have been as a
consequence of any one or all of the following: dark effect, possible light leaks in the dark
drying area or slow drying of the carbon sheets.
FORMULA THREE tissues were stretched onto board and left for 36 hours to dry with a fan;
they had tanned completely. However, tissues prepared onto acetate dried sooner and were
still usable. The following details are those results.

BLB Light Box:
First Exposure: 5/10/15/20 minutes. There was poor adhesion and the print was too dark
with limited contrast.
Second Exposure: 15/20 minutes. I think the image may have been overexposed by 5
minutes. There was good adhesion with some frilling around the edges though.
Third Exposure: 25 minutes. A paper negative was used and extra time given, though it
did not need it, as the print turned out to be overexposed again.
Fourth Exposure: 20 minutes. Two paper negatives were used. 15 minutes may well have
been the optimum time required. The tissue adhered well to the paper, though
development took a little longer.
Ultra Vitalux Sun Lamps:
First Exposure: 61/2/71/2 minutes. I had used a photocopy negative. There was good
adhesion, tonal range and detail in the print.
Second Exposure: 9/10 minutes. There was good adhesion, though the print was
overexposed by 1 minute.
Third Exposure: 81/2 minutes. A paper negative was used and extra time given, however,
it did not need it, as the print turned out to be overexposed.
Fourth Exposure: 71/2 minutes. A paper negative was used; however, I was still
experiencing problems with what I suspect was premature tanning, as the tissue did not
separate easily from the final support in development.
FORMULA FOUR was tested prior to use, using small samples. I found the entire batch tanned
and unusable. The increased quantity of glycerine used in this formula had retarded the drying
process and made the tissue extremely tacky.
Conclusions
One can observe the freshness of gelatine whilst it gels. If it takes a long time, over 5-
10 minutes say, then the setting properties of the colloid have somehow been degraded, either
by heating the gelatine above 50C or by leaving it in a wet condition for longer than two days
before using to make carbon tissue. Setting time can also be affected by the concentration of
gelatine to water, higher concentrations take longer to dry; additionally the thickness of the
coating on the support can lengthen or shorten drying time.

Pre-sensitised tissue cannot be left to dry slowly; a cool fan is necessary to speed the
process.
Almost all the current publications I have referenced, recommend the sensitised tissue
to be used within 48 hours, longer if refrigerated. To avoid wasting valuable time with
exposures, I needed to consistently test, prior to use, small samples of the sensitised tissue for
solubility.
The tissues in from formula 2 appeared to have a grainy texture on the surface,
possibly due to the pigment. In the future I would need to filter the warm pigmented gelatine
prior to use. Sandy King (King 2000) recommends the use of a blender to thoroughly disperse
the pigment into the gelatine compound, set aside for several hours, enabling the bubbles to
settle, and finally to filter the solution prior to use.
Subsequent blending and filtering of the carbon compound in formula 3 and 4 was
essential and resulted in good consistency, no air bubbles and grit appeared on the surface of
the carbon tissues. The colour was also evenly distributed throughout the tissue.
For the purpose of making correct tonal comparisons and exposures, I added a step
tablet (step wedge) to the carbon tissue during exposure. The step tablet was a very useful tool
and made clearly visible the difference between a long and short tonal range, and helped me to
recognise fogging in the highlights.
Two weights of wax paper negatives were tested to establish superiority of use; the
heavier 165gm weight of paper had the best outcome. It had good contrast and highlights in
contrast to the 110gm paper, which had extensive fogging and low contrast.

Carbon Substrates / Series 12
Series 12
Formula 1 (Crawford 1979)
100ml Distilled Water (cold)

1gm Gelatine, (200 bloom)
380ml Distilled Water (warm)
1gm Potassium Alum
20ml Sodium Silicate (Water Glass)
Formula 2 (adaptation of formula 1)

270ml Distilled Water (warm)
3% Solution of Potassium Alum (applied onto the dry substrate)
30ml Sodium Silicate (Water Glass)
Formula 3

50ml Potassium Dichromate @ 1% Solution
Formula 4 (Autotype 1929)

3.15ml Chrome Alum
Observations from Formula 1
FORMULA ONE was very watery and took 30 hours or more to dry: there was not enough
gelatine in the mixture to precipitate gelling. As soon as the almost dry glass was put in a
sunny spot, the thin substrate began to peel away like a thin film (Fig. 18). A white residue

appeared on the surface of all the glass and continued to whiten where the substrate had not
peeled away. All the glass had to be stripped, cleaned and recoated.
The problem may have been as a result of my using a digital kitchen scale that was unable to
measure fine quantities of powder under 10gms, with reliability. I have since purchased an
industry standard pocket scale for accurate measurements of up to a tenth of a gram.
Observations from formula 2
The application of FORMULA TWO was more successful (Fig. 19); the gelatine had gelled
without any bubbles. Potassium alum was omitted as a constituent in the compound; the glass
was then dried with the aid of a fan, in approximately 24 hours. Once dry, the panels were
coated with a 4% solution of alum and left to dry once more.
The substrate had dried to a slightly milky appearance; when the alum solution was
subsequently applied, the gelatine was loosened in areas and made to look milkier. Where the
solution pooled unevenly, the softened gelatine formed rivulets. I suspect the potassium alum
was breaking down and degrading the gelatine matrix; the continuing action of the whitening
was the visible result. This method was problematic, and time consuming.
When I placed a sample of the glass in water to wash off the white residue, water seeped under
the edges of the substrate and caused a severe expansion and lifting of the gelatine.
I had good results with FORMULA 3, which I made up (Fig. 20). Later in the research, I found
that a variation on this formula was published by The Autotype Company. The substrate was
strong, easy to apply and took approx. 36 hours to dry.
The drying time could have been reduced, by limiting the quantity of gelatine per 100ml of
water. I would propose to reduce this by 50% for glass (Nadeau 1986a).
The clear panels of glass were initially bright yellow with dichromate, and after exposure to
daylight, turned dark tan. Though most of the staining came out in the water, what remained,
would have had to be cleared with additional chemical clearing agents.
The smaller samples of glass appeared green because of the sandblasted surface, dispersing the
natural colour of the glass in combination with the yellow of the dichromate.
I had difficulties in mathematically working out the necessary quantity of chrome alum, from the
archive literature (Autotype 1929). As it turned out, the formula was too weak; the gelatine
became soluble in the hot water, during development, and the transferred image was washed
away.
If the necessary quantity was established, this substrate formula would be superior to any
other. The substrate was clear and subsequent soaking in water to remove chemical staining
was unnecessary. The coating was strong and adhered extremely well to the glass.

Conclusions
Three glass surfaces were investigated. Clear and etched were successful for
transferring carbon tissues. The sandblasted glass was too rough and uneven a surface for
gelatine to adhere well to, though it could be successfully used to disperse light, from behind a
carbon image transferred onto the polished side.

Un-Sensitised Carbon / Series 13-16
Series 13
Un-sensitised Tissue Formula (Farber 1998)

18ml Glycerine
Observations
Several exposures were made with the step tablet, to establish exact times needed for larger
works. Problems with tanning had continued, though not as extreme as previously. Small
sample tests of the sensitised tissue, prior to exposure, had definite signs of premature tanning;
the mixture ought to have been dissolving with ease in less than a minute of immersion in hot
water, but the samples were slow to dissolve and slightly rubbery. The most telling signs of this
problem were apparent during hot water development; the exposed tissues did not separate
with ease from the final support and the gelatine came away in rivulets. From the written
description of the transferable carbon process (King 2000) and (Reed and Webb 1999), the
exposed tissue should have come away from its support with ease and pigment ooze out from
the edges, a sign that the tissues are ready for separation.
Ultra violet Light Box / Wax Negative - 15 minute exposure: I did have one success though,
which was very slow to achieve; development took 25 minutes. With this sample, I made my
first successful transfer from tissue to glass. It had good details though slightly mottled.
Conclusions
Substantially cutting down the drying time and reducing the temperature of the
dichromate during sensitisation had not prevented tanning, which bought me to the conclusion
that the problem was with the ingredients and not with the conditions of the process, as I had
previously thought.

Series 14

80/100/90/95gm of Gelatine (Croda Colloids 200 bloom Limed Ossein)
36ml Glycerine
Observations
FORMULA ONE was very viscose, though the quantity used was identical to the previous
formula using Silverprint gelatine. This would indicate that Silverprint sold a high 220-280
gelatine bloom. The higher the bloom, the more water the gelatine is able to absorb and the
more viscous the liquid is when prepared. Because the formula was too runny, I found it more
difficult to control the pouring of the compound on to the support. The mixture was always
running over the edges and leaving an uneven surface. Also, because of this, establishing a thick
wet layer was difficult.
FORMULA TWO I increased the gelatine content by 20gms, but found that this time the
formula was too thick and though I had better success at pouring it, the gelatine was tending to
gel quickly. This increase also caused the drying time to substantially increase, so that it was
taking up to 48 hours or more for the material to dry.
FORMULA THREE I decreased the gelatine content by 10gms. This formula was much more
successful in the preparation and application, but there was still a problem with the length of
time the tissues were taking to dry. On sensitising, I found that most of the dry tissue became
tanned in under a few hours; a continually frustrating issue that I have been unable to remedy.
FORMULA FOUR I increased the quantity of gelatine by 5gms. This proved to be the ideal
quantity required of gelatine, balanced with a good consistency for applying the compound. I
had also quickened the sensitising and drying times and was able to get some better results
when undertaking small sample tests. Also In this formula I had substantially reduced both the
pigment and glycerine content in order to see if the large quantities of these constituents
precipitated tanning in the gelatine. Step wedge tests were carried out at 11/15/18 minutes
with inconsistent results. Some of the tests were still affected by premature tanning.

Series 15
Limed Gelatine on a wax paper base

Acid Bone Gelatine on a wax paper base
Acid Bone Gelatine on a polyester base
Observations
Perfect results were had with these sample tissues. I was able to push exposure times
substantially in a way I had not been able to do with my own make of tissue.
The hot water development was fast, the pigment oozed from the sides within a minute and I
was able to separate the sandwiched layers very easily, leaving the final support to continue
developing in the water for a further few minutes.
Most of the samples were exposed to the BLB tubes and only one, exposed to the sun. The
latter had more depth and contrast in its range of tones; though the less contrast found in the
other samples had much to do with the quality of the negatives used.
The Autotype base paper had a very definite water resistant surface, to enable a clean release
of gelatine during development. Autotype International also sent me a number of polyester
sheets to use as temporary support for my own make of carbon tissues. These are of the
polyvinyl family of plastics and the most suitable as support for the transferable carbon
process: compositionally stable and ideal for releasing the pigmented gelatine.
I tested small samples of the tissue, prior to exposure, and found no signs of tanning.
All the samples transferred perfectly to the prepared glass and the best performing substrate
employed, was the gelatine hardened with potassium dichromate.
The glass panels hardened with chrome alum were washed away in the hot water, during
development. This was due to an insufficient quantity of the chemical being present in the
gelatine and possibly, the time needed for the substrate to harden (Nadeau 1986b).

Series 16
Formula 1- Adaptation from Wayne Firth (Allen)

105gm of Gelatine 180 Bloom / Limed
6ml Glycerine
32gm Sugar
Formula 2 Sandy King (Allen)

10gm Sugar
0.1ml Wetting Agent
12gm colour made from raw Pigment, half dispersed with Gum Arabic and half with Glycerine
I had used a 15% solution of gelatine, recommended by Autotype, however, I found the mixture
tended to set very quickly, within less than a minute, and a thin coating difficult to apply. The
quality of the mixture was very viscous though easy to handle and pouring more controllable. I
suspect that the polyester sheets, being used as a support for the first time, made a huge
difference to the gelatine adhering and flowing across the surface well. There was good colour
dispersion, no air bubbles formed and a 2-3mm thick coating of wet gelatine applied. The
tissues took at least 48 hours to dry, which was really not ideal, this was because of the higher
gelatine content to liquid.
The hot water development was difficult, as the thick gelatine coating would not separate easily
and took at least several hours to develop fully. However, on developing, the image had a great
deal of visible relief. As there was only a small percentage of pigment within the solution, the
resultant samples were very pale.

Applying a thicker coating of wet gelatine did not seem to make a visible difference, once dry,
when compared with an image produced from a thinner coating of gelatine.
Reducing the pigment and glycerine content had not resolved the issue of tanning in my
previous formula, so for this set of tests I made up fresh quantities of colour. However, I
simplified the recipe by using only glycerine or gum arabic alternately as binders for the
pigments to be dispersed into. My suspicions were making me think that the problem was due
to the addition of ox gall to the formula.
The successful outcome of formula 2 confirmed that ox gall had been the problem constituent,
causing the gelatine to tan, throughout the period of investigation.
On drying, the batch made with gum arabic tended to fall off the polyester support as it had
desiccated too much. However the batch made up of glycerine prevented the mixture from
drying out too much and so adhered well to the polyester support.
Conclusions
The compound produced from formula one and two was extremely easy to spread on
the supports, longer to gel, say 4-5 minutes and not as viscous as before; this mixture was only
made up of an 11% solution of gelatine. The best consistency I have managed to achieve.
According to some publications (Zoete 1988), (Wilson 1868), glazing the tissues after
sensitisation is essential in order to achieve a perfectly even surface for good contact to be
achieved with the negatives. I did not leave the tissues to dry by hanging on a line, but left
them squeegeed face down onto an acrylic panel to dry. This is only effective when using
paper as supports, for the paper is permeable and still able to dry effectively within a few
hours. However when tested with the polyester supports, not enough air was able to circulate
and the tissue was still damp on removal after a few hours, it took another hour to dry in the
open. The paper supports did, however, have an exceptionally smooth glazed surface, with no
paper texture visible.
Both gelatine and gum arabic as binders for the pigment were satisfactory. The
characteristics of the tissues during development, performed in exactly the same way as the
Autotype samples. I was also able to push the exposures consistently without any problems
with the gelatine sticking to the temporary supports. There was always a soluble layer
between the support and the tanned pigmented gelatine.

Now that I have finally experienced a successful outcome with formula two, I have to
conclude, with utmost certainty that my problems have fundamentally been due to the
inclusion of ox gall in both the manufactured Winsor & Newton watercolour and my own
hand made recipe.

~Endnotes
1
Talbot, William Henry Fox, The Pencil of Nature (London: Longman, Brown, Green & Longmans, 1844).
2
Ghirshman, Roman, Persia: From the Origins to Alexander the Great (London: Thames and Hudson, 1964). Pope, Arthur
Upham, Persian Architecture (London: Thames and Hudson, 1965). Herdeg, Walter, The Sun In Art: Die Sonne In Der
Kunst : Le Soleil Dans L'art (Zurich: Graphis Press, 1962). Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh, Persian Myths: The Legendary Past
(London: British Museum Press, 1993). Curtis, John, Ancient Persia (London: British Museum Press, 1989).
3
Enclycolpedia Britannica, Inc. and Britannica.com, Mithraism, (1999-2000b)
<http://www.britannica.com/bcom/eb/article/printable/4/> [accessed 15 December 2000]. Ulansey, David, The Cosmic
Mysteries of Mithras, (1994) <http://www.well.com/user/davidu/mithras.html> [accessed 5 December 2000].
Carcopino, Jerome, Daily Life in Ancient Rome (London: Peregrine Books, Penguin Books, 1941).
4
Enclycolpedia Britannica, Inc. and Britannica.com, Iranian Religion, (1999-2000a)
<http://www.britannica.com/bcom/eb/article/printable/3/> [accessed 15 December 2000]. Enclycolpedia Britannica,
Inc. and Britannica.com, Zoroaster, (1999-2000c) <http://www.britannica.com/bcom/eb/article/printable/1/> [accessed
15 December 2000].
5
Homayouni, Dr. Massoud, The Origins Of Persian Gnosis: A Summary - Translation of a Lecture Given at the Iran Society
(London: The Mawlana Centre, 1992).
6
Talbot, The Pencil of Nature.
7
Farber, Richard, Historic Photographic Processes: A Guide to Creating Handmade Photographic Images (New York:
Allworth Press, 1998) and Barnier, John, ed. Coming Into Focus: A Step-by-Step Guide to Alternative Photographic Printing
Processes, (San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 2000).
8
Sawyer, J. R., The A B C Guide to the Making of Autotype Prints in Permanent Pigments, 5th edn (London: The Autotype
Company, 1899) and Company, The Autotype, First Steps in Autotype Printing (London: The Autotype Company, 1909).
9
Marton, A. M., A New Treatise on The Modern Methods of Carbon Printing, 2nd edn (Illinois: Bloomington, 1905).
10
Nadeau, Luis, History and Practice of Carbon Processes (New Brunswick: Atelier Luis Nadeau, 1982), Nadeau, Luis,
Modern Carbon Printing (New Brunswick: Atelier Luis Nadeau, 1986b), Nadeau, Luis, Gum Dichromate and Other Direct
Carbon Processes, from Artigue to Zimmerman (New Brunswick: Atelier Luis Nadeau, 1986a) and Nadeau, Luis,
Photoceramic Process, (1999) <http://personal.nbnet.nb.ca/nadeaul/CollectionNadeau> [accessed 29 January 2002].
11
These books were difficult to find, and were only obtained towards the end of my investigations.
12
Many of these letters to Talbot and some by him have been transcribed and made available on the internet with the
support of the University of Glasgow, under the direction of Larry Schaaf. The Correspondence of William Henry Fox
Talbot can be accessed via http://www.foxtalbot.arts.gla.ac.uk.
13
Baldwin, Gordon, Looking at Photographs: A Guide to Technical Terms (Los Angeles, London: The J. Paul Getty Museum
in association with British Museum Press, 1991), pp 69-70.
14
For the purpose of clarity, I have decided to employ the term bichromate throughout the thesis, for the exception
of the Appendix.
15
Ponton, Mungo, 'Notice of a cheap and simple method of preparing paper for Photographic Drawing, in which the
use of any salt of silver is dispensed with', The Magazine of Science, (6 July 1839), pp 169-171.
16
Arnold, H. J. P., Henry William Fox Talbot: Pioneer of Photography and Man of Science (London: Hutchinson Benham,
1977), p 276.
17
Talbots discovery led to his patenting a new process called Photoglyphic Engraving. Talbot, William Henry Fox,
Improvements in the Art of Engraving, England Patent 565 (29 October 1852).
18
Pigment printing by 1898 it was referred to as the Gum Bichromate Process. Patented by a French inventor, by
the name of Alphonse Poitevin, in 1855. See Nadeau, Luis, Gum Dichromate and Other Direct Carbon Processes,

from Artigue to Zimmerman (New Brunswick: Atelier Luis Nadeau, 1986) for a comprehensive description and
history of this direct process and others developed and patented subsequent to Poitevins first patent.
19
Read Nadeau, Luis, History and Practice of Carbon Processes (New Brunswick: Atelier Luis Nadeau, 1982) for the
most comprehensive description of the history of carbon photography and Nadeau, Luis, Modern Carbon Printing
(New Brunswick: Atelier Luis Nadeau, 1986).
20
The French patent dated August 27th 1855 and the English patent dated the 13th December 1855 are printed
verbatim in Nadeau, Gum Dichromate and Other Direct Carbon Processes, from Artigue to Zimmerman , pp 2-9.
21
Ibid. p 9.
22
Scharf, Aaron, Art and Photography (London: The Penguin Press, 1968), p 183.
23
Ibid.
24
Colloid is the technical name for natural resins and proteins that have similar molecular characteristics and a gel like
consistency. Gum arabic, gelatine, albumen are all colloids. See Appendix 1.
25
The constituents of watercolours and pastels are organic or synthetic pigments, glycerine and gum arabic. Pigments
are dispersed or ground into a compound of gum and glycerine that binds the colours. The quantity of binder used
determines the final outcome of the media: less binder results in a chalkier mixture, increased binder results in a
smooth glossy paste.
26
Bichromate was the name the salt was known by in the 19th century. It is now called dichromate. The process
known as Gum Bichromate took its name from the use of this chemical with gum arabic.
27
Nadeau, Gum Dichromate and Other Direct Carbon Processes, from Artigue to Zimmerman , p 9.
28
Fargier, Adolphe had developed a transfer system, patented in France on September 17th 1860, patent no. 46,719
and in England on April 15th 1861, patent no. 955. Ibid. p 10.
29
Carbon is both a single and a double transfer system; warm pigmented gelatine is applied thickly to a temporary
support, dried, sensitised, exposed and prior to development in water, is transferred to a final support. In the double
transfer system it is sandwiched to another temporary support for development and then subsequently transferred to
a final support. The process was invented by a French man by the name of Adolphe Fargier in 1860, and not, as is
commonly attributed to, by Joseph Swan, though he did patent a significant improvement on this process in 1864. See
Nadeau, History and Practice of Carbon Processes for a comprehensive description and history of the carbon processes.
30
Nadeau, History and Practice of Carbon Processes, pp 7-19. Mitchell, K. J. M., The Rising Sun: The First 100 Years of the
Autotype Company, Science Museum Library, (London: 1987). Swan, Mary E. and Swan, Kenneth Raydon, Sir Joseph
Wilson Swan: A Memoir (London: Ernest Benn Limited, 1929).
31
Scharf, Art and Photography, p.183.
32
Pigment printing emerged as a commercially successful technique for the printing of permanent reproductions, from
1894 amongst Pictorialists; gum prints were exhibited for the first time by Rouille-Ladeveze in an exhibition of the
Photo-Club in Paris. The most prolific exponents of the process were Alfred Maskell and Robert Demachy who
published a treatise, Photo Aquatint or the Gum-Bichromate Process: A Practical treatise on a new Process of printing in
Pigment especially suitable for Pictorial Workers (1897).
33
Pigment based processes were ideally suited for the reproduction of original works of art on quality paper in any
colour and highly popular amongst professional and amateur photographers.
34
Autotype International (formally The Autotype Company), manufacturers of gum bichromate and transferable
carbon tissue up until the 1950s, were also specialists in reproducing original artists drawings and photographs.
Autotype International currently manufacture pigment papers solely for the purpose of transferring images across to
metal plates, as a resist to acid, for Photogravure.
35
Sawyer, The A B C Guide to the Making of Autotype Prints in Permanent Pigments, pp 68-71.
36
The use of a camera obscura to project an image onto drawing paper or canvas to work from was not uncommon
during the 19th century. There is also archive evidence at the Fox Talbot Museum of very early watercolours and a
drawing reportedly executed by Rosamond, Fox Talbots daughter, that are clearly worked up from a salt print.

37
For contact printing, the negative would need to be the same size as the final print and the two sandwiched
together when exposed to the sun or to an electric source of ultra violet light. To achieve this enlargement, an inter-
negative would be made from an original 35mm or larger format of film.
38
Nadeau, Gum Dichromate and Other Direct Carbon Processes, from Artigue to Zimmerman.
39
Autotype, The Carbro Process: Trichrome Printing by the Autotype Process, Brochure No. 970 (London: The Autotype
Company, 1929).
40
Kirby, Kent, Studio Collotype: Continuous Tone Printing For The Artist, Printmaker and Photographer (Massachusetts:
Heliochrome Press, 1988).
41
Six Mercury Vapour Sun Lamps were wired onto a wall and pointed horizontally towards the exposure area, from a
distance of approximately 400mm. I also built a large light box, 1400mm x 1300mm x 400mm, with a bank of 13 Ultra
Violet Black Light Blue fluorescent tubes. These lights were approximately 350mm from the surface to be exposed.
42
The prehistory of photography is more appropriately termed proto-photography, to describe the period of history
dealing with the light sensitivity of substances that led to the invention of photography and as a printing out procedure
prior to 1840 in which there is no chemical amplification of the resulting image to render it more visible or permanent. See
Ware, Mike, 'On Proto-Photography and the Shroud of Turin', History of Photography, V. 21, No. 4 (1997), 261-269.
43
For a complete appraisal for the conception of photography read Batchen, Jeoffrey, Burning With Desire: The
Conception of Photography (Cambridge, Massachusetts, London: The MIT Press, 1997).
44
This is apparent in the investigative hands of Angelo Sala in 1614, Wilhelm Homberg in 1694, Johann Schulze in
1720, Jean Hellot in 1737, G. B. Beccaria in 1757, Carl Wilhelm Sheele in 1777, Jean Senebier in 1782, Elizabeth
Fulhame in 1794, Benjamin Count of Rumford in 1798, Thomas Wedgwood in 1800, Johann Wilhelm Ritter in 1801,
Thomas Young in 1803, William Hyde Wollaston in 1802, Thomas Seebeck in 1811, Marsillo Landriani in 1818 and
Mary Somerville in 1836. Ibid. & Gernsheim, Helmut and Gernsheim, Alison, The History of Photography: From the
Earliest Use of the Camera Obscura in the Eleventh Century up to 1914 (London, New York, Toronto: Oxford University
Press, 1955).
45
The hypobronchial gland of the sea snail yields a yellow slime that is transformed by sunlight into Tyrian Purple.
Known to the Phoenicians and used for dyeing the robes of Imperial Rome: it has also been identified with the biblical dye,
Argaman, used on the fabric of ritual vestments in the Judaic tradition. See Ware, 'On Proto-Photography and the Shroud
of Turin'.
46
McElhone, John P, 'The Signature of Light: Photo-Sensitive Materials in the Nineteenth Century', in Beauty of Another
Order: Photography in Science, ed. by Thomas, Ann (New Haven & London: Yale University Press in association with
The National Gallery of Canada, 1997) p 62.
Angelo Sala (1614), Wilhelm Homberg (1694) and Johann Schulze (1720) independently discovered the property of
silver nitrate to blacken in the sun but it was Schulze who recognised the action of sun light and not heat to generate
chemical effects, whilst undertaking tests to make phosphorus, by saturating chalk with nitric acid and silver salts.
Schulze communicated his results to the Imperial Academy at Nuremberg under the title Scotophorus Pro Phosphero
Inventus. Meanwhile, the light sensitivity of silver chloride was discovered by G. B. Beccaria (1757), Professor of
Physics at the University of Turin. Reference is taken from Gernsheim, Helmut, The Origins of Photography, 3rd edn
(New York: Thames & Hudson, 1983) pp 7-28.
47
Scheeles investigations were widely published in English, German and French in 1777 in his Chemische Abhandlung.
Paragraph 66 of Chemische Abhandlung. Reference is taken from Gernsheim, The Origins of Photography, p 21.
48
Though the refraction of light by a prism was discovered as early as 1666 by Sir Isaac Newton, its use for scientific
enquiry into the study of the solar spectrum did not become wide spread till the early part of the 19th century.
49
Jean Senebier, chief Librarian of Geneva, published his finding and calculations on the solar spectrum in 1782. Johann
Wilhelm Ritter, a chemist of Jena, discovered the invisible ultra violet rays in the spectrum in 1801. In 1802 William
Hyde Wollaston, and in 1811Thomas Seebeck, followed up these researches with their own. Wollaston was
instrumental in using the chloride of silver to observe the existence of dark lines in the solar spectrum and Seebeck to
record, however briefly, the first solar spectrum in colour. The former discovery was certainly seminal in that it was
to lead to a new field of enquiry: spectral analysis. Reference is taken from Gernsheim and Gernsheim, The History of
Photography: From the Earliest Use of the Camera Obscura in the Eleventh Century up to 1914 .
50
Infra Red by Sir William Herschel in 1800 and Ultra Violet by Ritter in 1801.
51
Gernsheim, The Origins of Photography, p 22.

52
Schaaf, Larry J, Out of the Shadows : Herschel, Talbot, and the Invention of Photography (New Haven and London: Yale
University Press, 1992), pp 23-25.
53
Fulhame, Mrs Elizabeth, An Essay on Combustion: With a View to a New Art of Dying and Painting Wherein the Phlogistic
and Antiphlogistic Hypotheses are Proved Erroneous (London: Printed for the Author by J. Cooper, 1794).
54
Fulhames new evidence, discounted theories put forward by her contemporaries Carl Wilhelm Scheele and Pierre-
Joseph Macquer (1718-1784). See Ibid. , p152.
Macquers Elments de chymie thorique and Elments de chymie practique (Elements of theoretical chemistry and
Elements of practical chemistry) were published in 1751 and led the way in chemistry textbooks for many years to
come. Limited, Fugro Robertson,
<http://www.robresint.co.uk/LS/environlabs/chemical_countdown/display_century.asp?title=18th%20Century&century
SQL=(century%3E1699)AND(century%3C1800)> [accessed 26 July 2005].
55
Fulhame, An Essay on Combustion: With a View to a New Art of Dying and Painting Wherein the Phlogistic and Antiphlogistic
Hypotheses are Proved Erroneous, see preface, pXIII.
56
Ibid. pp III-XIII.
57
Ibid. See Preface, p IV.
58
McElhone, 'The Signature of Light: Photo-Sensitive Materials in the Nineteenth Century', p 61.
59
Fulhame, An Essay on Combustion: With a View to a New Art of Dying and Painting Wherein the Phlogistic and Antiphlogistic
Hypotheses are Proved Erroneous , pp142-154.
60
Fulhame, Mrs Elizabeth, An Essay on Combustion: With a View to a New Art of Dying and Painting Wherein the Phlogistic
and Antiphlogistic Hypotheses are Proved Erroneous (London: Printed for the Author by J. Cooper, 1794, p 147.
61
Ibid.
62
Herschel, Sir John Frederick William, MSS: Note on the Art of Photography or the Application of the Chemical Rays
of Light to the Purposes of Pictorial Representation by Sir John Frederick William Herschel, St. Johns College,
Cambridge, (London: Communicated to the Royal Society on the 14 March 1839), James 510.
63
Wedgewood, Thomas, 'Communicated by Humphry Davy - An Account of a Method of Copying Paintings Upon
Glass, and of Making Profiles by the Agency of Light Upon Nitrate of Silver. Invented by T. Wedgwood, ESQ. With
Observations by H. Davy', Journals of the Royal Institution, V. 1, (1802), pp 170-174 .
64
Ibid.
65
Ibid.
66
Talbot, William Henry Fox, Some Account of the Art of Photogenic Drawing, or the Process by Which Natural Objects May
be Made to Delineate Themselves, Without the Aid of the Artist's Pencil. (London: Privately printed by R & J E Taylor, 1839,
Read before the Royal Society on January 31).
67
Arnold, William Henry Fox Talbot: Pioneer of Photography and Man of Science , p51. He was also remembered for his
role in deciphering the Egyptian Hieroglyphics.
68
Young, Dr Thomas, 'Experiments and Calculations Relative to Physical Optics', Philosophical Transactions Royal Society,
V. 94, (1804), 1-16 , p15.
69
A Heliostat is an astronomical instrument used to reflect the light of the sun in a constant direction.
70
Young, 'Experiments and Calculations Relative to Physical Optics'.
71
Morrison-Low, Alison D., 'Tripping The Light Fantastic: Henry Talbot and David Brewster', David Octavius Hill
Bicentenery Symposium, National Museums of Scotland, (20th May, 2002).
72
Talbot, William Henry Fox, 'Experiments on Light', Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, V. 5, No. 29
(November 1834a), pp. 321-334.

73
Talbot, William Henry Fox, 'On the Optical Phenomena of Certain Crystals', Philosophical Magazine, V. 9, No. 54
(October 1836d), pp. 288-291.
74
Talbot, William Henry Fox, 'Further Observations on the Optical Phenomena of Crystals', Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London, V. 3, No. 28 (1836b), 455-456 .
75
Talbot, The Pencil of Nature , quote to be found in Introductory Remarks.
76
Spectroscopy is the science of analysing spectra by employing spectrometers and spectroscopes. The techniques are
extensively used in chemical analysis and in studying the properties of atoms, molecules and ions. Park, John L., A Brief
(incomplete) History of Light and Spectra, (2001) <http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/Electrons/Spectrum-
History.html> [accessed 19 April 2004].
77
Thomas, Ann, 'The Search for Pattern', in Beauty of Another Order: Photography in Science, ed. by Thomas, Ann
(Newhaven, London: Yale University Press in association with The National Gallery of Canada, 1997).
78
No human hand has hitherto traced such lines as these drawings display; and what man may hereafter do, now that Dame
Nature has become his drawing mistress, it is impossible to predict. An observation made by Michael Faraday and
recounted by Vernon Heath. Schaaf, Out of the Shadows : Herschel, Talbot, and the Invention of Photography , pp 47-48.
79
Talbot, William Henry Fox, 'The New Art', The London Literary Gazette, No. 1150 (2 February 1839), pp. 72-75.
80
Talbot, Some Account of the Art of Photogenic Drawing, or the Process by Which Natural Objects May be Made to Delineate
Themselves, Without the Aid of the Artist's Pencil, quote to be found in On the Art of Fixing a Shadow.
81
Weaver, Mike, ed. Henry Fox Talbot: Selected Texts and Bibliography, World Photographers Reference Series 3
(Oxford: Clio Press, 1992), p11.
82
Herschel, Sir John Frederick William, A Preliminary Discourse on the Study of Natural Philosophy (London: Longman &
Co, 1830).
83
Wilder, Kelly and Kemp, Martin, 'Proof Positive in Sir John Herschel's Concept of Photography', History of
Photography, V. 26, No. 4 (2002), p 359.
84
Ibid. p 361, note 16.
85
Ibid.
86
Herschel, Note on the Art of Photography or the Application of the Chemical Rays of Light to the Purposes of
Pictorial Representation.
87
The philosopher Bertrand Russell (1870-1972) summarizes Plato's "Allegory of the Cave." Found in The Republic:
Book VII: "Those who are destitute of philosophy may be compared to prisoners in a cave, who are only able to look in one
direction because they are bound, and who have a fire behind them and a wall in front. Between them and the wall there is
nothing; all that they see are shadows of them selves, and of objects behind them, cast on the wall by the light of the fire.
Inevitably they regard these shadows as real, and have no notion of the objects to which they are due." Bertrand Russell, A
History of Philosophy, (NewYork: Simon and Schuster, 1945).
88
The etymon of the word drawing is dragan, an old English word to drag, to pull and to draw.
89
Collins English Dictionary, 5th edn (Glasgow: Harper Collins Publishers, 2000). gen suffix forming nouns.
1. producing or that which produces:[ from Greek gens born].
Georgia Toutziari, a Greek colleague of Professor Larry J. Schaaf has remarked that the Greek word 'genos' which is a
variant for 'genus', which means a type, grouping, sex (i.e. female/male) would in the context of this thesis read as
"drawings born of types of light".
90
Rawson, Philip, Drawing: The Appreciation of the Arts (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969).
91
Townsend, Chris, 'Hands On - Hands Off: Printing and the Ontology of Photography', in Into the Light, Photographic
Printing Out of the Darkroom, ed. by Townsend, Chris and Roberts, Pam (Bath: Royal Photographic Society, 1999).
92
Burckhardt, Titus, Mirror of the Intellect: Essays on Traditional Science and Sacred Art (Cambridge: Quinta Essentia,
1987), pp 117-123.

93
Weaver, Henry Fox Talbot: Selected Texts and Bibliography, p 2.
94
Ibid. P 8.
95
Themselves, Without the Aid of the Artist's Pencil. A report of this manuscript was received on the 28th January 1839 and
read on the 31st January. An addendum to this paper was received by the Royal Society, and read on the 21st March
1839.
96
Ibid.
97
Talbot, William Henry Fox, 'Talbotype', The Art Union, V. 8, No. 91 (1 June 1846), pp. 143-144. The original article
was a cutting held amongst the archives of Talbots personal papers, at the National Museum of Photography, Film and
Television in Bradford.
98
Talbot, William Henry Fox, 'Appendix A, Parts I-II,' in A History and Handbook of Photography: Translated from the
French of Gaston Tissandier, ed. by Thomson, J (London: Sampson, Marston, Low and Searle, 1878), pp 346-366.
99
Ibid. pp 346-366.
100
Schaaf, Out of the Shadows : Herschel, Talbot, and the Invention of Photography , p 47.
101
Gernsheim and Gernsheim, The History of Photography: From the Earliest Use of the Camera Obscura in the Eleventh
Century up to 1914 , pp 63-64.
102
Sciagraphy: William Henry Fox Talbot first devised this term in 1835 to describe the process of delineating shadows
with the use of chemical agents.
103
104
See Batchen, Burning With Desire: The Conception of Photography for a more detailed account of these counter claims
during this period of Photographic history.
105
106
Talbot, William Henry Fox, English Etymologies (London: J. Murray, 1847).
107
Jeffrey, Ian, Revisions: An Alternative History of Photography (Bradford: The National Museum of Photography, Film and
Television, 1999).
108
Talbot, William Henry Fox, Sun Pictures in Scotland (Reading: The Talbotype Establishment, 1845).
109
Cela, Ana, Castellanos, Paloma and Sanchez, Mar, ed. Huellas de Luz: El Arte y Los Experimentos de William Henry Fox
Talbot, (Madrid: Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofia, 2001), p 359.
110
Jeffrey, Revisions: An Alternative History of Photography, p 22.
111
Weaver, Henry Fox Talbot: Selected Texts and Bibliography.
112
Talbot, English Etymologies.
113
Levin, Kim, 'The Eye of Ra', in Light in Art, From Aten to Laser: Essays on Concepts of Light as Idea and Medium, ed. by
Ashbery, Thomas B. Hess and John (New York: Collier Books, 1969), p 24.
114
Unknown, Reporter, 'Obituaries', The Daily Telegraph, 27 September, 1877.
115
Thomas, 'The Search for Pattern', p 76.
116
Jager, Jens, 'Discourses on Photography: A Mid-Victorian Britain', The History of Photography, V. 19, No. 4 (1995),
316-321 .
117
Thomas, 'The Search for Pattern', p79.

118
The Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of All Nations took place in the newly constructed Crystal Palace in Hyde
Park, May 1st, 1851. Baldwin, Gordon, Daniel, Malcolm and Greenough, Sarah, All the Mighty World: The Photographs of
Roger Fenton, 1852-1860 (New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2004).
119
Henfrey, Arthur, ed. The Journal of the Photographic Society of London: Containing the Transactions of the Society and a
General Record of Photographic Art and Science, (London: Taylor and Francis, 1854). Gernsheim, Helmut, Creative
Photography: Aesthetic Trends 1839-1960 (Portland: Dover Publications, 1991).
120
Baldwin, Daniel and Greenough, All the Mighty World: The Photographs of Roger Fenton, 1852-1860, p 11.
121
Ibid. p 5.
122
When searching the Lacock Abbey Collection for Talbots photographs, I came across a series of watercolours and
a graphite drawing, accession nos 00001136, 0000235, 01284, that clearly had been applied to a photograph on paper,
printed faintly so as not to appear obvious. These works are attributed to Rosamond Talbot, Fox Talbots daughter.
123
Gernsheim, Creative Photography: Aesthetic Trends 1839-1960, pp 33-34.
124
1. Monckhoven, Van, Solar Enlarging Camera, British Patent 1000 (21 April 1864), Van Monckhovens Solar
Enlarging Camera: this apparatus is similar in principal to the solar microscope. The source of illumination is sunlight.
A positive image is projected onto a sensitive print out paper, from a small glass negative held in the apparatus to
receive the sun. 2. Newton, Alfred Vincent, British Patent 2459 (22nd September 1857), Alfred Vincent Newton so
named his patent Solar Camera, though this is certainly not the first invention of the apparatus but an adaptation of it,
used for projecting positive images onto canvas for painting etc..
125
Bayard, Hippolyte, La Lumiere, (23 February 1851), pp. 10-11. Though this is the first description of the process, I
came across a selection of Talbots very early calotype negatives, produced approximately between 1840-45, in which
Talbot had blackened out skys completely or in part. Lacock Abbey collection, accession nos 00150 and 00235.
126
Crawford, William, The Keepers of Light: A History and Working Guide to Early Photographic Processes (New York:
Morgan & Morgan, 1979), p 55.
127
Reynolds, Sir Joshua, Discourses on Art (New York: Collier Books, 1966).
128
Robinson, Henry Peach, Pictorial Effect in Photography: Being Hints on Composition and Chiaroscuro for Photographers, to
Which is Added a Chapter on Combination Printing (London: Piper & Carter; Marion & Co., 1869).
129
Charlesworth, Michael, 'Fox Talbot and the 'White Mythology' of Photography', Word and Image - Taylor and Francis,
V. 2, No. 3 (1995), 207-215.
130
The term dodging was coined by Henry Peach Robinson in his publication: Robinson, Pictorial Effect in Photography .
It is the name of a hand applied technique, describing the selective blocking out of light during photographic exposure.
131
Talbot, Some Account of the Art of Photogenic Drawing, or the Process by Which Natural Objects May be Made to
Delineate Themselves, Without the Aid of the Artist's Pencil.
132
Schaaf, Larry J, Sun Gardens: Victorian Photograms by Anna Atkins (New York: Hans P. Kraus. Jr., 1985).
133
Gruber, Forward by L. Fritz, Man Ray 1890-1976 (Germany: Benedit Taschen, 1992). Howorth-Booth, Mark,
Photography: An Independent Art (London: V&A Publications, 1997). Ray, Man, Man Ray: 12 Rayographs 1921-1928
(Stuttgart and Paris: Schubert & Kapitzki, 1963).
134
Senter, Terrence A., Lazlo Moholy-Nagy (London: Arts Council of Great Britain, 1980). Strauss, Ted, ed.
Experimental Vision: The Evolution of the Photogram since 1919, (Colorado: Roberts Rinehart Publishers in association
with the Denver Art Museum, 1994). Moholy-Nagy, Laszlo, The New Vision and Abstract of an Artist, 4th edn (New
York: George Wittenborn, Inc., 1947).
135
Caujolle, Christian, ed. Joan Fontcuberta 55, Phaidon 55 (London, New York: Phaidon Press Ltd, 2001).
136
Talbot, William Henry Fox, 'Further Observations on the Optical Phenomena of Crystals (Bakarian Lecture)',
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, V. 127, No. 1 (1837), 29-36.
137
These images were given to the Science Museum from Lacock Abbey, Talbots ancestral home, and then re-housed
in the photographic archives of the National Museum of Photography Film & Television in Bradford.

138
139
Using a very narrow slit and a prism William Hyde Wollaston, in England, discovered that the spectrum of sunlight
is crossed by seven dark lines, but he did not interpret them in accordance with current explanations. Wollaston,
William Hyde, 'A Method of examining refractive and dispersive Powers, by prismatic Reflexion.' Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London, V. 92, No. 2 (1802), 365-380 .
140
Whilst looking for ways to check (and improve) the quality of telescopes he was making, Fraunhofer discovered the dark
lines in the solar spectrum while measuring the dispersive powers of various kinds of glass for light of different colours. He
mapped out 574 thin black lines, which are now known as the Fraunhofer Lines, though he was never able to explain
their existence in his lifetime. See Park, A Brief (incomplete) History of Light and Spectra.
141
In 1752 Thomas Melville in Scotland observed that the spectra of flames into which metals or salts have been
introduced show bright lines characterised of what has been introduced into the flame. Ibid.
142
143
Talbot, William Henry Fox, 'Some Experiments on Coloured Flames', Edinburgh Journal of Science, V. 5, No. 1
(1826), 77-82.
144
Talbot, William Henry Fox, 'Facts Relating to Optical Science No I', Philosophical Magazine, V. 4, No. 20 (February
1834b), pp. 112-114 in which he discusses the optical properties of chromium, Lithia, Strontia and Cyanogen. Talbot,
William Henry Fox, 'Facts Relating to Optical Science No III', Philosophical Magazine, V. 9, No. 51 (July 1836a), pp. 1-4
in which he observes the spectra of salts of copper, boracic acid, nitrate of baytes, silver leaf, gold leaf, copper leaf and
zinc.
145
Talbot, Henry Fox, 'Early Researches on the Spectra of Artificial Light From different Sources', Chemical News and
Journal of Science, V. 3, No. 73 (1861), 261-263 .
146
Talbot, William Henry Fox, MSS: Letter to Lady Elizabeth Fielding from William Henry Fox Talbot, Lacock Abbey
Collection, Fox Talbot Museum Lacock, (Harrow: 5 March 1813), <http://www.foxtalbot.arts.gla.ac.uk> The
Correspondence of William Henry Fox Talbot, 00589.
147
Sir David Brewster was an outstanding scholar who had the distinction of going to Edinburgh University at the age of eleven.
He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1815, was a founder of the British Association for the Advancement of Science,
and was responsible for numerous inventions. He did early work on the properties of light, and the kaleidoscope. Leggat,
Robert, Sir David Brewster, (1999) <http://www.rleggat.com/photohistory/history/brewster.htm> [accessed 30 July
2005].
148
Sir David Brewster and Talbot, but most particularly Brewster made a major contribution to advancing research in
the field of crystallography. Alison D. Morrison-Low wrote of Brewster, by measuring the optical properties of literally
hundreds of substances [he] had laid the foundations for nineteenth century investigations into the nature of light and that by
1819 Brewster had classified hundreds of minerals and crystals into their optical categories by painstaking experiment.
Morrison-Low, 'Tripping The Light Fantastic: Henry Talbot and David Brewster'.
149
Brewster, Sir David, MSS: Letter to William Henry Fox Talbot from Sir David Brewster, Lacock Abbey Collection,
Fox Talbot Museum Lacock, (Edinburgh: March 1833), <http://www.foxtalbot.arts.gla.ac.uk> The Correspondence of
William Henry Fox Talbot, 02616.
150
Talbot, 'Experiments on Light'.
151
Oakden, C. H., 'The Invention of the Micropolariscope and its Early Applications', Journal of the Quekett Microsopical
Club, V. XVI, (1928), 75-78.
152
Talbot, 'Experiments on Light'.
153
Ibid.
154
Talbot, 'Some Experiments on Coloured Flames'.
155
He had observed another kind of optical phenomena whilst working with the crystal of Borax, which he dissolved
in Phosphoric acid and then crystallised; the superimposition of a black cross upon the circular coloured isochromes.
This cross sometimes appeared in a variety of colours on a white ground which he described as deviations in his
second paper. The field of view being dark, the little circles become luminous, and we see upon each of them a well-defined
and dark cross, dividing the crystal into four equal parts. All these crosses are placed similarly, and are parallel to each other,
and their direction remains unaltered when the crystals are turned round in their own plane by revolving the plate of glass upon

which they stand. The innermost ring is deeply coloured or black, and in the arms of the cross intersecting in the centre. This
part of the cross, which stands within the innermost ring, is beautifully well defined, and perfectly black. Talbot, 'On the
Optical Phenomena of Certain Crystals', & Talbot, 'Further Observations on the Optical Phenomena of Crystals
(Bakarian Lecture)'.
156
Dutch, Steven, Interference Figures, (1997, updated 1999) <http://www.uwgb.edu/dutchs/petrolgy/intfig1.htm>
[accessed 19 June 2004].
157
Interference figures help scientists to identify minerals as being either non-crystalline (isotropic) having uniform
physical properties when viewed from all directions under polarized light, or (anisotropic) having different physical
properties when viewed in different directions.
158
Analytic crystals had a peculiar property for analysing polarised light without the need for an analysing prism.
Themselves, Without the Aid of the Artist's Pencil.
159
A uniaxial crystal has only one direction along which double refraction of light does not occur. Biaxial crystals have
two axes. Collins English Dictionary.
160
Arnold, Henry William Fox Talbot: Pioneer of Photography and Man of Science.
161
Ibid. p161, plate 26.
162
Roberts, Russell, 'Traces of Light: The Art and Experiments of William Henry Fox Talbot', in Huellas de Luz: El Arte
y los Experimentos de William Henry Fox Talbot, ed. by Cela, Ana, Castellanos, Paloma and Sanchez, Mar (Madrid: Museo
Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofia and National Museum of Photography, Film & Television Bradford, 2001) p 36.
163
The Correspondence of William Henry Fox Talbot can be accessed via <www.foxtalbot.arts.gla.ac.uk>.
164
Talbot, 'On the Optical Phenomena of Certain Crystals'.
165
Talbot, William Henry Fox, MSS: Letter to Dominique Francois Jean Arago, Reproduced in 'Extrait d'une lettre de
M. Talbot a m. Arago sur les cristaux de borax', Comptes Rendus hebdomadaires des seances de l'de l'Academie des
Sciences, v.2, 9th May 1836, pp 472-473, May 1836c, <http://www.foxtalbot.arts.gla.ac.uk> Original Manuscript has not
been located.
166
167
According to Arnold the images were taken in the early 1840s. Arnold, Henry William Fox Talbot: Pioneer of
Photography and Man of Science, p 77 & p 161.
168
In his 1984 publication Beyond Vision Jon Darius used the identical image Arnold had illustrated his book with,
though Darius gave the date of origination as circa 1842. However, he went further than Arnold by stating in his
introductory essay, that with the calotype process, Talbot had obtained only an indistinct trace of these polarized
patterns in 1848 and not before. Had Darius recognised Arnolds error and identified the correct images? Where had
the date 1848 come from? If Darius was correct then it would confirm the difficulty that Talbot experienced in
obtaining any results of distinction. Darius, Jon, Beyond Vision (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984), p 12 & p 16.
169
These images have been catalogued as negative prints in the National Museum of Photography, Film & Television
Bradford.
170
Talbot, MSS: Letter to Dominique Francois Jean Arago.
171
I have found no textual evidence for exposure times in relation to these images. I can only assume that with the
low sensitivity of the chemicals that Talbot would have left the sensitised papers in place for several hours.
172
Darius, Beyond Vision, p 17.
173
Arnold, Henry William Fox Talbot: Pioneer of Photography and Man of Science, p 65.
174
Ibid. p 68.
175
Talbot, William Henry Fox, 'Notes on some Anomalous Spectra', Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, V. 7,
No. 82 (1870-1871), 408-410 .

176
Crookes was trained at the Royal College of Chemistry in London, with a professional interest in physics (the
natural sciences) and photography, The two sciences met on a common ground in photography, where light a physical
agent was made to produce chemical effects. He attended Michael Faradays lectures and by the early 1850s was
introduced to Sir Charles Wheatstone, a Gloucester manufacturer of musical instruments who became professor of
Natural Philosophy at Kings college, London. It was Wheatstone who provided Crookes with the magnificent
tourmalines and crystals to undertake his experiments with. Charles Wheatstone, an early mentor, was impressed by
Crookes attempts at photographing some polarization phenomena and encouraged him to take up photography on leaving
college. Gay, Hannah, 'Invisible Resource: William Crookes', British Journal for History of Science, V. 29, No. 3, ISS. 102
(1996), 311-336, p 314.
177
Crookes, William, 'On the Application of Photography to the Study of Certain Phenomena of Polarisation', Journal
of the Photographic Society, V. 1, No. 6 (1854), 70-73.
178
Ibid.
179
Additionally, whilst working as the Superintendent of the Meterological department, of the Radcliff Astronomical
Observatory in Oxford, he wrote a small 60 page Handbook to the Waxed-Paper Process in Photography, which was
published in 1857 by Chapman and Hall.
180
Crookes, 'On the Application of Photography to the Study of Certain Phenomena of Polarisation'.
181
X-ray Diffractions are essentially images of X-ray light forming patterns. They are created as a result of the X-rays
bouncing off atoms and consequently scattering or diffracting in different directions. As the X-rays exit the DNA they
leave behind a pattern on a piece of photographic film. Krock, Lexi, Anatomy of Photo 51, (1996-2003)
<http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/photo51/> [accessed April 2004].
182
By using Silver Chloride as the sensitising compound, X-ray was discovered by Wilhelm Rontgen in 1895; a ray that
has the distinct characteristic ability to penetrate opaque solid matter. McElhone, 'The Signature of Light: Photo-
Sensitive Materials in the Nineteenth Century', in ed. by p 64.
183
Discovered by by P. Debye and P. Scherrer, in which a finely ground crystalline material reveals all components of its
structure in a single pattern. The visual photographic arrangement called for the film to be wrapped cylindrically concentric with
the powder sample, Darius, Beyond Vision, p 15.
184
Shaaf, Larry J., 'Introductory Volume', in H. Fox Talbot's The Pencil of Nature: Anniversary Facsimile, ed. by Shaaf, Larry
J. (New York: Hans P. Kraus, Jr. Inc., 1989). Shaaf, Larry J., Records of the Dawn of Photography: Talbot's Notebooks P & Q
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press in cooperation with the National Museum of Photography, Film & Television
Bradford, 1996).
185
186
Photogram is a process by which one generates an image directly from objects or natural forms without the use of
a camera, by working directly onto light sensitive paper, sheet film or a prepared surface, which is intended as a final
product.
187
There is a watercolour medium based on the use of egg, that is known as glair.
188
Traditionally watercolours include ox gall as an ingredient, as it improves the flow of the wash by breaking the
surface tension. Stephenson, Jonathan, The Materials and Techniques of Painting (London: Thames and Hudson, 1993).
189
The formula for making watercolours was obtained from Cornelisons in-house literature: London.
190
Nadeau, Gum Dichromate and Other Direct Carbon Processes, from Artigue to Zimmerman, p 2-10.
191
Autotype, The Carbro Process: Trichrome Printing by the Autotype Process, Brochure No. 970. Marton, A New Treatise on
The Modern Methods of Carbon Printing. Nadeau, Gum Dichromate and Other Direct Carbon Processes, from Artigue to
Zimmerman. Sawyer, The A B C Guide to the Making of Autotype Prints in Permanent Pigments. Wilson, Edward I., The
American Carbon Manual: The Production of Photographic Prints in Permanent Pigments (New York: Scovill Manufacturing
Company, 1868).
192
Farber, Historic Photographic Processes: A Guide to Creating Handmade Photographic Images, pp 124-126.
193
Marton, A New Treatise on The Modern Methods of Carbon Printing. Wilson, The American Carbon Manual: The
Production of Photographic Prints in Permanent Pigments. Sawyer, The A B C Guide to the Making of Autotype Prints in
Permanent Pigments.

194
Crawford, The Keepers of Light: A History and Working Guide to Early Photographic Processes, p 275.
195
Autotype, The Carbro Process: Trichrome Printing by the Autotype Process, Brochure No. 970.
196
Ibid.
197
Nadeau, Modern Carbon Printing.
198
Wilson, The American Carbon Manual: The Production of Photographic Prints in Permanent Pigments.
199
Allen, Wayde, Comparison of Carbon Tissue Formulations, (year not published)
<http://rmp.opusis.com/carbon/comparison.html> [accessed 12 May 2002].
200
Farber, Historic Photographic Processes: A Guide to Creating Handmade Photographic Images.
201
In fine art, chiaroscuro is the distribution and contrast of light and shade in a painting or drawing, whether in
monochrome or in colour.
202
Sawyer, The A B C Guide to the Making of Autotype Prints in Permanent Pigments, pp 13-15 & pp 68-71.
203
References to water lenses are made in the early history of film; they were used to intensify projected light within
the early constructions of magic lanterns in the 19th century. Hecht, Hermann, Pre-Cinema History: An Encyclopaedia
and Annotated Bibliography of the Moving Image Before 1896 (London, Melbourne, Munich, New Jersey: Bowker Saur in
association with the British Film Institute, 1993).
204
This process is described as hand-drawn, light-printed by Elisabeth Glassman and Marilyn Symmes, who wrote a
survey of the medium from 1839 to the present to accompany a major exhibition of works at the Detroit Institute of
Arts in 1980. (See Appendix 1 for a more thorough description). Clich verre is a hand drawn negative; transparent
glass or plastics are used as a matrix for supporting drawings, which are then placed onto light sensitive papers for
exposure to natural or artificial light.
205
The six sun lamps were placed in this position because they had to be fixed to a rigid surface and kept vertical for
an even distribution of light to pool below. At this time they had not been fitted to a flexible spot light.
206
Marton, A New Treatise on The Modern Methods of Carbon Printing, pp 231- 233.
207
Ibid.
208
A full colour image is obtained when the three transparent gelatine layers of colour are individually mounted, one
on top of the other, onto a final support. This principal reflects the additive method of three colour process used in
industrial printing today.
209
The use of concave solar reflectors made of polished silver, copper or brass, to harness the power of the sun for
lighting ceremonial fires were common place in Greece, Rome, China and Peru. Plutarch wrote that when barbarians
sacked the Temple of the Vestal Virgins at Delphi and extinguished their sacred flame, it had to be relit with the pure and
unpolluted flame from the sun with concave vessels of brass the holy women directed the rays of the sun onto light and dry
matter that was immediately ignited and their flame burned anew. Butti, Ken and Perlin, John, A Golden Thread: 2500
Years of Solar Architecture and Technology (Palo Alto, California: Cheshire Books, 1980).
210
For further information on the history and construction of magic mirrors see Needham, Joseph, Science and
Civilisation in China: Physics and Physical Technology, Part I Physics (Cambridge: At The University Press, 1962) pp 94 -97
and Horlyck, Charlotte, 'Korean Bronze Mirrors and Their Chinese and Japanese Influences', Orientations, V. 33, No. 9
(2002), 48-53 See also Dumpert, Jennifer, 'In the Presence of the Goddess: Bowing Before the Mirror in Shinto',
Journal of Ritual Studies, V. 12, No. Summer (1998), 27-37.
211
Senter, Lazlo Moholy-Nagy, p 46.
212
Hight, Eleanor, ed. Picturing Modernism: Moholy-Nagy and Photography in West Germany, (Cambridge: Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, 1994), p 76.
213
214
T.W. Graphics Water Based Ink System - Water Based Pigment Concentrates, which can be purchased from John
Purcell Paper. <http://www.johnpurcell.net>

215
Before applying colour to the photographs, a vital step had to be taken to adjust the tonal density of the images.
The transparent qualities of clear films, as well as the translucency of waxed papers make more apparent how thin
desktop printing inks are, when lit from behind. This lack of density distorts the correct tonality of the image. To
correct this distortion, Burkholder recommends the use of a contrast adjustment curve, which applies more colour and
density to the image. Burkholder, Dan, Making Digital Negatives for Contact Printing, 2nd edn (Carrollton: Balded Iris
Press, 1999).
216
Dan Burkholder came up with an innovative solution to deal with this problem of density. Instead of creating
physically dense negatives, he began to explore the potential use of colour by printing orange/amber coloured
negatives as filters to ultra violet light. He called these Spectral Density Negatives. Burkholder outlined two methods for
obtaining these negatives in Photoshop, the first was by colourizing the image and the second was by using the colour
table. Spectral density negatives became the focus of my own investigations with carbon inkjet negatives because of
their superiority in blocking out ultra violet light compared with black inkjet inks printed onto paper or OHP film.
Ibid. pp 127-128.
217
218
Hecht, Pre-Cinema History: An Encyclopaedia and Annotated Bibliography of the Moving Image Before 1896, see
references 521 Before the invention of the magic lantern, the following projection arrangements were described by Porta,
Bettini, and Kircher and later by Schoott, Hansdoffer and Kohlhans2. Lens or water-filled glass sphere with painted image.
and 527B and Seneca as seemingly having been one of the first to discover that a glass globe filled with water appeared to
enlarge objects seen through it.
219
Capron, J Rand, Photographed Spectra; One Hundred and Thirty-six Photographs of Metallic, Gaseous, and Other Spectra
Printed by the Permanent Autotype Process (London, New York: E & F N Spon, 1877).
220
221
222
Nadeau, Gum Dichromate and Other Direct Carbon Processes, from Artigue to Zimmerman.
223
224
Nadeau, Gum Dichromate and Other Direct Carbon Processes, from Artigue to Zimmerman and Nadeau, History and
Practice of Carbon Processes.
225
Newman, Michael, Richard Wilson (Oxford, Bristol and London: Matt's Gallery, Museum of Modern Art Oxford,
Arnolfini, 1989).
226
Alstone, David, Cheltenham Open Drawing Exhibition: Introduction (Cheltenham:1998).
227
Collins English Dictionary.
228
Jones, Bernard, Cassell's Cyclopaedia of Photography (London: The Waverley Book Co. Ltd, 1911).
229
Stephenson, The Materials and Techniques of Painting.
230
Zoete, Johan De, A Manual of Photogravure (The Netherlands: Joh. En Schede En Zonen Haarlem, 1988).
231
The original Autotype Company set up in the 19th century produced this wide range of tissues. The present
company still produce a limited range of carbon tissues for photogravure. They have been renamed Autotype
International Ltd.
232
Schaaf, Larry J, Records of the Dawn of Photography: Talbot's Notebooks P & Q (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press in cooperation with the National Museum Of Photography, Film & Television Bradford, 1996).
233
234
Farber, Historic Photographic Processes: A Guide to Creating Handmade Photographic Images and Nadeau, Modern Carbon
Printing.
235

236
237
King, Sandy, Printing With Ultraviolet Light: Ultraviolet Light Sources For Printing With The Alternative Processes, (2002)
<http://unblinkingeye.com/Articles/Light/light.html> [accessed 11 May 2002].
238
Burkholder, Making Digital Negatives for Contact Printing.
239
Ibid.
240
Ibid.
241
An Epson Photo Ex printer has five colour cartridge and a separate black cartridge. This is not the case with all
Epson printers.
242
Burkholder, Making Digital Negatives for Contact Printing, p 144.
243
244
Glassman, Elizabeth and Symmes, M. F., Clich Verre: Hand-Drawn Light-Printed (Detroit: Detroit Institute of Arts,
1980).
245
Talbot, Improvements in the Art of Engraving.
246
Talbot, William Henry Fox, Photoglyphic Engraving, British Patent 875 (14th October 1858b). Talbot, William
Henry Fox, 'Mr. Fox Talbot's New Process of Photoglyphic Engraving', Photographic News, October 22nd, 1858a.
247
Arnold, Henry William Fox Talbot: Pioneer of Photography and Man of Science, pp 267-293.
248
Talbot, William Henry Fox, 'Photographic Engraving', Journal of the Photographic Society, V. 1, No. 3 (1854), 42-44.
249
Talbot, William Henry Fox, Addendum (London.1839, Read before the Royal Society on the 21st March).
250
Stephenson, The Materials and Techniques of Painting.
251
Wilson, The American Carbon Manual: The Production of Photographic Prints in Permanent Pigments and Nadeau,
Modern Carbon Printing.
252
253
Sawyer, The A B C Guide to the Making of Autotype Prints in Permanent Pigments, pp 18-19.
254
Wilson, The American Carbon Manual: The Production of Photographic Prints in Permanent Pigments and Nadeau, Modern
Carbon Printing.
255
Wilson, The American Carbon Manual: The Production of Photographic Prints in Permanent Pigments and Nadeau, Modern
Carbon Printing.
256
257
Ibid.
258
Ibid.
259
Sawyer, The A B C Guide to the Making of Autotype Prints in Permanent Pigments, pp 71-75. Autotype, The Carbro
Process: Trichrome Printing by the Autotype Process, Brochure No. 970, pp 45-48. Marton, A New Treatise on The Modern
Methods of Carbon Printing, pp 181-197. Hecht, Pre-Cinema History: An Encyclopaedia and Annotated Bibliography of the
Moving Image Before 1896, p 148.
260
Nadeau, Photoceramic Process.
261
262

263
Ibid.
264
Nadeau, Modern Carbon Printing.
265
Allen, Comparison of Carbon Tissue Formulation.
266
Ibid.
267

DRAWING WITH LIGHT THE PENCIL OF NATURET - Thesis PDF

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K A T A Y O U N P A S B A N D O WL A T S H A H I THESIS

DRAWING WITH LIGHT: THE PENCIL OF NATURE

KATAYOUN PASBAN DOWLATSHAHI

The University of Gloucestershire

DRAWING WITH LIGHT: THE PENCIL OF NATURE - 1 -

tissue, and from an institution specialising in colloidal research. On completion of this

lead to a final hypothesis for Drawing with Light.

an architectural or outdoor context.

DRAWING WITH LIGHT: THE PENCIL OF NATURE - 2 -

Signed ..................................................... Date .....................................

DRAWING WITH LIGHT: THE PENCIL OF NATURE - 3 -

to make her proud of me.

DRAWING WITH LIGHT: THE PENCIL OF NATURE - 4 -

DRAWING WITH LIGHT: THE PENCIL OF NATURE - 5 -

4:1:3 Studies with Sunlight 81

DRAWING WITH LIGHT: THE PENCIL OF NATURE - 6 -

Plate 1: Drawing Fragments of Black I & II

Plate 2: Drawing Veiled light I V, 2004

Plate 3: Drawing Veiled light I III, 2004

Plate 4: Enfolding Dusk I II & III, 2004

Plate 5: Tracing Footprints of Light I & II, 2004

Plate 6: Drawing Fragments of Light I II & III, 2004

Plate 7: Drawing Fragments of Light I II & III, 2004

DRAWING WITH LIGHT: THE PENCIL OF NATURE - 7 -

DRAWING WITH LIGHT: THE PENCIL OF NATURE - 8 -

DRAWING WITH LIGHT: THE PENCIL OF NATURE - 9 -

DRAWING WITH LIGHT: THE PENCIL OF NATURE - 10 -

DRAWING WITH LIGHT: THE PENCIL OF NATURE - 11 -

DRAWING WITH LIGHT: THE PENCIL OF NATURE - 12 -

DRAWING WITH LIGHT: THE PENCIL OF NATURE - 13 -

DRAWING WITH LIGHT: THE PENCIL OF NATURE - 14 -

Chapter 1: Historical Review

1:1 Introducing the Research

1:1:1 Drawing with Light: The Pencil of Nature

polytheistic cult of Mithras3 and subsequently in the monotheistic religion of Zarathustra4, is

made about my visual aesthetic.

DRAWING WITH LIGHT: THE PENCIL OF NATURE - 15 -

from a photographic perspective. Talbots analogy started me thinking. Was it possible to

the history of optics and photography?

particular, published by a Canadian; Luis Nadeau of Atelier, identified a variety of carbon

DRAWING WITH LIGHT: THE PENCIL OF NATURE - 16 -

processes11, which were to form the basis of my practice led research.

depth in this thesis.

my intention is to establish a historical context.

DRAWING WITH LIGHT: THE PENCIL OF NATURE - 17 -

literature review and the practical studio investigations.

predecessor of all photo-mechanical processes. His discovery consequently led to the

invention of pigment printing18 by a French inventor, Alphonse Poitevin19 (Figure 3) in 1855. It

DRAWING WITH LIGHT: THE PENCIL OF NATURE - 18 -

substrate of gelatine, albumen or gum arabic was of unequal thickness.

DRAWING WITH LIGHT: THE PENCIL OF NATURE - 19 -

subsequently referred to as carbon photography or carbon printing. Apart from transferring

DRAWING WITH LIGHT: THE PENCIL OF NATURE - 20 -

photographic systems to have evolved in the history of photography.

health in the past.

permanent quality reproductions, in monochrome or colour, of paintings, drawings and

DRAWING WITH LIGHT: THE PENCIL OF NATURE - 21 -

painting (Figure 5).

numerous historical processes were exposed to sunlight by contact printing37. Alphonse

DRAWING WITH LIGHT: THE PENCIL OF NATURE - 22 -

Figure 6. Mercury Vapour Sun Lamps Mounted onto the wall

drawing to photography and the pencil of light to a philosophy on light.