Number of free electrons in metal decreases according to Boltzmann distribution

Deep level dopants are more localized in k-space compared to shallow level dopants
Effective electron mass is inversely proportional to d2E/dk2
Metals have higher conductivities than semiconductors primarily because they have more
free carriers
Metals have Ef inside the band gap
The conductivity of metals decreases with increasing temperature (not for intrinsic
semiconductors)
The band gap of Ge=0.67eV
An electron has a larger DeBroglie wavelength than a proton or neutron traveling at the
same velocity
Real space and k space widths of a wavepacket are inversely proportional
For indirect gap semiconductors, photon absorption across the indirect bandgap must be
phonon assisted
Room temperature value of kbT=25meV
Metals have bands of forbidden energy
Resistivity in metals increases with increasing temperature
kB(Boltzmann constant) relates kinetic energy and gas temperature; R=kB*Avogadros
intrinsic charge carrier concentration is a function of temperature
electrical conductivity of semiconductor is a function of temperature
N-type dopants are electron donors: these increase electron centration
P-type dopants are electron acceptors; these increase hole concentration
Dopants increase conductivity compared to intrinsic semiconductor levels
Mean thermal speed is avg random speed (scalar), average gas velocity is mean speed in
particular director (vector
 1.2
o diamonds
o Metallic bonding: cloud of electrons fills the space between metal ions and glues
the ions together through coulombic attraction between electron gas and positive
metal ions
o Van der Waals
Electric dipole moment: permanently polarized molecule
Induced dipole-induced dipole

1.3
o stable: low PE
o unstable: activated state
1.4
o APF, CN
o FCC, BCC, HCP
Diamond: 2 FCC
ZincBlende: 2 FCC
Rock Salt: 2 FCC
CsCl: simple cubic
o Miller indices
[h,k,l]: direction
<hkl>: family of directions
(h,k,l): plane
1/x (y or z)
o planar density: number of atoms centered on a given plane/area of plane
o Carbon
 Diamond
Cubic
Covalently bonded network of atoms
Electrical insulator, thermal conductor better than metals
Graphite
Covalently bonded layers
Layers bonded through van der Waal
Hexagonal unit cell
Electrical conductor, thermal conductor similar to metals
Buckminsterfullerene (C60)
FCC: each lattice point has C60 molecule
Semiconductor, compounds with alkali metals exhibit
superconductivity
o Bravais lattices

1.5
o 0D (native point defects)
cation/anion vacancies, interstitials, anti-site
always present in semiconductors
E(vacancy)~1eV
Donate/trap charge carriers affect carrier density and light emission
Scatter free charge carriers affect mobility
Scatter phonons affect thermal conductivity
 Point defects
Schottky: equal number of cation and anion (anion>cation)
o Highly ionic compounds with high CN
Frenkel: cation leaves and occupies interstitial
o Ionic with low CN
Substitutional impurity: double charge
o Sub. Impurity dopants
Group M element is donor when sub with M-1 element
Group M element is acceptor when sub with M+1 element
Group M element is double donor when sub with M-2 element
Group M element is double acceptor when sub with M+2 element
Group M element is isoelectronic (no doping) when sub with M element
o 1D
edge: line defect, causes strain
screw: shearing one portion of perfect crystal with respect to another
portion
help with crystal growth
o 2D
grain: broken bonds, voids, vacancies, strained bonds, interstitial type
atoms
disordered structure
atoms in grain boundaries have higher energies than those iwthin
grains
surface: surface atoms bond with each other and reconstruct surface
ZnO crystal with excess An in interstitial sites as Zn2+ cations resultin in
extra free electrons n-type

2.1/2.2
o free electrons under electric field flow in opposite direction of field
o Drude model
Normal conductors have friction caused by collisions between electrons
and atoms
When electric field is turned off, collisions randomize the electron
velocity during period of time (tau= momentum relaxation time/scattering
time/avg time between collisions)
For drude model: conductivity=current density/electric field
Resistivity=1/conductivity
Electrons scatter randomly as they bump into each other but try to
go direction of electric field
J, vd, and E are all in the same direction
o Conduction electron in electron gas moves randomly in metal, but with electric
field applied there is a displacement of net distance deltax

o strained region by impurity exerts scattering force
o grain boundaries cause scattering of electron and add to the resistivity
mean free path ~ mean grain diameter
Matthiessens rule: resistivity= impurity resistvity + lattice resistivity
o
o in metal alloy resistvity vs. composition graph parabola

o
o annealed: liquid slowly cooled ordered crystalline strcutre with reduced
scattering effect
o Nordheim Rule: impurity resistivity=CX(1-X)
C: nordheim coefficient
X: atomic fraction of solute atoms in a solid solution
o Perpendictular: eff resistivity=vol fraction of alpha phase*resistivity of alpha
phase + vol fraction of beta phase*resistivity of beta phase
o Parallel: eff conductivity=(same as above but conductivity instead of resistivity)
o Dispersed/continuous: alpha resistivity=beta resistivity
If dispersed phase resistivity >10*continuous phase resistivity
Eff resitivity=cont. resistivity*(1+.5volfraction of dispersed)/(1-
vol fraction of dispersed)
If dispersed phase resist<.1*cont phase resist
Eff resistiviy=cont resistivity*(1-vol fraction of disp)/(1+2volfrac
of dispersed)

2 = +2

o in very thin films (d<mean free path), scattering due to film surfaces increases
resistivity
3 1
= = 4 (1 2) ln ( + 0.423)

3 1
d>>mean free path: = = 1 8 ( )

sigma_o: bulk conductivity
P: fraction of surface scattering events that are specular instead of
diffusive
K=thickness/mean free path
o Barrier imited conductivity: limited by the injection of charge from the contact to
the insulator
o Bulk-limited conductivity: sufficient numbers of charge carriers are injected into
the insulator conduction band; however, they experience difficulty in reaching the
other electrode because of bulk transportation limitations in the insulator

o
o electrical conduction in insulators
schottky(thermionic) emission of electrons from a heated metal into a
vacuum
quantum tunneling: metal wavefunctions extend into the insulator, if
insulator is thin enough, electron wavefunctions can extend into opposing
metal
 space charge limited (SCL) conduction is limited because at the rate at
which charge can move through the film is slower thn the rate of carrier
injection from the contact
high temperature conduction in thick-film and bulk insulators frequently
occurs by ionic rather than electronic motion
intrinsic conduction involves direct excitation of free electrons from the
valence to conduction band by temperature/light
poole-frenkel emission: bulk charge trapped by impurity levels in the
insulator band gap can be transferred to the conduction band by internal
emission processes such as thermal
thermal vibrations rupture a bond and release a free electron. A hole is left
in the broken bond which has a positive charge. An electron in a
neighboring bond can jump and repair this bond and create a hole in its
original sight. Then the hole has been displaced. When a field is applied,
both holes and electrons contribute to electronic conduction.
2.3
o insulators (lowest conductivity), semi conductors, conductors
o Lorentz force: force exerted on a charged particle q moving with velocity v
through an electric field and magnetic field
F=qE+qv*B
Positive charge moving in the x direction experienced downward force
Negative charge moving in the x direction experiences downward force
o Measuring mobility, magnetic field: hall effect
o Ambipolar conduction: semiconductor with holes and electrons
Hall effect causes electrons and holes to deflect to bottom

o
o mobility: how fast carriers can respond to external fields
purer the sample, higher the mobility
~T^-1.5 at high T: lattice scattering
~T^1.5 at low T: impurity scattering
n-type: electron > p-type: hole
smaller m: higher mobility
higher E: lower mobility
for low doping concentrations, mobility is constant limited by phonon
scattering
at high doping concentrations, mobility decreases due to impurity
scattering
 2.4
o Ohms Law: current through a conductor is directly proportional to the voltage
o Electrical conductivity: transfer charge
o Thermal conductivity: transfer energy
o Thermal conduction: transfer energy from hot to cold
More energetic electrons with longer velocity vectors from hot collide
with lattice vibrations and transfer energy in colder region
Cold vibrations are smaller
o Wiedemann-Franz Law: ratio of thermal conductivity (K) to the electrical
conductivity of a metal is proportional to temperature
K/sigma=TC(wfl)
o Thermal conductivity of gases increases with T, liquids decrease with increasing
T, metals decrease with increasing T bc lattice distortions making electron flow
difficult
o Phonon: quantum of lattice vibration
Trabels at speed of sound
o Conduction of heat in insulators involves generation of atomic vibrations
Atomic vibrations get bigger hot to cold
o Gas: molecules carry the heat
o Nonmetallic solids: phonons carry heat
K=1/3Cvl
K~T^3 at low T
K~T^-1 at high T
Purer crystal: higher K
Stiffer lattice: higher K
Stronger phonon scattering: lower K
3.1
o constructive interference: waves
o destructive interference: cancel each other out
o Photoelectric effect: photon from light frees electron creating photoelectron
higher intensity = higher photoelectric current
stopping voltage and max KE of emitted electron increases with
frequencty of light
KE=hv-work function (v: frequency)
PE of electron inside metal is lower than outside by workfunction of metal
Electron absorbs a photon (absorbing fully its energy and momentum)
o Compton effect: photon collides with electron and partially transfers energy and
momentum
KE=hf-hf
Hf: energy of photon
Hf: energy of photon after collision
Wavelength-wavelencth=(h/mc)(1-costheta)
h/mc (Compton wavelength)=2.43*!0^-12
o Black-body radiaton of photons
Plancks law: the avg energy * density of states= energy density
o Wave spectrum: radio, microwave, infrared, visible (R-V), uV, xray, gamma ray
 o P=hk=mv; k=2pi/wavelength
3.2
2 2 2 2
o 1D ISW: sin ( ) ; = 22
o wavelength<~L
o E=1/2mv^2=1/2p^2/m E>h^2/(2mL^2) confinement energy
o Confinement E increases as box gets smaller
o REVIEW QUANTUM
3.3
o cannot simultaneously determine position and momentum or time and energy or
angle and angular momentum
o heisenbergs uncertainty principle: rp>h/2
o temporal extent (delta t) of a wave is determined by its frequency extent (delta
w=2pideltaf)
o adding two waves with two diff frequencies interference with multiple maxima
and minima in the resultant wave
o Fouriers Trick
3.4
o Quantum tunneling

16() 2
= exp( 2( ))
2
3.5
o particle in a box
http://research.chem.psu.edu/lxjgroup/download_files/chem565-c2.pdf
(pg6)
o Hydrogen atom
2
Radial probability= 2 |, |
En=E1/n^2
D
D
D
D
o d
o d
 o
o an atom can become excited by a collision with another atom moves up energy
state emits photon when returns to ground state
o electron has orbital momentum with quantized component (Lz) along external
magnetic field (Bext); angular momentum vector L rotates about z-axis
o can go up/down to higher/lower energy level but not same spdf
1s 2p not 2s
4p 5s, 5d, 5f not 4p
4.1
o s
o s
o s
o s
o s
o s
o sss
o s
o s
o s
o s
o s
o s
o s
o s
o s
o s
o s
o s
o s
o s
o s
 o
electron probability distributions for bonding and antibonding
contours of constant probability
darker lines represent greater relative probability

o
o 2 bonded He causes 2 electrions to ender the antiorbiting energy levels so the
overall energy is greater than two isolated He atoms
4.2
o in metal: if electron reaches vacuum level, it is free from solid (PE=0)
o no band gap in metals
o if there is no electric field, equal amounts of electrons moving right and left; p=0
o if there is electric field in x direction, electron accelerates to the x direction and
is scattered to the xdirection; p>0
o conduction in metal is due to drift of electrons around Fermi level; when voltage
is applied, energy band is bent to be lower at the positive terminal so that the
electrons potential energy decreases as it moves towards the positive terminal
o 2
o 2
o 2
o 2
o 2
o 2
o 2
o 2
 4.3
o at 0K: VB is full of all the valence electrions
o thermal excitation can cause electron to enter CB
o vacuum: a=Fext/m
o crystal: a=Fext/m*
4.4
o Boltzmann energy distribution describes statistics of particles
Many states with few electrons
o Fermi-Dirac: at T=0K 100% probability of electrons being under Ef
As T increases, probability of being greater than Ef increases
4.5
o equilibrium btwn two metals are reached when Fermi levels line up
o contact potential when two metals are brought together
o no current when cloased ciruit is formed from two diff metals; contact potentials
oppose each other
o Seebeck effect: temp gradient along conductor gives rise to potential difference
dV/dt
emf=integral of To to T of (Sa-Sb) dT=SabdT
o thermionic emission: as metal is excited, electrons leave and are collected by a
plate but fewer electrons will leave because positive charge pull electrons back
o field emission: tunneling of an electron at an energy Ef through narrow PE barrier
induced by a large applied field
4.6
o heat capacity is determined by excitation of lattice vibrations
o debye temperature Td: the te above which all vibrational frequencies are executed
by lattice waves
o low T (kbT<<hwd): u~T^4 and cv~t^3
o hight T: U~T; Cv~3NKb
o conducive crystals
electron contribution: Cv~T
total C at low T: Cv=aT+bT^3
5.1
o