CHAPTER-1

PAPER MAKING PROCESS IN TNPL

1.1.RAW MATERIAL

Bagase and wood are used as raw material for pulping. The company also
uses a small portion of imported wood pulp along with home pulp.

The main raw material viz., Bagasse is procured from sugar Mills under a
barter agreement i.e. steam/fuel is exchanged for bagasse at an agreed ratio.

The other raw materials, wood is mainly procured from TAFCRON and
Forest Department, Govt. of Tamil Nadu apart from private sources. The
annual requirement of wood is around 40lakh MT.

Eucalyptus-hybrid is the variety of wood available in plenty in Tamil Nadu

and this variety is mostly used in pulping.

Fig 1.1 PAPER MACHINE IN TNPL

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 1.2.PULPING PROCESS

The pulp mill consists of the following three pulping streets:

Hardwood pulping street (HWP).

Chemical Bagasse Pulping street (CBP).

Mechanical Bagasse Pulping system(MBP).

PAPER MACHINE
The different varieties of pulp stored in separate towers in Pulp Mill are
drawn into pulp receiving chests in Paper Machine. The individual pulps are passed
through refiners to develop strength and blended by the Ratio Controllers in the blend
chest in the required proportion. Synthetic size (AKD), size fixing agent ATC and filler
materials such as Soapstone powder (Ash) or superior fillers like Hydrex-p, Dry Strength,
etc will also be added at the blend chest. From the blend chest, the blend pulp is
transferred to Machine chest.
The mix is passed through a control refiner, diluted with Machine backwater,
deaerator and cleaned in deculator and in cleaning system. The cleaned stock is finally
screened through pressure screens and sent to Paper Machine. The retention and drainage
aid called RDA chemicals are also added here. The Paper Machines have paper forming
section consisting of Head box and a Twin wire former. The sheet formation takes place
on the synthetic wire with large quantum of dewatering. At Tri nip press, sheet is
further dewatered to 40% consistency by application of hydraulic pressure. The
dewatered moisture is absorbed by felts.

1.3.SODA RECOVERY PLANT

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DESCRIPTION
The primary function of soda recovery plant in pulp and paper mill is to recover
and reuse the chemicals used for chemical pulping of various raw materials viz.
softwood, hard wood bagasse, etc. The main objective of the unit is to minimize as
efficiently as possible, the loss and subsequent make-up of the chemicals used in the
preparation of cooking liquor, commonly called as white Liquor, which comprises
mainly of sodium hydroxide, sodium sulphide, sodium carbonate.
The sodium and sulphur loss in the Kraft recovery cycle is made up with sodium
sulphate (salt cake) and sodium hydroxide.
The various steps Kraft recovery is as follows:

Concentration of weak black liquor (WBL) in evaporation plant.

Incineration of concentrated black liquor (CBL) in chemical recovery boiler
to remove organics.
Conversion of sodium carbonate to sodium hydroxide in recausticizing
plant.
Calcinations of lime mud (Calcium Carbonate) to lime (Calcium Oxide) in
lime Kiln for use in Recausticizing plant.

CHEMICAL RECOVERY PROCESS

The function of the chemical recovery process involves receiving weak black
liquor from Hardwood and Chemical bagasse pulping streets in pulp mill for removal of
the non-cellulosic organic matter and processes it to make white liquor which can be re-
used in the process. This section contains three operations viz., Evaporation, incineration
and causticizing.

EVAPORATION
The water content in the Weak Black Liquor is first concentrated by evaporation
process before removing the organic matter present. This operation is carried out in the
Evaporator Plant. The bagasse liquor and hardwood liquor at different concentration
levels are blended and processed in the evaporators. The blend liquor concentration is

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around 8-9%. The recovery plant has two streets of six-stage Multiple Effect. The
concentration level of the evaporator output is 45% and it is called as Semi
Concentrated Black Liquor (SCBL). Under MDP, the mill installed an additional
evaporator to concentrate the Black Liquor up to 70% solids,etc

Fig 1.2 INCINERATION

INCINERATION
The concentrated Black liquor is fired in the Recovery Boiler. Sodium sulphate
(Salt Cake) is added to concentrated black liquor to make up for the losses in the system.
The concentrated black liquor containing the inorganic compounds are incinerated in the
boiler. The primary function of the Recovery. In the recovery boiler the organics are
combusted and the sulphur converted to sodium sulphide. The released heat is used to
support the chemical process of the inorganic which is endothermic (consumes heat) and

4
to produce high-pressure steam. The recovery boiler 3 in the TNPL can handle as much
as 197.5tts/hr.

Fig 1.3 AIR SYSTEM COMPONENTS

WORKING
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 Heavy block liquor at a 65 75 % dry solid content is sprayed into the lower part
of the furnace and mixed with pre-heated primary air. Here the organics are partly burnt
and from combustible gases (mainly carbon monoxide) and smelt. The smelt falls to the
furnace bottom from where it flows through openings connected to smelt spouts into the
dissolving tank.
The green liquor produced in the dissolving tank is pumped to the causticizing
plant and the level in the tank is kept by adding weak wash from the causticizing plant.
Because of the fumes in the dissolving tank it is ventilated separately to the atmosphere
through a scrubber.
During this process the remaining heat is released and the maximum temperature
in the furnace occurs slightly above the secondary air ports. The gas leaving the furnace
passes through the super-heater; boiler-bank and the economizer were the temperature is
decreased to 180 200oC.Finally, the fly ash is removed in an electrostatic precipitator
before the combustion fumes are exhausted to the atmosphere by an induced draft (ID)
fan. Carry over from the furnace causes deposits in the super heater, the boiler-bank and
the economizer. To keep the heating surfaces clean.
HEAVY BLOCK LIQUOR DETAILS
Black Liquor Composition
The chemical composition of black liquor is important in multiple effect
evaporation because of the scaling potential. The five elements present in black liquor are
sodium, sulphur, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. It also contains non-process elements viz.
silica, potassium and chlorides. The organic constituents of black liquor originate from
raw material and include ligneous materials, hydroxyl acids, degraded carbohydrates, low
molecular weight organic acids and extractives (fatty acids and resins). The organics are
combines chemically with sodium hydroxide in the form of sodium salts

BLACK LIQUOR EVAPORATION

Weak Black Liquor (WBL) from Pulp Mill after brown stock washing is received
at the following concentration:
Table 1.1 CONCENTRATION OF WBL
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 Hardwood Pulping 13-14% Total Solids
Chemical Bagasse Pulping 8-9% Total Solids

Temperature 135oC

Organic compounds 32 % by weight

Inorganic compounds

(C, Na, S, O2, H2, K, 68% by weight

Others)
3200 Kcal/Kg
Calorific Value
Required and reformed from the black liquor, which contains
lignin from previously processed wood. The black liquor is burnt, generating heat, which
is usually in the process in making electricity, much as in air conventional steam power
plant.
FUNCTION OF RECOVERY BOILER
Concentrated black liquor contains organic dissolved wood residue in the addition
to sodium sulphate from cooking chemicals added at the digester. Combustion of organic
portion of chemicals produces heat. In the recovery boiler heat is used to produce high
pressure steam, which is used to generate electricity in a turbine. The turbine exhaust,
low pressure steam is used for process heating.
Combustion of black liquor in the recovery boiler furnace needs to be control
carefully. High concentration of sulphur requires optimum process condition to avoid
production of sulphur dioxide and reduced sulphur gas emissions in addition to the
environmentally clean combustion in the reduction of inorganic sulphur must be achieved
in the char bed.
Function of the chemical recovery boiler is to fire the black liquor solids. The heat
generated by the combustion of organics in black liquor generate steam which inturn is

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utilized for cogeneration of power. The inorganics in the black liquor is recovered as
smelt for subsequent conversion of sodium carbonate to sodium hydroxide in the re
causaticisizing section.

The Recovery boiler has several unit processes,

Combustion of organic material in the black liquor to generate steam.

Reduction of inorganic sulphur compounds to sodium sulphide, which exist
at the bottom as smelt.
Production of molten inorganic flow of mainly sodium carbonate and
sodium sulphide, which is later recycle to the digester after being resolved.
Recovery of inorganic dust from flue gas to same chemicals.
Production of sodium few to capture combustion residue of released
sulphur compounds.

CONSTRUCTION

The boiler is an outdoor installation (with roof and side cladding) and of a screen
less natural circulation, single drum suspended type with a membrane wall, water cooled
furnace. The installation includes all mountings, fittings, refractory. Casings, cladding,
structural and support steel work and integral pipe work.
The boiler has both radiant and convective heating surface arranged suitably in
order to cool the combustion gases and to facilitate effective cleaning of the heating
surfaces. The boiler operates with natural circulation. The water walls of the boiler
furnace are all welded construction with 63.5 mm diameter tube and 12.7mm fins in
between.
In the bottom area there are suitable member of air inlet openings on two levels in
order to control the bed shape. A third level of air inlet openings is higher up to finalize
the combustion
The boiler is a single drum radiant tight unit. The boiler tank is the convective
heating surface consisting of vertical tube platen. Compared to the conventional by-drum

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cross flow boiler tank. The arrangement of axial flow panel type boiler tank gives
superior performance with regard to plugging behavior, ease of erection and operational
safety. The flue gases leaving the boiler tank enter a three stage vertical panel type
economiser.
The economizer panels are axial flow type which is the optimum arrangement
resulting in the minimum pluggage of the economizer heating surfaces. The economizers
have been sized for a maximum flue gas outlet temperature of 1800 C. The super heaters,
boiler tank and economizers heating surfaces will be cleaned by long retractable soot
blowers. The soot blowers are operates through a remote /auto sequence. Blankets will be
provided as insulation in order to minimize heat loss by radiation to the surroundings.
The mineral wool will be covered with aluminum/ pre-coated sheets for production
against mechanical damage. The boiler will be supported from a steel ceiling structure
above the boiler roof thus allowing free expansion downwards when the boiler is warmed
up. Fuel oil system for starting up the boiler and for stabilizing the furnace conditions
during low load operation and / or firing liquor of low heating value, 4 nos. start-up oil
burners are provided. The starting burners consist of oil burners located in separate
openings above the furnace hearth.
Blow Down Tank
The boiler is provided with one (1) cylindrical vertical atmospheric tank for
collecting the blow down water. Specialized valves are available to handle this arduous
duty of handling hot boiler water containing solid particles, with reliable shut-off for long
periods.

Blow Down from Boilers

Continuous and Intermittent Blow down in Boilers is given to control the Silica and Total
Dissolved Solids (TDS) Levels in Circulating Boiler feed water. Normally this Blow
down water is available at High Pressure and its corresponding saturation Temperature.
Blow down boiler feed water contains enough heat to produce flash steam and the
condensate can be reused again. Boiler Steam Drum

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 Steam drum have manifold connections to the superheater headers. Nozzles are
provided for external mounting of safety valves, water level gauges, water level alarms,
water level regulators, pressure gauges, continuous blow down, feed water inlet,
sampling, air vent and any other uses of steam from the drum. Steam drum is provided
with manhold at both ends. Start-up vent and safety valves vent lines are provided with
silencer.
The furnace is of membrane panel construction of medium carbon steel tubes. To permit
monitoring of any external tube wastage after service, provision for measure tube wall
thickness in a number of selected spot using an ultrasonic thickness tester.

SPECIFICATIONS OF RECOVERY BOILER

Boiler firing capacity 1300 TPD

Steam generation 197 T/hr

Steam pressure 65 Kg/cm2

Feed water temperature 135o

Table 1.2 Air System Components

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 Capacity Head Motor (kw) Temperature(oc)
Air Fans (Nm3/s)

Induced draft 70.3 -360 580 180

Primary Air 22.71 260 132 50

Secondary Air 36.58 420 315 50

Tertiary Air 9.73 485 90 50

RESULTS OF POOR WATER TREATMENT

In the ideal situation, water would be feed to a boiler free of any impurities.
Unfortunately, this is not the case. Water clean up isalways required. The following items
are the most problematic to boilers and steam turbines:
Calcium (Ca) scale Calcium forms with sulfates (SO4 ) and other compounds to
form calcium sulfate, calcium bicarbonate, calciumcarbonate, calcium chloride, and
calcium nitrate. During evaporation, these chemicals adhere to boiler tube walls forming
scale. Itsformation increases with the rate of evaporation so these deposits will be
heaviest where the gas temperatures are highest. Scale is anonconductor of heat which
leads to a decreased heat transfer of the boiler tubes, and can result in tube failure due to
higher tubemetal temperatures. Buildup of scale also clogs piping systems and can cause
control valves and safety valves to stick.
Magnesium (Mg) scale Same issues as with calcium.
Silica (SiO2) Silica can form scale at pressures below 600 psig. Above 600 psig,
silica starts to volatize, passing over with steam topotentially form deposits on the steam
turbine diaphragms and blades. These deposits change the steam path components
profilesresulting in energy losses. The degree of loss depends upon the amount of the
deposits, their thickness and their degree of roughness.For example, if the nozzle area of
the first stage flow path was reduced by 10%, the output of the steam turbine would
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beapproximately 3% less. A similar loss could occur if the gas turbine received steam for
power augmentation purposes.
Sodium (Na) Sodium can combine with hydroxide ions creating sodium
hydroxide (caustic). Highly stressed areas of boiler pipingand steam turbines can be
attacked by sodium hydroxide and cause stress-corrosion cracks to occur. This was a
problem in olderboiler with riveted drums because of stresses and crevices in the areas of
rivets and seams. While less prevalent today, rolled tubeends are still vulnerable areas of
attack as well as welded connections.
Chloride Chlorides of calcium, magnesium, and sodium, and other metals are
normally found in natural water supplies. All ofthese chlorides are very soluble in water
and therefore, can carry over with steam to the steam turbine. Chlorides are frequently
foundin turbine deposits and will cause corrosion of austenitic (300 series) stainless steel
and pitting of 12 Cr steel. Corrosion resistantmaterials protect themselves by forming a
protective oxide layer on their surface. These oxides are better known by their
genericname ceramic. All ceramics will pit if exposed to chlorides. If the metal piece is
under tensile stress either because of operation or residual stress left during
manufacturing, the pits formed by chlorides attacking the passivated layer will deepen
even more. Since thepiece is under tensile stress, cracking will occur in the stressed
portions. Usually there will be more than one crack present causingthe pattern to
resemble a spiders web. The most common source of chloride contamination is from
condenser leakage.
Iron (Fe) High iron is not found in raw water but high concentrations can come
from rusted piping and exfoliation of boiler tubes.Iron is found in condensate return in a
particle form as it does not dissolve in water. The detrimental aspect of iron is called
steamturbine solid particle erosion, which causes significant erosion of steam turbine
steam path components.

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 Oil Oil is an excellent heat insulator, and adherence of oil on tube surfaces
exposed to high temperatures can cause overheating andtube damage.
Oxygen (O2) Oxygen is found in feedwater and its partial pressure is relatively
high so it will requires a near saturation temperatureto disassociate itself from water.
Oxygen in combination with water will attack iron and cause corrosion.
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Carbon dioxide can react with water to form carbonic
acid (H2CO3). Carbonic acid will cause corrosion inteam and return lines. Carbon
dioxide can originate from condenser air leakage or bicarbonate (HCO3) alkalinity in the
feedwater.
pH The pH value of water is a measure of its alkalinity or acidity and has a direct
bearing on the corrosive properties. All watercontains alkaline (hydroxyl, OH) ions and
hydrogen (H) ions. The product of the concentrations is always approximately 10-14.
ThepH value of the water is the log of the reciprocal of the H ion value. If the water is
neutral, the OH and H ion concentrations are each10-7. A pH below 7 indicates acidity;
over 7 designates an alkaline condition. Low pH in local areas is the second most
commoncause of corrosion in mild steel boilers Above roughly 400, mild steel corrosion
results in the formation of magnetite, a tightadherent that acts as a barrier between boiler
water and steel. The corrosion reaction stops after a uniform magnetite layer is
formed.Rapid general corrosion can ensue if this protective film is disrupted, so water
chemistry must be carefully controlled to maintain thefilm. An acidic condition can
destroy the magnetite film; therefore, boiler water is maintained in the alkaline range of a
pH of 9.0 to10.5.
Foaming Foaming is the formation of bubbles or froth on the water surface. It is
caused by a high amount of total and suspendedsolids. Foam will fill the free surface area
of a separating device increasing local velocities and promoting a serious carryover
ofboiler water.
Raw Water Cleaning
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 Raw water can come from a variety of sources, lakes, rivers, and wells for
example. Each source of water will have its own
constituents and therefore, its own requirements for cleanup. These cleanup
requirements should be specified by experts in this fieldof work.
Boiler Water Control
Items to control in the boiler water are oxygen and dissolved solids. Each of these
are controlled in the following manner:
Oxygen Oxygen will be found in steam condenser condensate as well has in
makeup water. It is most commonly removed via oneof two system arrangements. A
common method is the use of a vacuum condenser. A vacuum is created in the condenser
by steamjet air ejectors pumps prevents the water from absorbing oxygen because the
vacuum is lower that the oxygens partial pressure inwater. The other method is to use an
integral deaerator arrangement. For this arrangement a deaerator is located atop the
lowpressure drum and water from the HRSG feedwater heater.
Dissolved Solids During the evaporation process, most solids stay in the water
section of the drum while steam is sent to thesuperheater.

CHAPTER-2
INTRODUCTION

In order to keep the limits and to remove any sludge,loose scales and corrosion
products, a certain quantity ofboilers is to be regularly drained. This process is called
aBlow down. This is due to the fact that water inside theboiler gets continuously
evaporated due to steamgeneration. Concentration of dissolve solid, inside the
drumincreases and reach beyond the limit, so carryover of solidsalong with steam can
14
occur. To prevent boiler tubechocking and overheating of the boiler tubes the blowdown
is necessary. The quantity of water to be blow downwill depend on the dissolved solids
entering the boiler through the feed water. The boiler is blow down to reduce these levels
and keepcontrolled to a point where the steam quality is not likely tobe affected. A
substantial amount of heat energy is lost inhis process. The water removed from the
boiler is not reused but thrown away either into a tank or a sewer for disposal.
Heat recovery is used frequently to reduce energylosses that result from boiler
water blow down. Installationof heat recovery equipment is valuable only when
energyfrom the flash tank or the blow down water can berecovered and utilized. When an
excess supply of exhaustor low-pressure steam is already available, there is
littlejustification for installing heat recovery equipment.Boiler blow down is necessary to
reduce maintenance costs but still requires additional money to heat the incoming
replacement water. Using some of the heat from this blow down waste water would save
the boiler operating company money. In addition to using some of the heat from blow
down water additional savings may be proven if a portion of the blow down water could
be treated and returned for re-use in the boiler.

The system to remove boiler water impurities has some areas that are required to
be considered prior to commencing the project. First, the boiler is operating at high
pressure and high temperature. The water requiring treatment is already near saturation. It
would be possible to take some of the boiler water that is a heat saturated liquid under
high pressure and essentially send it to an expansion chamber or flash tank which is
maintained at a lower pressure. In the flash chamber the water would flash into steam
very quickly when allowed to expand. The impurities would no longer be able to be
retained in the saturated vapor and could be collected at the bottom of the flash tank in a
collection pan.

15
 Continuous blow down as the term implies, is the continuous removal of water
from the boiler. It is just below the low water level for the purpose of control of Total
Dissolved Solids of boiler water. Continuous blow down lends itself ideally to recovery
of some 80% of heat content and 10 - 20% (depending on boiler pressure) of pure water
in the form ofcondensed flash steam. Its position must ensure the removal of the most
concentrated water. The line must also be located so that boiler feed water or chemical
feed solution does not flow directly into it.

CHAPTER-3
LITERATURE SURVEY

Boiler blowdown will result in energy savings while maintaining the desired steam.
The heat recovery step (the focus of this tool) is an additional measure to reduce energy
consumption in boilers. Recovery of heat from blow down water can substantially reduce

16
energy losses, due to the amount of heat contained within blow down liquid at the steam
generation pressure.
A portion of the heat within the blow down liquid is recovered as flash steam that
resulting from the change in pressure from generation pressure to a lower pressure.
Additional heat recovery is attained when sensible heat of the blow down liquid (water) is
recovered using a heat exchanger.
Boiler blow down heat recovery can result in substantial savings in energy use for
the boiler and other associated costs. The generation of steam in boiler requires feed
water. Feed water is often a mixture of returned condensate and treated make up water. In
spite of all economically justifiable efforts of treating feed water, a small amount of
dissolved solids (TDS) are contained in the feed water. The TDSs accumulate in boiler
when water is evaporated to generate steam. It is common practice to discharge or release
a small amount of water from the boiler steam drum to reduce the dissolved solids level
and eliminate deposits of solids in the steam drum. Many boilers allow for the continuous
water discharge (blow down) of water to manage dissolved solids levels. The blow down
rate can range from less than 1% when using extremely high-quality feed water to greater
than 20% in a system with poor-quality feed water. Makeup water contains a substantial
percentage of total heat input for the boiler. In many cases, the water and its heat content
are sent directly to the drain, resulting in the wasting of energy and water.

Many newer boiler models are equipped with boiler blow down control systems
which aims to reduce the blow down rate while maintaining a safe level of TDS within
the boiler. In this case, while the amount of blow down is controlled, it is beneficial to
recover heat from the blow down.
In this system, boiler blow down water at the steam pressure and corresponding
saturation temperature is discharged into a flash vessel where the pressure is reduced to a
pressure near ambient pressure. This results in generation of flash steam that is taken to
the deaerator where it is mixed with feed water. The remaining water at the lower
17
pressure and temperature is passed through a heat exchanger where heat is transferred to
treated make up water and raises its temperature. The preheated make up water is also
taken to deaerator. The cooled blow down is then discharged to drain or used for
additional purposes.
Boiler blow down rate in terms of percentage of steam production
This is a value based on the current value(s) of the boiler blow down rate for each
boiler. This value can range between 1% and 8% depending on current practices, water
quality etc. If this value is unknown, then it is suggested that you u conduct a
sensitivity analysis or contact the boiler supplier, a reputable boiler blow down control
equipment supplier, or water treatment company representative.
This allows to energy (fuel) savings, that can be achieved by recovering heat from
boiler blowdown in addition to the reduction of CO2 emissions. All commonly used
fossil fuels such as natural gas result in the formation of CO2. The amount of CO2
emissions reduced is directly proportional to the reduction in natural gas use. In many
cases, proper blowdown heat recovery will result in reduction of water use and other
related cost savings.
The annual energy savings is due to added heat within the deaerator, reducing
steam consumption due to increased feed water temperatures. Boiler blowdown contains
a significant amount of energy which, without a heat recovery system, is wasted.
There are several methods available to recover heat from boiler blow down. The
most commonly used method combines the generation of flash steam in a flash tank with
a high efficiency heat exchanger to reduce the temperature of blowdown water. In most
cases the blowdown is discharged at a temperature 100to 130C higher than the makeup
water temperature. Boiler systems that do not have heat recovery equipment and have
high blowdown rates offer the greatest energy-savings potential.

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 The blowdown water heat recovery system generates flash steam due to a
difference in enthalpy (total heat content of steam) at higher (blowdown) pressure and
lower (flash) steam pressure.

CHAPTER-4
DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENT
4.1 FLASH TANK
The flash vessel is the main component in any flash recovery system.It can be used
in a steam plant where high pressure condensate is reduced to a lower pressure , so that
flash steam is formed by revapourization. This steam can be used in low pressure process
or heating equipments. These vessels are particularly suited to boiler blowdown
heatrecovery systems where efficient separation of the flash steamfrom the blowdown is
essential to prevent contamination of theboiler feedtank and / or heat transfer
surfaces.Flash vessels are equally suited to condensate flash steamapplications for boiler
blowdown heat recovery system.

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 Flash steam contains significant and useful heat energy that can be recovered and
used Flash Steam is the steam formed whenever hot condensate at high pressure and
temperature is allowed to drop into a low pressure side.It is formed by boiling of the
condensate which contains more heat than it can hold at that low pressure.Steam is the
vapor phase of water and is generated by adding more heat than required to maintain its
liquid phase at a given pressure, causing the liquid to change to vapor without any further
increase in temperature
.It is necessary to know the pressure on the steam traps or boiler pressurein the
case of blowdown heat recovery, the flash steam pressure (desiredor existing) and the
condensate or blowdown flowrate for the calculation of flash tank design that is very
much suitable for the effective generation steam from the blow down water from the
boiler drum.
Steam is the vapor phase of water and is generated by adding more heat than
required to maintain its liquid phase at a given pressure, causing the liquid to change to
vapor without any further increase in temperature.

Temperature is the thermal state of both liquid and vapor at any given pressure.
Steam, as all fluids, flows from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure and is able
to move throughout a system without an external energy source. When this blow down is
discharged to a lower pressure, the condensate contains morethan necessary heat to
maintain the liquid phase at the lower pressure; this excess heat causes some of the liquid
to vaporize or "flash" to steam at the lower pressure.
Because the flash steam available is generally less than the demand for low-pressure
steam, a makeup valve ensures that the low-pressure system maintains design pressure.
While designing the size of the flash tank, it is necessary to know the pressure on the
steam traps or boiler pressurein the case of blow down heat recovery, the flash steam
pressure (desiredor existing) and the condensate or blowdownflowrate.

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 Flash steam is an effective use for the enthalpy of the liquid condensate. It can be
used in any facility that has a requirement for steam at different pressures, regardless of
whether steam is purchased or generated by a facilitys own boiler. Flash steam can be
used in any heat exchange device to heat air, water, or other liquids or directly in
processes with lower pressure steam requirements. Flash steam can be generated directly
by discharging high-pressure water into a lower pressure system, most designers prefer a
flash tank to control flashing. Flash tanks can be mounted either vertically or
horizontally, but the vertical arrangement is preferred because it provides better
separation of steam and water, resulting in the highest possible steam quality.
The most important dimension in the design of vertical flash tanks is the internal
diameter, which must be large enough to ensure a low upward velocity of flash to
minimize water carryover. If this velocity is low enough, the height of the tank is not
important, but it is good practice to use a height of at least 2 to 3 feet.

4.2 DEAERATOR
The deaerator installed in this recovery boiler is a tray type deaerator. Tray type
deaerators contain perforated trays in the top of the deaeration section. The bottom
section acts as storage for boiler feed water. Feed water to deaerator enters into the
perforated trays where the surface area and residence time is increased to contact with
steam. Then the water goes to the horizontalstorage section where steam is passed in
sparger pipe to remove the remaining traces of dissolved gases and keep the stored water
at its saturation temperature.
In particular, dissolved oxygen in boiler feed waters will cause serious corrosion
damage in steam systems by attaching to the walls of metal piping and other metallic

21
equipment and formingoxides (rust). Dissolved carbon dioxidecombines with water to
form carbonic acid that causes further corrosion.

4.2.1 Tray-type deaerator

Fig 4.1 TRAY TYPE DEAERATOR

It has a vertical domed deaeration section mounted above a horizontal boiler feed
water storage vessel. Boiler feed water enters the vertical deaeration section above the
perforated trays and flows downward through the perforations. Low-pressure deaeration
steam enters below the perforated trays and flows upward through the perforations. Some
designs use various types of packed bed, rather than perforated trays, to provide good
contact and mixing between the steam and the boiler feed water.

4.2.2 Why Deaeration

Corrosion of iron or steel in boilers or boilers feed water piping is caused by three
fundamental factors:
1. Feed water temperature

22
 2. Feed water ph value
3. Feed water oxygen content
Temperature and ph value influence the aggressiveness of corrosion. The higher
the temperature, and the lower the pH value the increased aggressiveness of the feed
water. The dissolved oxygen content of the feed water is a large factor in determining the
amount of corrosion that will take place. The presence of oxygen, and other non-
condensable gases, in the feed water is a major cause of corrosion in the feed water
piping, boiler, and condensate handling equipment. Deaerator solves the purpose of
removal of unwanted dissolved gases and dissolved oxygen from the boiler feed water
before entering into boilers.
4.2.3 Principle of Deaerators
Deaerator normally works based on the following principles.
Henrys Law
The solubility of the gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure.
Therefore if we decrease the partial pressure of the dissolved gas by adding steam in
deaerator, its solubility decreases and the gas is removed from water.

Inverse Solubility of Water

When the temperature of water is increased, the dissolved oxygen content in the
water is decreases. Therefore the water temperature is increased by adding steam in
deaerator, the dissolved gas solubility is decreased and the gases are removed from water
4.2.4 Deaerator function
Deaeration is the mechanical removal of dissolved gases from the boiler feedwater.
There are three principles that must be met in the design of any deaerator.

1. The incoming feed water must be heated to the full saturation

temperature, corresponding to the steam pressure maintained inside the deaerator.
This will lower the solubility of the dissolved gases to zero.

23
 2. The heated feed water must be mechanically agitated. This is
accomplished in a tray deaerator by first spraying the water in a thin film into a
steam atmosphere. Creating a thin film reduce the distance the gas bubble has to
travel to be released from the water. Next, the water is cascaded over a bank of
slotted trays, further reducing the surface tension of the water. This allows for the
removal of any gases not liberated by the initial spraying.
3. Adequate steam supply must be passed through the water, in both the
spray section and the tray section to sweep out the gases from the water
Deaeration is the process of removing the dissolved oxygen from the boiler feed
water. Additionally, in the deaeration process the CO2 is also removed. Removal of these
two gases is important in boiler feed water as both of these gases promote corrosion in
the boiler or steam system.
In the tray type (DAT), as the feed water enters the tray column from the top of the dome,
it cascades down a series of trays and encounters a counter flow steam vent. This counter
flow action removes oxygen and carbon dioxide. In the tank of the deaerator, there is a
scrubber, which continually circulates the water in the deaerator bringing it in contact
with steam and causing deaeration of this water.
4.2.5 Steam Pressure Control
Deaerator uses Low pressure steam from the process plant at a pressure range
between 0.5 to 1.5 bar. The low pressure steam sources from various outlets, additionally
the flash steam recovered from boiler blow down can also be adopted in the deaerator to
minimize the consumption of low pressure steam from other sources. Steam pressure
inside the deaerator has to be maintained to facilitate the removal of dissolved gases from
water Deaerators are normally installed at high elevation in order to provide enough
NPSH in the event of failure in steam pressure control also. Pressure Relief valve is also
fitted to avoid pressurization of deaerator due to malfunctioning of pressure control
valve.
24
4.2.6 Water Level Control
Main sources of water to deaerator are treated water from water treatment plant
and steam condensate from the condensing type turbines. During the stable plant
operation the water balance is maintained and during any upset in the above said sources
water level fluctuates and control is essential. High level and low level alarms are
provided. Low level may lead to starvation of feed water pump and High level leads to
water entry into steam header. Therefore overflow drain is installed to drain the water if
very high level is reached.
In water, the presence of dissolved gases, particularly oxygen and carbon dioxide,
causes accelerated corrosion. The corrosion process is especially rapid at elevated
temperatures such as are encountered in boilers and heat exchange equipment. The
primary function of the deaerator is to prevent this corrosion by removing the dissolved
gases from all sources of water entering the boiler
4.2.7 How They Work
The design of an effective deaeration system depends upon the amount of gases to
be removed and the final oxygen gas concentration desired. This in turn depends upon the
ratio of boiler feedwater makeup to returned condensate.
Deaerators use steam to heat the water to the full saturation temperature
corresponding to the steam pressure in the deaerator and to scrub out and carry away
dissolved gases. Steam flow may be parallel, cross, or counter to the water flow. The
deaerator consists of a deaeration section, a storage tank, and a vent. In the deaeration
section, steam bubbles through the water, both heating and agitating it. Steam is cooled
by incoming water and non-condensable gases and some steam are released through the
vent.
Steam provided to the deaerator provides physical stripping action and heats the
mixture of returned condensate and boiler feedwater makeup to saturation temperature.
Most of the steam will condense, but a small fraction (usually 5% to 14%) must be
vented to accommodate the stripping requirements. Normal design practice is to calculate

25
the steam required for heating and then make sure that the flow is sufficient for stripping
as well. If the condensate return rate is high (>80%) and the condensate pressure is high
in comparison to the deaerator pressure, then very little steam is needed for heating and
provisions may be made for condensing the surplus flash steam.

Hydrazine is a colourless liquid which boils at 113C and is very soluble in water.
It is not a naturally occurring substance, and being a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen,
it has the chemical formula N2H4. It is a powerful reducing agent and will reduce oxygen
to form nitrogen and water as follows:
N2H4+ O2 N2 = 2H2O
At high temperature and pressure, ammonia is also formed, which increases the
feedwater pH level, reducing the risk of acidic corrosion. Hydrazine also reacts with soft
haematite layers on the boiler tubes and forms a hard magnetite layer, which
subsequently protects the boiler tubes from further corrosion. This occurs as a result of
the chemical reaction:
N2H4+ 6Fe2O3 4Fe3O4 + N2+ 2H2O

Dissolved oxygen levels in the condensate and in the make-up water will be higher
than acceptable. The mixture of condensate and added make-up water is pumped into the
aerator, which heats the water, under vacuum, and thus removes most of the dissolved
oxygen. The deaerator inlet and outlet are monitored for dissolved oxygen to check the
efficiency of the deaerator, as to whether it has developed any leaks through its casing,
glands, fittings etc.
4.3 HEAT EXCHANGER
The basic concept of a heat exchanger is based on the premise that the loss of heat
on the high temperature side is exactly the same as the heat gained in the low
temperature side after the heat and mass flows through the heat exchanger. Heat
exchanger simply exchanges the heat between those two sides; as a result, it is

26
decreasing the temperature of higher temperature side and increasing the temperature of
lower temperature side. Two fluids, of different starting temperatures, flow through the
heat exchanger. One flows through the tubes (the tube side) and the other flows outside
the tubes but inside the shell (the shell side). Heat is transferred from one fluid to the
other through the tube walls, either from tube side to shell side or vice versa.

The fluids can be either liquids or gases on either the shell or the tube side. In order
to transfer heat efficiently, a large heat transfer area should be used, so there are many
tubes. In this way, waste heat can be put to use. This is a great way to conserve energy.
Typically, the ends of each tube are connected to plenums through holes in tube sheets.
Most shell-and-tube heat exchangers are either 1, 2, or 4 pass designs on the tube side.
This refers to the number of times the fluid in the tubes passes through the fluid in the
shell. In a single pass heat exchanger, the fluid goes in one end of each tube and out the
other. Heat exchangers are off-the-shelf equipment targeted to the efficient transfer of
heat from a hot fluid flow to a cold fluid flow, in most cases through an intermediate
metallic wall and without moving parts.
Heat losses or gains of a whole heat exchanger with the environment can be
neglected in comparison with the heat flow between both fluid flows. Although heat
flows from hot fluid to cold fluid by thermal conduction through the separating wall
(except in direct-contact types), heat exchangers are basically heat convection equipment,
since it is the convective transfer what governs its performance. Convection within a heat
exchanger is always forced, and may be with or without phase change of one or both
fluids. In shell-and-tube heat exchanger (STHE), where one flow goes along a bunch of
tubes and the other within an outer shell, parallel to the tubes, or in cross-flow.
4.3.1FLOW ARRANGEMENTS
The arrangement of hot and cold fluid flows relative to each is important for how
efficiently the heat transfer area of the heat exchanger can be used to transfer the required

27
heat load. Besides the efficient usage of heat transfer area, other considerations in the
selection of flow arrangement include for example pressure drop considerations, header
design, allowable thermal stresses on the heat exchanger materials, and issues related to
the end use location and plumbing.
4.3.2 COMMON TYPES OF PHYSICAL CONSTRUCTION
The most critical decision when designing a heat exchanger is the selection of the
basic type of heat exchanger to design. Various criteria dictate the selection of the
suitable design, and some constructions (particularly the shell-and-tube) may be designed
to adequately serve in a wide variety of situations. The tubular heat exchanger types are
often tempting choices not only for their suitability for a given task, but also for the ease
of design: the double-tube heat exchanger is probably the simplest possible construction,
while the shell-and-tube exchanger has had a number of tried and tested design methods
developed for it due to it being the most common heat exchanger type in process industry.
The cost of finding the easiest route may be considerable however; in those situations
where other types of heat exchangers would cope, they often would provide considerably
smaller and cheaper options to the tubular exchangers.
Tubular shell and tube
Shell-and-tube heat exchangers are currently the most commonly used of all the
possible heat exchanger configurations: in late 1990s, the market share of shell-and tube
heat exchangers in process . Although particularly plate-type heat exchanger
constructions often allow smaller, lighter, or cheaper heat exchangers to be constructed,
shell-and-tube designs have retained their place in the industry due to their of heat
exchanger size, possible pressure and temperature ranges and construction material
choices, as well as a large amount of design and manufacturing knowledge.

28
 Fig 4.2 TUBULAR SHELL AND TUBE
4.3.3Material choices
The material chosen for the heat exchanger must be suitable for the type of
physical construction, be compatible with the fluid temperature ranges expected, and not
be corroded by the fluids. Cost is a significant concern as well, while thermal
conductivity is rarely a significant issue. In plate-type heat exchangers the heat transfer
surfaces are currently still metallic, although ceramic materials are being developed to
achieve higher temperature ranges. Aluminum is a common material in compact heat
exchangers, but cannot be used or in high-temperatures applications (maximum
temperature is approximately 200 C). Also use with food fluids or highly corrosive
fluids necessitates the use of other materials, often stainless steel. Temperatures of up to
approximately 650 C are achievable with welded stainless steel plate heat exchanger
constructions, most commonly Type 347 stainless steel (Aquaro and Pieve 2007). High-
temperature superalloys such as Inconel can further increase the achievable temperature
range up to 750 800 C, but only at a considerably increased cost. Tubular heat
exchangers can be constructed from a variety of materials, most commonly carbon steel
unless corrosion or temperature considerations require other materials. Ordinary carbon
29
steel can be used within a temperature range of 0 to 500 C with non-corrosive or mildly
corrosive fluids. Impact-tested carbon steel is still useful down to -45 C, below which
special steels or aluminum must be used.
Refractory lining permits temperatures higher than 500 C. If one of the fluids is
highly corrosive, that fluid should be placed on the tube side to allow cheaper shell
material to be used, and only tubes be constructed of the corrosion resistant material.
Depending on the fluid, that material could be aluminum (only mildly corrosive fluids), a
suitable steel type, titanium, or a copper alloy. Also glass or carbon can be used for
corrosive duties, or more conventional materials can be protected by suitable linings, for
example austenitic Cr-Ni steel for general corrosion resistance, refractory materials for
high-temperature applications, or lead and rubber for seawater. Various heat exchanger
sizing methods have been developed from the basic transfer rate and conservation
equations, each giving different methods for the designer to relate the overall heat
transfer coefficient U and fluid temperatures and heat capacity rates to the required heat
transfer area. All these methods are based on certain simplifying assumptions about the
heat exchangers analyzed; these are:

No heat is generated or lost via chemical or nuclear reactions, mechanical work, or

other means
There is no heat conduction along the length of the heat transfer surface, only in
the direction of the normal of the surface
No flow maldistribution: fluid flow rates are equally distributed throughout the
whole cross-sectional areas of flow
Where temperature distribution transverse to the flow direction is relevant, any
mzfluid flow can be considered either completely mixed or completely unmixe
4.3.4 OVERALL VIEW OF HEAT EXCHANGER
30
 Fig 4.3 HEAT EXCHANGER
4.3.5 Heat exchanger analysis
The thermal analysis of a heat exchanger is based on the simple coaxial
configuration, where one fluid goes along a pipe, and the other fluid goes along the
annular section within a larger cylindrical sheath with openings at the ends, and in
particular, to the counter-current configuration, more thermally-efficient than the co-flow
set-up. The minimum temperature jump from one fluid to the other is called the
(temperature) approach of the heat exchanger. Heat transfer from one fluid to the other
is a combined convection-conduction-convection process across the separating surface.

4.3.6 Fouling
One generic problem of heat transfer is the effect of surface contamination on heat-
transfer rates, that may be due for instance to chemical attack at the interface between
solids in heat conduction, crust build-up at walls in heat convection flows, or dust
deposition in heat radiation surfaces. Fouling (i.e. dirt and depositions) is detrimental
within heat exchangers because it adds a thermal resistance to heat, it adds a fluid-
dynamic resistance to flow, and it is difficult (sometimes impossible) to clean.

31
 Fouling is typically due to algae growth on cold surfaces, to salt deposition on hot
surfaces, and to unfiltered dirt clogging. All industrial circuits cooled with natural fresh
or sea water, are subjected to biological fouling (a bio-film settlements of living
organisms).
4.3.7 FLOW

Fig 4.4 FLOW DIAGRAM

Fig. Simple annular heat exchangers: a) sketch and temperature profile in a
counter-flow configuration, b) sketch and temperature profile in co-flow, c) cross-section
sketch, d) detail across the separating surface.
Although physical screening, physical cleaning and chemical dosing can manage to
get a long trouble-free operation, nowadays environmental restrictions may impinge on
that; e.g. chemical dosing with chlorine concentrations up to 10 mg/L were common in
the past, but now chlorine discharge to the water environment have been severely
restricted.

4.3.8 CONSTRUCTION
4.3.8.1TOP VIEW OF THE HEAT EXCHANGER

32
 Our heat ecehe gaskets are made of rubber material such that it arrests the water
leakage. The connection from the boiler enters the hot water inlet tube of the
exchanger. The same time the cold water flushes over the copper tubes.

Fig 4.5 TOP VIEW OF HEAT EXCHANGER

4.3.8.2 WIRE FRAME MODEL

The above CAD design shows clearly the arrangement of the copper tubes inside the heat
exchanger. The brown color wire frame in the figure indicates the copper tubes which has
hot water as the constituent. The outer white color wire frame indicates the outer shell
which has cold water as the constituent.

33
 Fig 4.6 WIRE FRAME MODEL

CHAPTER-5
DESIGN AND CALCULATION

5.1 CALCULATING THE BLOW DOWN RATE

This term is the most important term in boiler operation and monitoring. The parameters
of the blow down are to be maintained for particular boiler. This is due to the fact that
34
water inside the boiler gets continuously evaporated due to steam generation.
Concentration of dissolve solid, inside the drum increases and reach beyond the limit, so
carryover of solids along with steam can occur. To prevent boiler tube chocking and
overheating of the boiler tubes the blow down is necessary.
Blow down means, lost heat. This is because any water, which is getting drained from
the boiler drum, will be at the saturation temperature of steam and this has been heated
starting from water of ambient temperature. Hence any reduction in this quantity of water
would mean corresponding saving of fuel which can be qualified. Every effort should
be made to minimise the amount of water that is blown down to drain.
Feedwater should be kept as pure as possible by returning all uncontaminated
condensate to the boiler house, and by pre-treating the make-up as much as this
can be economically justified.
This formula has been equally applied to control individual constituents in boiler. The
blow down is the water removed from boiler to maintain the solids level in then boiler
drum. This can be calculated as follows:
Blow down rate = Fxq/K-F
F =feed water TDS (ppm)
Q = Steam generation rate (kg/s)
K = require boiler TDS (ppm)
Feed water TDS = 20ppm
Max.Allowable TDS = 1000ppm
Steam gen. rate(s) = 197 TPH=197,000kg/h
= (20x197000)/1000-20
Total blow down = 4020.408kg/hr
= 1.117kg/s
Blow down rate (%) = just remove Steam rate in formula
= q/K-F
35
 = [(20 )/(1000-20)] x100
= 2.048%
The amount of energy in each kg at 64bar (hf)=1235.8kJ/kg
hf is the specific enthalpy of water at the saturation temperature obtained from
steam tables.
Rate of energy blown down =1.117kg/s x1235.8kJ/kg
Rate of energy blown down =1380.3886kJ/s
5.2 FLASH STEAM ENERGY RATE
The blow down water released from the boiler is water at the saturation
temperature appropriate to the boiler pressure.
Assuming the blow down water is released to a flash steam system operating at
1.01325bar (from steam tables).
Specific enthalpy of water at 64bar (hf) =1235.8 kJ/kg
Specific enthalpy of water at 1.01325 bar = 419.1kJ/kg (hf at 1.01325bar) (low)
This excess energy evaporates a proportion of the water to quantity of flash steam
is readily determined by calculation.
% flash steam = hf(high)- hf (low)/ hfg (low)
= (1235.8-419.1) /2256.91
= 0.36186 x100
% flash steam =36.186%
Therefore 36.186% of the water blown down from the boiler will change to steam
as its pressure drops from 64 to 1.01 bar across the blow down valve.
Rate of flash steam= %flash steam x blow down rate
= 0.36186 x1.117 (from4(B))
Rate of flash steam = 0.404kg/s
Total energy per kg of steam =2676 kJ/kg (hg at 1.01bar)
Energy flow rate in flash steam = (rate of flash steam x hg at low pressure)
36
 Energy flow rate in flash steam =0.2125kg/s x 2676kJ/kg.
Energy flow rate in flash steam=1081.104kJ/s
The flash steam becomes available for recovery at the flash vessel. In essence, a
flash vessel provides a space where the velocity is low enough to allow the hot water and
flash steam to separate, and from there to be piped to different parts of the plant. The
water temperature in the feed tank is important. If it is too low, chemicals will be required
to de-oxygenate the water; if it is too high the feed pump may cavitate. Clearly, if heat
recovery is likely to result in an excessive high feed tank temperature, it is not practical to
discharge flash steam into the tank. Other solutions are possible, such as feed water
heating on the pressure side of the feed pump, or heating the combustion air.
5.3ENERGY RATE USING HEAT EXCHANGERS
About 49% of the energy in boiler blow down can be recovered through the use of
a flash vessel and associated equipment; however, there is scope for further heat recovery
from the residual blow down itself.
The total blow down = 1.117kg/s with 0.404kg/s flashing to steam
Water flow through heat exchanger =1.117-0.404
=0.713kg/s
Enthalpy(hf) at low pressure 1.01bar =419.1kJ/kg
Enthalpy(hf) at 40C =167.5kJ/kg.
Energy available to heat the makeup water is=419.1-167.5
Energy available to heat the makeup water =251.16kJ/kg
Energy recovered= Water flow rate x heat make up water
= (0.713x 251.16)
Energy recovered from heat exchangers =179.3908 KW
TOTAL ENERGY SAVINGS
Energy from the flash vessel = 1081.104kJ/s
Energy from the heat exchanger=179.3908kJ/s
37
 Total energy recovered =1081.104+179.3908
=1260.495kJ/s
Total energy recovered =1260.495 KJ/s
The total energy recovered through flash tank and heat exchangers =1260.495
KJ/s

5.3.1 HEAT EXCHANGER SIZE CALCULATION

The central variables in any heat exchanger analysis are the heat transfer rate q
[W], heat transfer area A [m2] and the overall heat transfer coefficient U. On the basis of
these variables and the fluid temperatures, we can write basic equations for the heat
transfer rate; for heat transfer rate it must hold that,
Q= FUATlm
U= overall heat transfer coefficient W/m2K
A= area,m2

(Tm)lm=(T1-t2)-(T2-t1)/In[T1-t2/T2-t1]

(Tm)lm= Logarithmic mean temperature difference LMTD

T1= Entry temperature of hot fluid

T2= Exit temperature of hot fluid
t1= Entry Temperature of cold fluid
t2= Exit temperature of cold fluid
F= Fouling factor
Q= 179.308KJ/s (from heat recovery calculation for the heat exchanger at this particular
mass flow rate)
U= 900W/m2K (from hmtdatabook for water-water)

38
do= outside diameter of the tube used in heat exchanger( from std take d= 25mm)
(Tm)lm =(100-60)-(40-30)/In[100-60/40-30]
= 21.640
179.3081000 = 0.7900A21.64
A= 179.3081000/160021.64
A= 13.152 m2
For heat exchanger, Area= dol

Length= Area/do

=13.152/ 0.025
=167.456 m
So the total length of the tube that is used in the heat exchanger is about of
167.456m
A summary of the main dimensions determining the shell-side geometry of a shell-
and tube heat exchanger is given:

39
 Fig 5.1 CROSS VIEW OF HEAT EXCHANGER
Typical size ranges for main dimension of shell-and-tube heat exchangers.
Shell inside diameter DS,i
Standard pipes: 100 to 500mm
Rolled sheet: 300 to 2500 mm
Tube outside diameter do
Standard tube sizes from 5 to 55mm, typically 12.7 to 25.4mm.
Baffle cut SBC
Very often 25% of shell inside diameter, but other values are also possible.
Tube spacing S
1.25 to 1.5 times tube outside diameter do;
Tighter spacing would provide insufficient rigidity of the tube plate
Wider spacing results in large shell and inefficient heat transfer
Shell-to-tube clearance dSt
20mm in fixed-tubesheet designs, 80...160mm in floating-head types.
Should be minimized to prevent excessive bypass flow on the shell side.

40
Baffle plate spacing SB
Limitations due to shell-side flow conditions: 0.2 to 1.0 times Ds,i.
Limitations due to rigidity: SBC should not exceed maximum unsupported tube
length for given tube materials and dimensions.
Tube-side flow velocity
Limitations due to erosion: < 3m/s (tubes of carbon steel or Cu-Ni alloys), < 5m/s
(stainless steel), < 6m/s (Ti)
Limitations due to fouling and heat transfer: often 1m/s unless better information is
available for the fluid at hand.
Other issues such as tube vibration may need to be considered.
Number of tube passes
Usually no more than DS,i in hundreds of mm e.g. a 200mm shell should have no
more than two tube passes, an 800mm shell no more than eight passes.

41
5.3.2 HEAT EXCHANGER TABULATION

Table 5.1 HEAT EXCHANGER TABULATION

Specifications Single pass

Surface Area 13.152m2

U-value 900W/m2 K

F. Factor 0.7

Tube Length 167.456m

Tube Outer 0.025m

Diameter

Shell Diameter 0.3 to 2.5m

Baffle Spacing 0.2 t0 1 Ds,i

5.3.3.FLASH TANK

42
 Fig 5.2 FLASH TANK
The flash tank is a simple cylindrical tank that holds the blow down from the boiler
steam drum and reduces the pressure to ambient for the generation of steam. In the design
of the flash tank the main thing that is to be considered is the diameter of the flash tank,
because for the specific operating pressure of the boiler and the steam it need to hold the
flash tank has standard designs. It has the openings for the entry of the blow down water
at one side, at the top for the outlet of flash steam and at the bottom there is a drain
through which the condensate enters in to heat exchanger. Also other auxillaryequipments
such such as safety valve and pressure indicators are available.
The most important dimension in the design of vertical flash tanks is the internal
diameter, which must be large enough to ensure a low upward velocity of flash to
43
minimize water carryover. If this velocity is low enough, the height of the tank is not
important, but it is good practice to use a height of at least 2 to 3 feet. Installation is
important for proper flash tank operation. Condensate lines should pitch towards the flash
tank. If more than one condensate line discharges to the tank, each line should be
equipped with a swing check valve to prevent backflow. Condensate lines and the flash
tank should be well insulated to prevent any unnecessary heat loss. A thermostatic air
vent should be installed at the top of the tank to vent any air that accumulates. The tank
should be trapped at the bottom with an inverted bucket or float and thermostatic trap
sized to triple the condensate load.
The demand load must always be greater than the amount of flash steam available to
prevent the low-pressure system from becoming over pressurized. A safety relief valve
should always be installed at the top of the flash tank to preclude such a condition.
Flash tanks are considered pressure vessels and must be constructed in accordance
with ASME and local codes.

Rules of thumb:

Horizontal flash tanks should be 2 times tank diameter or 24" minimum length.
Vertical flash tanks should be 3 times tank diameter or 36" minimum length.
For this height the diameter should range from 1m.

CHAPTER-6

44
OVERALL CONSTRUCTION OF THE RECOVERY SYSTEM

45
 Fig 5.1 RECOVERY SYSTEM

CHAPTER-7
WORKING
From the boiler drum, water at the corresponding temperature is released through
the continuous blow down valve. The blow down depends upon the dissolved solids
suspended in the boiler water. The blow down released from the boiler will be at the high
pressure and corresponding saturation temperature. A portion of the heat within the blow
down liquid is recovered as flash steam that resulting from the change in pressure from
generation pressure to a lower pressure.
Additional heat recovery is attained when sensible heat of the blow down liquid
(water) is recovered using a heat exchanger. To utilize this heat in blow down heat
recovery system, First the water is passed to the flash tank, where the flashing of the
water takes place at low pressure. The flash steam generated is sent to the deaerator. In
deaerator the low pressure steam is supplied additionally for preheating the water to
remove any dissolved gases and for increasing pH. The remaining water in the flash tank
which is not converted into steam leaves to thet heat exchanger. The heat exchanger
provided additionally will utilize the heat of the outcoming water from the flash tank. The
shell and tube type heat exchanger is used to extract heat from the condensate of tank.
The heat exchanger transfers the heat from the condensate to the feed water that may
range from 36C.Finally the water at arrange of 40C from the heat exchanger is drained.
So by the use of the heat recovery system the energy can be recovered from the
waste blow down. The heat recovery step (the focus of this tool) is an additional measure
to reduce energy consumption in boilers. Recovery of heat from blow down water can
substantially reduce energy losses, due to the amount of heat contained within blow down
liquid at the steam generation pressure.
46
 CHAPTER-8
ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS

8.1.ADVANTAGES
The recovery of a large amount of its heat content through the use of blow down
flash tanks and heat exchangers.
Maximum of dissolved solids may be removed with minimal loss of water and heat
from the boiler.
Eliminate the energy wasted by discharging the hotter, water to drain.
The fouling of boiler heat transfer surfaces can be minimized by ensuring proper
boiler chemistry is maintained. Specifically be reducing the impurity levels that are
suspended in boiler water.
The overall intent of this project will be to reduce the cost of wasting boiler water
during boiler water blow downs by treating a portion of it and returning this water
back to the boiler water cycle.
Environmental regulations limit the temperature at which hot water can be
discharged toa sewer system. Hot water can lead to degradation in the sewer lines
and it canpromote excessive growth of bacteria. Blow down eliminates this heat
transfer to environment.
Removal of suspended solids helps insure the boiler generates high quality steam.
It also prevents foaming at the water surface which can lead to unstable water
levels and excessive carryover of liquid in the steam.

47
 Due to the energy recovery from the waste heat, finally the efficiency of the boiler
is increased.
The flash steam generated by this system serves as an additional source to
deaerator, thus reducing the low pressure steam consumption..

8.2.APPLICATIONS

The blow down heat recovery system can be adopted for the boilers which has the
high operating pressures.
Most suitable for the continuous blow down systems, where the blow down may
range from 2 to 4%.
The heat recovery system is very useful, where there is a need for the supply of
low pressure.

CHAPTER-9

48
 COST ESTIMATION
Base Cost = Cost of Materials to Construct Heat Exchanger +
Cost Of Installation of Heat Exchanger
Complete Cost = Base Cost + Operation and Maintenance
9.1.MATERIALS
Approximately,
Materials purchase for the heat exchanger piping = Rs 15000
For the shell of heat exchanger = Rs.8000
Concrete = 5000
Steel = 3000
Paint = 2000
For the flash tank
Cost depends upon the company, according to the pressure requirement, it can be
directly purchased from the market also, for specified applications. This is because it
is very safe to purchase asingle unit. It may range from Rs 70,000

9.2.COMPLETE COST

Complete cost =Base cost +operation and maintenance

=1,03,000+10,000

=1,13,000

CHAPTER-10
CONCLUSION
Boiler blow down will result in energy savings while maintaining the desired
steam. The heat recovery step (the focus of this tool) is an additional measure to reduce
energy consumption in boilers. Recovery of heat from blow down water can substantially

49
reduce energy losses, due to the amount of heat contained within blow down liquid at the
steam generation pressure.
Boiler blow down heat recovery can result in substantial savings in energy use for
the boiler and other associated costs. The blow down rate can range from less than 1%
when using extremely high-quality feed water to greater than 20% in a system with poor-
quality feed water. Makeup water contains a substantial percentage of total heat input for
the boiler. In many cases, the water and its heat content are sent directly to the drain,
resulting in the wasting of energy and water. So many newer boiler models can be
equipped with boiler blow down control systems which aims to reduce the blow down
rate while maintaining a safe level of TDS within the boiler.

REFERENCES

1. R. S. Khurmi and J.K. Guptha., A Textbook of Thermal Engineering , Eurasia

Publishing House Ltd.
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2. AroraDomkundwar., Power Plant Engineering, DhanpatRai& CO .(P) LTD.6th
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