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An Overview . . .

Basic components of a biomedical system

Electrodes

Amplifiers

ECG

EEG

EMG

ERG
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Block Diagram of a Generalised Bio Medical Instrument System

Measurement
o

Biological Signal
Transducer
System Processor o Monitoring

o
o Diagnosis
o

Surgery

Feedback
Transform
Therapy

Surgical
Tool

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Each switch position connects an instrument for measurement, for

monitoring, for diagnosis, for therapy or for surgery with the signal
processor

Transducer converts one form of energy or signal to another, its

output is always an electrical signal

Signal Processor amplifies, modifies or changes the electrical

output of the transducer

In the case of therapy, the signal is fed back to the biological system
through the feedback transform

In the case of surgery, a surgical tool is in contact with the biological

system

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Electrodes
Employed to pick up the electrical signals of the body

Hall cell potential voltage developed at an electrode electrolyte interface

Perfectly polarised electrodes no net transfer of charge occurs across the

metal electrolyte interface

Perfectly non polarisable electrodes unhindered exchange of charge is

possible across the metal electrolyte interface

Electrolyte paste - used to reduce the contact impedance

Types

Microelectrodes

Depth and Needle Electrodes

Surface Electrodes
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Microelectrodes

Have smaller diameter

No damage to the cells during insertion

To measure the potential they, located within the cell

Reference electrode is outside the cell

Types

Metallic

Non Metallic (Micropipet)

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Metal Microelectrode

RA
o A
RS

o B

RB
CD

CWA CWB

RFA RFB

RWA RWB

EA EB

RIN REX
EC( t)

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RA denotes the resistance of the connecting wire (negligible)

RS denotes the resistance of the shaft of the microelectrode (also negligible)

RFA, RWA and CWA constitute the impedance of the microelectrode tip
intracellular fluid interface

RIN is the resistance of the intracellular fluid

RB denotes the resistance of the connecting wire to the reference electrode

(negligible)

RFB, RWB and CWB constitute the impedance of the reference electrode tip
extra cellular fluid interface

REX is the resistance of the extra cellular fluid

CD is the distributed capacitance between the insulated shaft of the

microelectrode and the extra cellular fluid

The capacitance between the tip of the microelectrode and the intracellular
fluid is negligible
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Equivalent Circuit

RFA

o A

CWA RWA

EC CD

o B

E = EA - EB

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Since the area of the reference electrode is many times greater than
the metal electrodes tip whose area of cross section is very small, its
impedance is negligible

The impedance of the microelectrode tip is inversely proportional to

the area of the tip and frequency

When the electrode output is coupled with an amplifier, the low

frequency components of the bioelectric potential will be attenuated
if the input impedance of the amplifier is not high

Thus when the input impedance of the amplifier is not high enough,
it behaves as a high pass filter

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Micropipet

RFA

ED EA
RT RA
o A
RWA CWA
RIN

EC
CD

RFB
REX

o B
RB
EB RWB CWB

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RFA, RWA and CWA constitute the impedance of the electrode

electrolyte interface in the stem of the micropipet

RT is the resistance of the electrolyte filling the tip of the micropipet

(very large)

RIN is the resistance of the intracellular fluid

RB denotes the resistance of the connecting wire to the reference

electrode

RFB, RWB and CWB constitute the impedance of the reference

electrode electrolyte interface

REX is the resistance of the extra cellular fluid

CD is the distributed capacitance between the fluid in the pipet and

the extra cellular
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Equivalent Circuit

RT

o A

EC CD

o B

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CD is the equivalent of distributed capacitances

When the micropipet is coupled with the amplifier terminals A and

B, the membrane potential EC is coupled with it via a high series
resistance RT and a moderate shunt capacitance CD along with
electrode potentials

The impedance of the electrode places a limit on the response time

of the circuit

It behaves as a low pass filter when the input impedance of the

amplifier is not high enough

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Simple Differential Amplifier

Rf

V1 Ri e1
o .
o
o .
V2 e2
Ri

Vo
Rf

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Since the input current to an ideal amplifier is zero and by the principle
of superposition, the voltage existing at the input terminal 1 is,

Rf Ri
e1 = V1 + Vo
Ri + Rf Rf + R i

Voltage at input terminal 2 is,

Rf
e2 = V2
Rf + R i

Since the potential difference between the two input terminals of an

ideal amplifier is forced zero by the feedback through Rf, the voltage e1
must be equal to e2

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Therefore,

Rf Ri Rf
V1 + Vo = V2
Ri + R f Rf + Ri Rf + Ri

Rf
(or) Vo = (V2 - V1)
Ri

Thus the circuit amplifies the difference of the input signals V1 and V2

There is no virtual ground at the input to the amplifier in this circuit

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Modes of operation of the differential amplifier

Single ended mode either V1 (non inverting mode) or V2

(inverting) equal to zero

Differential mode the two input signals are equal but have

opposite polarity

Common mode the input signals are identical both in amplitude

and phase

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Isolation Amplifier

Used to increase the input impedance of the monitoring system in

order to isolate the patient from the bio medical instrument

Used so that any electrical fault in signal conditioning or other

circuits does affect the patient

Some isolation amplifier circuits . . .

Darlington Pair

Bootstraping Circuit

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Darlington Pair

o - VBB o - VCC

RB RL

Q1
.Y
o .
X

Zi
Q2
Z
o

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Darlington Pair
High input impedance with high current gain

Two transistors Q1 and Q2 are connected in common emitter

compound connecting circuits

The emitter terminal of transistor Q1 is directly connected to the

base of transistor Q2

The collectors of both transistors share a common load RL

Q2 provides negative feedback that serves to gain stabilize the

composite circuit

The input impedance is very much higher greater than that of a

single common emitter stage
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Bootstraping Circuit

+ VBB

R1

C
Q1

o
Q2
R4

o
INPUT

R3 Re R2 Re
OUTPUT

o o

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Bootstraping Circuit

A feedback network is connected in between the emitter of Q2 and

the collector of Q1

The feedback voltage created b the bootstrap voltage dividing

network R1 and R2 is injected into the collector circuit of Q1

An increase in signal level at the input of the circuit causes an

increase in signal through the divider at the collector, changing the
transistors bias point

This further increases the input impedance

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 ECG Isolation Amplifier Circuit www.eeecube.com

STD
1mV
Guard
Transformer
. Modulator
.
Synchronous
D.C. Synchronous Driver
Demodulator
Amp Modulator

Lead Selector

High Voltage and

Over Voltage
Protection

+V

RA . Rect. 100 kHz

LA . Electrosurgery & Oscillator
Filter Filter
LL . Floating
. Common
RL
-V

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Transformer
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The signals from the different leads are given to the low pass filter having a
cut off frequency of about 10 kHz

This is followed by high voltage and over voltage protection circuits

The signals are now into the lead selector switch which is used to derive the
required lead configurations

Its output is given to a d.c. amplifier ( also used for calibration purposes )

The primary of an isolated low capacitance power transformer is connected

with the 100 kHz oscillator

The secondary of that transformer along with the rectifier and filter is used to
obtain isolated power supply of + 6V

The synchronous modulator modulates the ECG signal from the d.c. amplifier

Another transformer is used to deliver the output from the modulator to the
synchronous demodulator

Its output is input to the power amplifier

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Medical Preamplifier Circuit

aR1

- R2 bR2
V1 1
o + Vo

R1
-
aR1 3 o
o +

Vout

- R2 bR2
2 o
o + Vo
V2

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 Amplifies the differential signal and rejects the common modewww.eeecube.com
signal

Consists of three operational amplifiers

First two are working in non inverting mode, but their inverting terminals
are not grounded

The feedback loops are connected with the inverting terminals

The third acts as a differential amplifier

With this configuration we get

High Stability

High Fidelity

High CMRR

High input impedance

By means of virtual ground, the inverting terminal of op amp 1 is fed by

voltage V2 through R1 and the inverting terminal of op amp 2 is fed by
voltage V through R1
1
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Chopper Amplifier

Used to convert the d.c. or low frequency signal into a high

frequency signal

Then this modulated high frequency signal is amplified by

conventional a.c. amplifier

The amplified signal is demodulated and filtered to get amplified

d.c. or low frequency signal

Types

Mechanical Chopper Amplifier

Non Mechanical Chopper Amplifier

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Chopper Amplifier Using a Mechanical Switch

P M
o A o

C D

o
S1
Vi Vo
o

o o
Q N

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The chopper S1 is an electromagnetically operated switch or relay

It connects alternatively the input terminal of the a.c. amplifier A to the

reference terminal Q, which is usually connected to ground

When the amplifier input terminal is connected with Q, it is short circuited

and the input voltage is zero

When the chopper S1 is open, the amplifier receives the signal voltage from P

Therefore the input to the amplifier consists of an a.c. voltage varying from
zero to the value of the input voltage

A steady d.c. or slowly varying signal is chopped into a train of square wave
pulses having a frequency equal to the rate of the chopper

After amplification the chopped signal is rectified with a diode D

The rectified signal is then filtered and amplified d.c. is obtained at the
output terminals M and N

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 Non Mechanical Photoconductive Chopper Amplifier
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Modulator Demodulator

AC Low Pass
o o
Amp. Filter
Low Level
DC Input Amplified
PC1 PC4
DC Output
Photo Diodes

PC2
PC3

Neon Bulb Oscillator Neon Bulb

(1) (2)

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The photoconductors or photodiodes are used as non mechanical
choppers for modulation and demodulation

When there is no light on the photoconductor, its resistance is so many

mega ohms, it is in the reverse bias and no current is allowed to flow
through it

When there is incident light on the photoconductor its resistance is very

low, it is in the forward bias and current can easily flow through it

Thus it acts as a switch by means of incident light

An oscillator is present which drives two neon bulbs into illumination on

alternate half cycles of oscillation

The neon bulb (1) gives flash of light on photoconductors PC1 and PC2
which are respectively connected at the input and the output

The neon bulb (2) gives flash of light on photoconductors PC3 and PC4

Low level d.c. is present at the input

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Whenever light falls on PC1 its resistance decreases and input capacitor
charges

When there is no light on PC1 and there is light on PC3, the input flows
through PC3

By the alternate incident light, a square wave is produced across the

capacitor

Its amplitude is proportional to the input and frequency is equal to the

frequency of the oscillator

An amplified square wave voltage is obtained at the output of the amplifier

The two photoconductors PC2 and PC4 in the amplifier output circuit
recover the d.c. signal by their demodulating action and the output
capacitor becomes charged to the peak of the output voltage

Then this d.c. voltage is passed through a low pass filter to remove any
ripples and finally amplified d.c. output is obtained
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Electrocardiography

ECG deals with the study of the electrical activity of the heart muscles

Heart is divided into four chambers

The top two are atria and the lower two are ventricles

The right atrium receives blood from the veins and pumps it into the
right ventricle

The right ventricle pumps the blood into the lungs where it is purified
and oxygenated

The oxygen enriched blood enters the left atrium from which it is
pumped into the left ventricle

Then the left ventricle pumps the blood into arteries through aortic
valve for circulation throughout the body
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Each action potential in the heart originates at the Sino - Atrial (SA)
node which is situated in the wall of the right atrium and near the
entry of the vena cava

Also called as Cardiac Pacemaker and generates impulses at the

normal rate of the heart, about 70 beats per minute at rest

The action potential contracts the atrial muscle and the impulse
spreads through the atrial wall during a period of about 0.04 second
to the Atrio Ventricular (AV) node

The AV node acts as a delay line to provide timing between the

action of the atria and the ventricles

Then a special conduction system carries the action potential to the

ventricular muscles
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This system consists of a short common part (the bundle of His),

two bundle branches on each of the septum and fine Purkinje fibers

which arborize in the ventricular muscle

The atria and ventricles are functionally linked only by the AV node

and the conduction system

The AV delay is provided so that the atrial contraction can complete

the ventricular filling before the contraction of ventricles

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Physiological Nature of ECG Waveform

Origin Amplitude Duration

(mV) (seconds)

P Wave Atrial depolarisation or contraction 0.25 0.12 to 0.22

(P R interval)

R Wave Repolarisation of the atria and the 1.60 0.07 to 0.1

(QRS depolarisation of the ventricles

complex)

T Wave Ventricular repolarisation 0.1 to 0.5 0.05 to 0.15

(Relaxation of myocardium) (S.T interval)

ST Ventricular contraction
interval

U Wave Slow repolarisation of the < 0.1 0.2

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ECG Lead Configurations

Usually surface electrodes are used with jelly as electrolyte between skin
and electrodes

The potentials generated in the heart are conducted to the body surface

The potential distribution changes I a regular an complex manner during

each cardiac cycle

So standardised electrode positions are chosen

Types of electrode systems

Bipolar Limb Leads (or) Standard Leads

Augmented Unipolar Limb Leads

Chest Leads (or) Precordial Leads

Frank Lead System (or) Corrected Orthogonal Leads

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Bipolar Limb Leads

In standard leads, the potentials are tapped from four locations

Right Arm

Left Arm

Right Leg

Left Leg

The right leg electrode is used as ground reference electrode

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Standard Bipolar Limb Leads

Lead I Lead II

+ +
- -

Vout Vout

. .

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Lead III

+
-

Vout

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Lead I Position gives voltage drop from the left arm to the right arm

Lead II Position - gives voltage drop from the left leg to the right arm

Lead III Position gives voltage drop from the left leg to the left arm

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The Einthoven Triangle

Lead I
- +
- Right Arm Left Arm -

Lead III
Lead II

+ +
Left Leg

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The closed path RA to LA to LL and back to RA is called the
Einthoven Triangle

According to Einthoven, in the frontal plane of the body the cardiac

electric field vector is a two dimensional one

The ECG measured from any one of the three limb leads is a time
variant single dimensional component of that vector

Along the sides of this triangle the three projections of ECG vector
are measured

Further the vector sum of the projection on all the three sides is
equal to zero

Thus, following Kirchoffs law, the R wave amplitude of Lead II is

equal to the sum of the R wave amplitudes of leads I and III
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Augmented Unipolar Limb Leads

Lead aVR Lead aVL

+ +
- -

Vout Vout

. .

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Lead aVF

+
-

Vout

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Augmented Unipolar Limb Leads

The ECG is recorded between a single exploratory electrode and the

central terminal which has a potential corresponding to the center of
the body

Two equal and large resistors are connected to a pair of limb electrodes

The center of this resistive network acts as central terminal and the
remaining limb electrode acts as the exploratory electrode

A slight increase in the ECG voltage can be realized

The lead connections are

augmented Voltage Right arm (aVR)

augmented Voltage Left arm (aVL)

augmented Voltage Foot (aVF)

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o o

ECG Recording Set Up

1V 1M

1k

Lead
Defibrillator
Selector Bioamp
Protection Output
Circuit Unit

3
aVR
2
aVL
1 aVF

OFF C

CM Reduction
Amplifier

o Isolated
a.c. Isolation Power
Power
Power Transformer Supply
o Supply

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Electroencephalography

Deals with the recording and study of electrical activity of the brain

By means of electrodes attached to the skull of a patient, the brain

waves are picked up and recorded

Helps to diagnose

Level of consciousness

Sleep disorders

Brain tumors

Epilepsy

Brain death

Multiple sclerosis
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Block Diagram of EEG Recording Set Up

Input Amplifier Writer Trace

Pre Control Driver

Input
Amplifier Unit Amplifier

Input Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Stage 5

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Electromyography

Science of recording and interpreting the electrical activity of

muscles action potentials

The electrical activity of the underlying muscle can be measured by

placing surface electrodes on the skin

To record the action potentials of individual motor units, the needle

electrode is inserted into the muscle

The EMG indicates the amount of activity of a given muscle or a

group of muscles and not an individual nerve fiber

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Block Diagram of EMG Recording Set Up

Oscilloscope

.
Input
EMG
Amp.
. Tape
Recorder
.

Speaker

A.F.
Amp.

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The surface or needle electrodes pick up the potentials produced by

the contracting muscle fibers

Types of electrodes

Bipolar two surface electrodes

Unipolar one surface and one needle electrode

The signals are displayed on a cathode ray oscilloscope

The signals are also recorded in the tape recorder for future
reference

The sounds from the loud speaker can be used to diagnose the
neuromuscular disorders

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Determination of conduction velocities in motor nerves

The nerve function is examined directly at the various segments of the nerve by means of
stimulating it with a brief electric shock

By measuring the latencies the conduction velocity is calculated

Latency elapsed time between the stimulating impulse and the muscles action potential

Procedure

The EMG electrode and the stimulating electrode are placed at two points on the skin,
separated by a known distance l1

A brief electrical pulse is applied through the stimulating electrode

When the excitation reaches the muscle, this contracts with a short twitch

The elapsed time t1, between the stimulating impulse and muscles action potential, is
measured

Process is repeated for distance l2 < l1, the duration is t2 seconds

The conduction velocity, v = l1 l2

t1 t2
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Electroretinography

Recording and interpreting the electrical activity of eye

All sense organs are connected to the brain but the eye has a special
relationship as the retina is the extension of the cerebral cortex

Potentials within the eye can be easily recorded because of its

exposed position

If the illumination of the retina is changed, the potential changes

slightly in a complex manner

The recording of these changes is called the electroretinogram

When light falls on the retina, the absorption of photons by photo

pigments localized in the outer segment of the retinas
photoreceptors takes place
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This causes the breakdown of photo pigments which results in the

liberation of ions that cause a change in the membrane potential

This in turn results in the development of action potential that is

transmitted down the optic nerve

This action potential is picked up by the electrodes and fed to the

bio amplifier and recorder

The recording set up is similar to ECG

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