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Applied Thermodynamics PDF
Applied Thermodynamics PDF
Applied Thermodynamics PDF
INDEX
th
0 law of thermodynamics . 2 COP................................7 jet-propulsion cycle .....12, 13 refrigeration efficiency........ 7
1st law EER................................7 joule.....................................2 resistance
power version ................ 5 thermal ...........................7 k specific heat ratio.............7 contact.......................... 15
unit-mass version........... 6 emissivity ..........................18 k thermal conductivity......14 thermal ................... 15, 17
1st law of thermodynamics. 2, energy..................................2 Kelvin-Planck statement .....2 resistive wire ..................... 17
5 gain/loss .....................5, 6 kinetic energy ......................2 reversible process.............. 20
2nd law of thermodynamics. 2 internal .....................2, 20 latent energy......................20 Rt thermal resistance......... 15
adiabatic ......................10, 20 kinetic.............................2 Lc characteristic length .....17 R-value .............................. 15
air standard assumptions....14 latent...............................2 liter ......................................2 s entropy....................... 3, 20
area potential .........................2 lumped system analysis.....18 s entropy per unit mass....... 9
sphere ...........................19 sensible...........................2 m mass flow rate.................6 S total entropy .................... 8
atmospheric pressure .......... 4 enthalpy .....................3, 6, 20 magnitude..........................19 saturated liquid.................... 3
b time constant..................18 enthalpy of vaporization ......3 mass flow rate .....................6 saturated liquid/vapor
Bernoili equation ................ 6 entropy.................3, 9, 10, 20 mass to volume relationship 4 mixture .............................. 3
Bi Biot number .................17 total ................................8 mean effective pressure .....14 saturated state...................... 4
Biot number.......................17 entropy balance ...................8 MEP mean effective saturated vapor .................... 3
blackbody ..........................18 entropy generation...........8, 9 pressure ...........................14 sensible energy.................. 20
Boltzmann relation ............. 9 entropy in solids ..................9 methalpy..............................6 series ................................. 19
boundary work...............5, 14 entropy per unit mass ..........9 mixture chamber..................5 Sgen entropy generation....... 8
Btu ...................................... 2 Euler's equation .................19 moving boundary ..............14 sgen entropy generation per
Carnot cycle.......................10 extensive..............................8 net work ............................10 unit mass ........................... 9
characteristic length...........17 extensive properties.............3 newton.................................2 SI units ................................ 2
chemical energy.................20 force ....................................2 nozzle ..............................6, 9 single-stream ....................... 5
Clausius inequality ............. 8 Fouriers law of heat nuclear energy ...................20 specific enthalpy ....... 3, 6, 20
Clausius statement .............. 2 conduction .......................16 open system.........................5 specific heat ........................ 7
closed system...................4, 5 g heat generation ..............17 Otto cycle ..........................11 specific heat ratio ................ 7
complex conjugate.............19 gas constant .....................3, 4 p thermodynamic probability specific internal energy ....... 3
complex numbers...............19 gas-turbine...................12, 13 ...........................................9 specific properties ............... 3
composite wall...................17 general math ......................19 Pa ........................................2 specific volume ................... 3
compressed liquid............... 3 glossary .............................20 pascal.............................2, 20 sphere ................................ 19
compression ratio...............13 H enthalpy ....................6, 20 path function ...............14, 20 state postulate...................... 2
compressor.......................6, 9 h specific enthalpy 3, 5, 6, 20 phase .................................19 steady flow system .......... 5, 6
conduction ...................14, 16 hconv convection heat transfer phases of water....................3 steady flow work............... 10
conductivity coefficient........................15 phasor notation ..................19 steam-turbine..................... 12
thermal .........................14 heat capacity......................15 pipe......................................9 Stephan-Boltzmann law .... 18
conjugate heat dissipation..................17 heat transfer..................16 superheated vapor ............... 3
complex........................19 heat engine ........................20 thermal resistance.........15 surface temperature ........... 17
conservation of energy.....2, 5 heat engines .......................10 piston-cylinder.....................5 system ................................. 4
constants ............................. 4 heat exchanger.................5, 9 point function ....................20 temperature ......................... 2
contact resistance...............15 heat flux.............................17 polytropic process .............13 temperature gradient ......... 16
control volume.................... 4 heat generation ..................17 potential energy...................2 thermal conductivity ......... 14
convection .............14, 15, 16 heat pump efficiency ...........7 pressure ...............................2 thermal diffusivity............. 15
convection heat transfer heat transfer ...............2, 4, 14 properties of saturated phases thermal efficiency ............... 7
coefficient ........................15 pipe...............................16 ...........................................3 carnot ........................... 10
COP coefficient of heat transfer limit.................8 propulsive efficiency ...12, 13 diesel............................ 11
performance...................... 7 heat transfer rate ................16 pure substance ...................20 otto............................... 11
Cp specific heat .................. 7 hfg enthalpy of vaporization 3 q heat flux.........................17 Rankin.......................... 12
critical point...................4, 20 horsepower ..........................2 Q heat transfer rate ...........16 thermal equilibrium............. 2
critical radius .....................17 hrad radiation heat transfer QL heat transfer...................7 thermal radiation ......... 14, 16
cutoff ratio .........................13 coefficient........................16 quality .............................3, 4 thermal resistance........ 15, 17
Cv specific heat .................. 7 hyperbolic functions ..........19 r compression ratio...........13 thermal time constant ........ 18
cylinder conduction ...........15 ideal gas equation ................4 R gas constant.................3, 4 thermodynamic probability . 9
density ................................ 2 increase of entropy principle9 R thermal resistance .........15 thermodynamic properties... 3
Diesel cycle .......................11 independent property ...........2 radiation ......................14, 16 time constant ..................... 18
diffuser ............................6, 9 intensive properties..............3 radiation heat transfer total entropy ........................ 8
dissipation..........................17 internal energy...................20 coefficient........................16 transfer phenomena ........... 14
duct ..................................5, 9 international system of units2 Rankin cycle......................12 turbine ............................. 6, 9
e specific energy ................ 3 irreversible process............20 rate of entropy generation....9 turbine engine.............. 12, 13
EER energy efficiency rating isentropic .....................10, 20 Rc contact resistance.........15 u internal energy........... 3, 20
.......................................... 7 isentropic relations ............13 rc cutoff ratio ....................13 unit-mass relation................ 6
efficiency isothermal..........................20 rcr critical radius ...............17 units..................................... 2
BASIC THERMODYNAMICS
0TH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS UNITS
Two bodies which are each in thermal equilibrium with Energy, work, heat transfer: [J]
a third body are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
J (joule) = N m = V C = W s = AV C2
s = F V 2 =
F
1ST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 1 kJ = 0.94782 Btu 1 Btu = 1.055056 kJ
The Conservation of Energy Principle Rate of energy, work or heat transfer: [J/s or W]
The amount of energy gained by a system is equal to 2
W (watt) = J = N m = C V = V A = F V = 1 HP
the amount of energy lost by the surroundings. ss s s 746
2 2
Pressure: [Pa or N/m or kg/ms ]
2ND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS Pa (pascal) = N = kg = J = W s = 1.4503810-4 psi
Processes occur in a certain direction and energy has m 2 ms 2 m3 m3
quality as well as quantity. For example, heat flows
Density: [kg/m3]
from a high temperature place to a low temperature
place, not the reverse. Another example, electricity Force: [N or kgm/s2]
flowing through a resistive wire generates heat, but
N (newton) = kg m = J = C V = W s
heating a resistive wire does not generate electricity. s2 m m m
Kelvin-Planck statement: It is impossible for any device
Temperature: [C or K] 0C = 273.15K
that operates on a cycle to receive heat from a single
reservoir and produce a net amount of work. Volume: [m3] = 1000 liters
Clausius statement: It is impossible to construct a device
Note: In this class, we typically use units of KJ, KPa, and
that operates in a cycle and produces no effect other than
KW.
the transfer of heat from a lower temperature body to a
higher temperature body.
SI UNITS, International System of Units
STATE POSTULATE Length meter Temperature: kelvin
The state of a simple compressible system is Mass: kilogram Amount: mole
completely specified by two independent, intensive Time: second Light intensity: candela.
properties. Two properties are independent if one Electric current: ampere
property can be varied while the other one is held
constant. Properties are intensive if they do not ENERGY [J]
depend on size, e.g. the properties of temperature,
pressure, entropy, density, specific volume. 1 2
Kinetic energy KE = mv
2
Potential energy PE = mgz
Total energy of the system E = U + KE + PE
U = internal energy, i.e. sensible energy (translational,
rotational, vibrational), latent energy (atomic structure,
melting ice), chemical energy (bonding, separating
water into hydrogen & oxygen), nuclear.
Open Systems: Q W = E = H + KE + PE V 2 V1 2 g ( z2 z1 )
Q& W& = m& h2 h1 + 2 +
where H = m ( h2 h1 ) = mC p , avg (T2 T1 ) 2 (1000 ) 1000
H ENTHALPY [kJ]
The sum of the internal energy and the volume-
pressure product. If a body is heated without
changing its volume or pressure, then the change in
enthalpy will equal the heat transfer. We see this
more often in its per unit mass form (see next) called
specific enthalpy but still referred to as enthalpy.
H = U + PV
U = internal energy [kJ]
P = pressure [kPa]
V = volume [m3]
wrev = ( P1 P2 ) ke pe
wnet 2-3 Volume expansion
Reversible adiabatic
Temperature isentropic process
PV k = a constant
TL
= V/m specific volume [m3/kg] 4 qout 3
4-1 3-4 Volume compression
Reversible isothermal process
Volume compression QL Heat sinks to a low
HEAT ENGINES Reversible adiabatic,
isentropic process
temperature area.
PV k = a constant
s1 Entropy s2 s
HEAT ENGINES
The conversion of heat to work requires the use of
special devices; these are called heat engines and P constant s
s1 Entropy s3 s s1 s3 s
Entropy
P
3 Isentropic P qin
P2
2 3
Isentropic
qin
Constant volume,
Pressure so no work
4 Pressure
2
qout 4
Constant volume 1 qout
so no work
1
2 Volume density 1 v
Volume density 1 v
The otto cycle is more efficient than the diesel for equal
compression ratios, but the compression ratio is limited due Although less efficient than the otto cycle at a given
to spontaneous ignition of the fuel at higher temperatures. compression ratio, higher compression ratios are possible in
the diesel engine, enabling greater thermal efficiency than in
1 gasoline engines.
Thermal efficiency: th,Otto = 1
r k 1 1 rck 1
V1 1 Thermal efficiency: th,Diesel = 1
Otto cycle compression ratio is: r= = r k 1 k ( rc 1)
V2 2
r = compression ratio [no units]
r = compression ratio [no units] rc = cutoff ratio [no units]
k = Cp/Cv = specific heat ratio k = Cp/Cv = specific heat ratio
2 3-4 Isentropic
expansion V2 0
s1 Entropy s3 s s1 Entropy s6 s
P qin
0 V1 2
2 3 1 2 0 = C p (T2 T1 ) +
Isentropic 2000
P3
Pressure
wturb,out 2 3 rp =
wcomp,in
P2
qout
4 5 wcomp,in = wturb,out C p (T3 T2 ) = C p (T4 T5 )
1 4
V6 2 0
2 Volume density 4 v 5 6 0 = C p (T6 T5 ) +
2000
qin = q23 = C p (T3 T2 ) , qout = q41 = C p (T4 T1 ) W& w
Propulsive efficiency: p = & P = P
Compressor work: wcomp,in = C p (T2 T1 ) Qin qin
Turbine work: wturb,out = C p (T3 T4 ) m& ( V6 V1 ) V1 ( V6 V1 ) V1
where W& P = , wP =
Net work: wnet,out = wturb,out wcomp,in = qin qout 1000 1000
1 P2
&
Qin = mC& p (T4 T3 ) , qin = C p (T4 T3 )
Thermal efficiency: th,Brayton = 1 ( k 1) / k
, rp =
rp P1 1
m& = V1 A1
Cp = specific heat at constant pressure (1.005 @ 300k)
[kJ/(kgC)] Cp = specific heat at constant pressure (1.005 @ 300k)
q = heat transfer per unit mass [kJ/kg] [kJ/(kgC)]
w = work per unit mass [kJ/kg] rp = pressure ratio [no units]
rp = pressure ratio [no units] W& P = propulsive power [kW]
k = Cp/Cv = specific heat ratio
Q& in = heat transfer rate to the working fluid [kW]
m& = mass flow rate [kg/s]
T = temperature [K]
P = pressure [kPa]
V = air velocity [m/s]
s1 Entropy s4 s
( k 1) / k
T2 P2
1 2 wpump,in = 1 ( P2 P1 ) = h2 h1 TP (
1 k ) / k
= = a constant
where h1 = h f @ P1 , 1 = f @ P1 T1 P1
= V/m specific volume [m3/kg]
2 3 qin = h3 h2
T1, T2 = initial and final temperatures [K]
3 4 wturb,out = h3 h4 P1, P2 = initial and final pressure [Pa]
Read h3 and s3 from Superheated Water Table k = Cp/Cv = specific heat ratio
based on T3 and P3. So s3 = s4 and x4 = (s4-sf)/sfg.
Then find h4 = hf+x4hfg.
4 1 qout = h4 h1 POLYTROPIC PROCESS
A process in which the compression and expansion of
q w real gases have the following pressure/volume
Thermal efficiency: p = 1 out = net
qin qin relationship.
where wnet = wturb,out wpump,in = qin qout PV n = a constant and P n = another constant
where n is also a constant
w = work per unit mass [kJ/kg]
mR (T2 T1 )
q = heat transfer per unit mass [kJ/kg] Work is W= , n 1
h = enthalpy [kJ/kg] 1 n
= V/m specific volume [m3/kg]
P = pressure [kPa]
r COMPRESSION RATIO
Vmax max
r= =
Vmin min
V = volume [m3]
= V/m specific volume [m3/kg]
T ( t ) T h
= e bt . where b=
Ti T C p Lc
To find the time at which the temperature change from Ti to
T is 99% complete, set e-bt = 0.01.
T(t) = temperature at time t [C]
T = temperature of the surroundings [C]
Ti = initial temperature of the body [C]
b = time constant (see previous) [s-1]
t = time [s]
h = external convection heat transfer coefficient
[W/(m2C)]
= volume density [kg/m3]
Cp = specific heat at constant pressure (1.005 @ 300k)
[kJ/(kgC)]
Lc = characteristic length of the body [m]
0 x HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
Re
j sin = sinh ( j )
x + jy = Ae j = A cos + jA sin
j cos = cosh ( j )
Re{ x + jy} = x = A cos
j tan = tanh ( j )
I m{ x + jy} = y = A sin
Magnitude { x + jy} = A = x 2 + y 2 PHASOR NOTATION
y
Phase { x + jy} = = tan 1 To express a derivative in phasor notation, replace
x
with j . For example, the
j t
j=e 2
V I
The magnitude of a complex number may be written as the Telegrapher's equation = L
absolute value. z t
Magnitude { x + jy} = x + jy V
becomes = LjI .
The square of the magnitude of a complex number is the z
product of the complex number and its complex conjugate.
x + jy = ( x + jy )( x + jy ) * = ( x + jy )( x jy )
2
SPHERE
Area = d = 4r2
Volume = 16 d 3 = 43 r 3
2
SERIES
1 GRAPHING TERMINOLOGY
1+ x 1+ x , x 1 With x being the horizontal axis and y the vertical, we have
2 a graph of y versus x or y as a function of x. The x-axis
1 x 3 x 2 5 x 3 35 x 4 represents the independent variable and the y-axis
1 + + L , 12 < x < 12 represents the dependent variable, so that when a graph
1+ x 2 8 16 128 is used to illustrate data, the data of regular interval (often
1 this is time) is plotted on the x-axis and the corresponding
1 + x 2 + x 4 + x 6 + L , 12 < x < 12 data is dependent on those values and is plotted on the y-
1 x2 axis.
1
1 + 2 x + 3x 2 + 4 x 3 + L , 12 < x < 12
(1 x )
2
1
1 x + x 2 x 3 + L , 12 < x < 12
1+ x
1
1 + x + x 2 + x 3 + L , 12 < x < 12
1 x