Professional Documents
Culture Documents
06 Chapter 1
06 Chapter 1
Objective of the first chapter is to deal with vis--vis delineate concept and
integrationare discussed.
I
CONCEPT OF TRIBE
and more study or investigation creates more and more problem on and
Tribes in Africa, Australia and Indian, though look alike, each of them has
its own distinctive feature and socio-cultural life. Due to this probably
scholars during early period. Religion and magic, family and kinship,
economy, political institution, law and other institutions were also base of
sociological enquiry.3
among Indian tribes. Hence any attempt to define tribe in Indian context
significance4.
Tribes of and in India may not be always compared with native tribe of
2
Romesh Thaper,ed, Tribe Caste and Religion in India, Macmillan, Delhi, 1996,Pp. 11.
3
Ibid, Pp. 44.
4
Ibid, Pp. 61.
[2]
Africa or aborigine of Australia. Though a great degree of commonality
members and other factors. They believe to descend from a common, real
400 tribes live in India with glaring contradiction-most vary at every level.
Some of them still uphold and remain unknown, isolated and alienated,
started during late British period, particularly after 1930s. From 1930 to
1950 British scholars only undertook such studies. Areas they studied are
5
Sukant K. Chaudhury and Soumendra Mohan Patnaik ed, Indian Tribes and Mainstream,
Rawat Publications, Jaipur, 2008, Pp: 3.
6 Ibid.Pp.13
[3]
macro covering socio-cultural and political and economic life of tribe.
From 1950 to early 1970 Indian anthropology and sociology got influenced
Ghurye, D.N. Majumdar, Nirmal Kumar Bose, Surajit Singha, S.C. Dube,
A.R. Desai B.K. Roy Barman, L.P Vidyarthi, Andre Beteille and other
describe tribe in India. Risely, Lacey, Elwin, Grigson and others describe
scholars describe them Adivasi and scholar like S.T Das designates them
7
www.sociologyguide.com.
8
Sukant K Chaudhury and Soumendra Mohan Patnaik, ed, Indian Tribes and Mainstream,
Rawat Publications, Jaipur, 2008, Pp: 11-17.
9
Ibid.Pp.19
[4]
submerged humanity.10
as follows.
1. They live away from civilised world in most inaccessible part of both
Mongoloid
10
Romesh Thaper,ed, Tribe Caste and Religion in India, Macmillan, Delhi, 1996,Pp 17.
[5]
7. They live either naked or semi-naked, using tree bark and leave for
clothing
8. They have nomadic habit and love for drink and dance. 11
egalitarian. But in contemporary India both caste and tribe are being
merged into a different system which is neither one nor other. Tribes in
community is Hindus. As a result from very early period there have been
11
G.S.Ghurye, The Scheduled Tribes, Popular Prakashan Pvt. Ltd, Bombay, 1963, Pp: 15-38.
12
F.G.. Bailey,. Tribe and Caste in India in Contribution to Indian Sociology. Vol.5. 1961. Pp.7-19.
[6]
and place. Conceptually a tribe can be defined as an ideal state, a self-
society13.
any tribes exist as a separate society. They have all been absorbed, in
varying degrees, into wider society in India. Moreover, no tribe in India has
13
Romesh Thaper,ed, Tribe Caste and Religion in India, Macmillan, Delhi, 1996,Pp 37.
[7]
Santal are territorially dispersed. Linguistic boundary of tribe is also not
clear in India. Bhils who constitute as one of the largest tribes have been
middle and south India have a close proximity with language of some
L.P.Vidyarthi and Binay Kumar Rai views tribes of India live in forests,
hills and isolated regions. They have been in continuous contact with their
neighbours and live by farming and working in industries. Till today they
retain their tradition and custom. They form socially distinct communities
K.S Singh views that tribals outside North-East are closely integrated with
14
Ibid, Pp.7-14
15
L.P Vidyarthi and B.K Rai, The Tribal Culture of India, Concept Publishing Company, New
Delhi, 1976, Pp. 25-72.
[8]
colonial period and help tribal peasants. 16
Nirmal Kumar Bose talks about different aspects of tribal life in India. He
social organization, religion, art, music and dance. According to him, there
by more than half a million Indian tribal persons such as Bhili, Santali,
Gondi, Kuruk or Oraon, Mundari, Bodo, Ho, Khasi, Tripuri, Garo, Kui,
Lusai or Mizo and Halvi. Moreover, there are primitive tribes like the tribes
Sentenelese, Shompen and those on the main land, e.g., Agariya of Madhya
Pradesh and Birhor of Bihar and Orissa, who have a very small population
and their distinct dialect. Many tribes in India are bilingual but in home or
within their social circle they speak their own language. Tribes retain their
own marriage regulations and they marry within their restricted local
groups. Tribes are guided by their own elders or political chiefs in their
16
K.S Singh, Tribal Movements in India (volume-2), Manohar Publications, New Delhi, 1982,
Pp. 1-13.
[9]
communities in contrast to their neighbours. He also points out that this
distinction is very difficult to find out as economic life between them and
which they have been placed under category of Schedule Tribes and their
number is 300 in all over India. Many tribes on main land of India live on
hunting, fishing or gathering but they are not exclusively depended upon
hunting, fishing or gathering for their livelihood. They are isolated from
even their neighbouring tribes because of language and they do not have
trade relations with others. Tribes of North East India and some tribes in
of Madhya Pradesh, Santal of Bihar and Bengal have largely given up their
attachment to more primitive form of production and they come within the
[10]
social contact with non-tribes though tribes could change their occupation
Kumar Bose also describes evolution of tribal life under specific historical
rule, most tribal families consist of husband, wife and children But
amongsome tribes in Himalayas, one wife may have several husbands and
same is the case of Todas of Nilgiri Hills. Among several tribes youth
society. Marriage is usually forbidden within a clan. Bose points out that
Indian tribes started to convert into these religions. Some tribes have
adopted Hinduism.17
and in worship of God and Goddess where as in caste these are necessary
17
Nirmal Kumar Bose, Tribal life in India, National Book Trust, New Delhi,2007,Pp.7-
70.Souide.Com
[11]
part of religion. In caste individuals generally pursue their own definite
reconstruction of a new social order. New social order will protect both
tribal and non-tribal population from exploitation and will also abolish
18
L.P Vidyarthi and B.K Rai, The Tribal Culture of India, Concept Publishing Company, New
Delhi, 1976,Pp:10-41.
[12]
make tribes object of capitalist exploitation. To him, desperate, violent and
These revolts are directed against inhuman conditions to which they have
f e a tu r e s o n a c c o u n t o f e d u c a t io n , mo d e r n occupation, new
t r a n s f o r ma t io n i s s o c ia l d if f e r e n t i a t io n , t h e n i t is d e s c r i b e d
a s d if f e r e n t i a t e d o r s t r a t if i e d , a n d t h u s c e a s e s t o b e t r ib a l
stage and type of society is also a society alike and similar to any
account of changed situation. Tribes are not of same stage and type of
19
A.R Desai, Rural sociology in India,(fifth edition). Popular prakashan, Bombay, 1978, Pp. 36-38.
[13]
other societies. There is then something clumsy about use of term tribe
and middle India reveal some tribes are Hinduised as they are assimilated
THEORY OF TRIBE
There are three main approaches to study of tribes in India. These are
Theory of Isolation
20
Virgius Xaxa, Empowerment of Tribes in D. K SighaRoy, ed. Social development and the
empowerment of marginalised groups. Sage Publications. New Delhi, 2001.,Pp.79-89.
21
Georg Pfeffer and Deepak Kumar Behera, Contemporary Society Tribal Studies (volume-1,
Structure and Process), Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi, 1997, Pp: 69-70, 77-81.
[14]
administration should allow tribesmen to live their live with utmost
possible happiness and freedom. Wide power would be given to old tribal
possible would be done for the progress of tribals within this area, provided
the quality of tribal life would not be impaired. Tribal culture would not be
be given high priority. Simple and need oriented education would be given
reformers and anthropologists grow lyrical over the robust, vibrant and
22
Romesh Thaper,ed, Tribe Caste and Religion in India, Macmillan, Delhi, 1996,Pp. 35.
[15]
healthy life of this tribal group. According to Elwin, these highlanders do
not merely exist like so many villagers, they really live. Their religion is
artistic and choreographic traditions are unbroken, and their mythology still
largely protected them from debasing contacts of the plains. It is said that
the hoot of the motor-horn would sound the knell of the aboriginal tribes. A
section of this category of tribes has been experiencing contact with plain
of Elwins classification. Though such group retain its tribal mode of living
it may exhibit many contrasting characteristics with the first group. Instead
of communal life this group lives a village life which has become
through their village dormitories. They do not share things with one
another. Axe cultivation has ceased to be a way of life for them. Members
of these tribes are more contaminated by life outside. They come in contact
with groups living on periphery who live a more complex i.e. civilised life.
Members of these tribes are less simple and less honest than members of
largest section of total tribal population, about four-fifth of it, i.e. nearly
[16]
twenty millions. Members of this class of tribal groups are in a peculiar
state of transition. They bare tribal in name but have become as like as
Hindus who belong to lower rung of Hindu society. One section of this
class has got converted into Christianity. This group of tribes has been
have also subjected to missionary influences. But above all, they have been
groups were uprooted from their mode of production in same way as were
from their economy, social organization and cultural life. A large section of
money- lender, zamindar and contractor who emerged due to political and
[17]
road construction or other enterprise. They were uprooted from their habitat
means. They lost their land and occupation and had no alternative means to
Bhil and Naga Chieftains, Gond Rajas, a few Binshevar and Bhuyia
landlords, korku noblemen, wealthy Santal and Uraon leaders and some
highly cultured Mundas. They retain their own tribal names, clan and totem
Hindu faith and live in modern or even European style. According to Elwin,
tribals of this class have won the battle of cultural contacts. It seems that
the first and second classes to advance direct into the fourth class without
having to suffer the despair and degradation of the third. For this purpose
[18]
protection to tribal people in transition period during which they must learn
to stand on their own feet and become strong enough to resist those who
This approach is not followed for long term. Looking into perspective of
Theory of Assimilation
23
Ramachandra Guha, Savaging the Civilized, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 1999, Pp.
63-97.
[19]
Rajgonds and others who have successfully fought the battle and are
category is large mass that has been partially Hinduised and has come to
closer contact with Hindus and third, the hill sections, which has exhibited
the greater power of resistance to the alien cultures that have passed upon
their border.24
Oraon, Kond, Gond and Korku speak languages which either belong to
languages are, more often than not, different from languages of plains
though they have preserved their tribal languages, can and do employ Indo-
of them thus are bi-lingual, having their own mother-tongue and having
like Baigas, who have taken up Indo-Aryan tongue of the locality in place
of their own language. Others like Bhils speak languages which are dialect
24
G.S Ghurye, The Scheduled Tribes, Popular Prakashan Pvt. Ltd, Bombay, 1963, Pp.48-53
[20]
of local languages. In all case language spoken by so-called aborigine were
till recently not spoken tongue and no script of their own. Tribal solidarity,
Hinduism and its assimilative process and other is British policy. Hindu
assimilation makes tribes not so absorbed rather weak and benumbed under
they are ushered into an altogether strange social world. Hindu castes, at
regulating and controlling power within them. Many of tribes get smugly
settled into Hindu fold. Moreover, Ghurye is of view that British rule
particularly its revenue collection pattern; its central police system and
differing only in degree from the other segment of Hindu society. Their
Tribes of India have slowly absorbed certain Hindu values and life style
through contact with Hindus. Under Hindu influence tribes have given up
25
Ibid, Pp. 32
[21]
liquor drinking, they received education and have changed their practices
Theory of Integration
of India. Though his concept is mainly influenced and drawn from his
insult to them. Tribe cannot be left cut off from world as they are. Isolation
[22]
measure and Promotional measure. After independence Prime Minister
1. People should develop a long line of their own genius and nothing
[23]
Jawaharlal Neheru being Prime Minister notes and elaborates these points
on tribal people of other parts of the world which has put to an end of their
arts and crafts and simple way of living. Neheru declares that so-called
areas are situated are given special responsibility to protect tribal interests.
Governor has power to modify central and state laws in their application to
tribal areas, and to frame regulations for protection of tribals right to land
fundamental rights are amended for this purpose. Constitution also extends
[24]
advice on matters concerning welfare of tribals. A commissioner for
tribal areas and tribal people including promotion of cottage and village
are undertaken and large sums set apart in plan for this purpose. Funding
for tribal welfare significantly increased after 1971. Tribal policy of the
relevant to tribal people of North East India. Neheru says in October 1952
that all this North-East border area deserve special attention not only of
only to tribal areas of Assam. Sixth Schedule offers a fair degree of self-
27
Jawaharlal Nehru, The Discovery of India, Oxford University press, New Delhi, 1946, Pp.
17-31.
[25]
creation of district and regional councils which will exercise some of
to live according to their own way. Government of India also expresses its
autonomy.28
Former approach consists of land policy, forest policy and policy to protect
tribal culture and tradition, while the latter is development and welfare
28
Ibid, Pp.45.
29
Bipin Chandra, Mridula Mukherjee and Aditya Mukherjee, India After Independence 1947-
2000, Penguine Books,Delhi, 1999, Pp. 118.
[26]
undoubtedly same in itself, but it remains to be seen whether development
G.S Ghurye views that only solution to the problem is their progressive
assimilation with the farmers and peasants of the adjoining districts. He has
vision to conclude that the major problems of the tribals are never different
30
P.D Kulkami, Tribal Welfare some Problems of Implementation",Published in Souvenir :
National Seminar on Welfare of Tribes and Denotified ommunities with Reference to Fourth
Plan, Bhopal,1964, Pp. 122.
31
http//:www.boloji.com
[27]
methodological contribution at present.32
Conclusion
Concept and theory of tribe are very complex. Concepts used by early
scholars denote simple aspect of tribe. Later other kinds of work on tribes
Again regarding major theories of tribe as of now only three theories are
found and visible to wider extent. Though attempts are made at different
and integration approach are now debated and contradicted. Hence though
conceptualise and define tribe and their socio-cultural aspects, both concept
and theory of tribe till date remained most problematic and controversial.
32
G.S Ghurye, The Scheduled Tribes, Popular Prakashan Pvt. Ltd, Bombay, 1963, Pp.3, 9-23
[28]