Sci-Chem Magazine March 2017

Research and Xam Buenavista

Scientific &
Investigation Dorothy Jane Maquiling
Project
STEM-11
By:

Jose Nino Miguel Locsin

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Sci-Chem Magazine March 2017

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Sci-Chem Magazine March 2017

Contents THE Properties OF

THE Properties OF

Structures in a
and
By Jane Maquiling

Freezing point depression and boiling point elevation:

the effects of solutes and of pressure
T here are five properties of liquid namely viscosity, surface

tension, vapour pressure, boiling point, and molar heat of vaporization.

A Comparative Study of Citrus Fruits as
Potential Light Source
Viscosity is the measure of a liquids resistance to flow. It indicates the
internal friction of a moving fluid. In a fluid with a large viscosity, the motion
resists because of the molecular makeup that gives a lot of internal friction. A
fluid with low viscosity flows easily because its molecular makeup results in
very little friction when it is in motion.

Second, is the surface tension; this is measured as the energy

required to increase the surface area of a liquid which unit is area this results
from an imbalance of intermolecular forces of attraction and the cohesive
forces between molecules. Molecule in the bulk liquid will experience
cohesive forces with the other molecules in all directions while a molecule at
the surface of a liquid experiences only a net inward cohesive force. The

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forces of attraction between a liquid and a solid surface are called adhesive
forces. The behaviour of a liquid in contact with a solid surface is

derived through the difference in strength between the cohesive

forces and the adhesive forces. Third is the vapour pressure, it is the pressure
at which water vapour is in thermodynamic equilibrium with its condensed
state, the water will condense when the pressure increases. The process by
which a liquid turns into vapour when it is heated to its boiling point is
called boiling. When the vapour pressure of the liquid is equal to the
atmospheric pressure exerted on the liquid, the change from a liquid phase
to a gaseous phase occurs. When a liquid is heated, the molecules and atoms
absorb energy that is translated to velocity. When a threshold amount of
heat is absorbed, the atoms and molecules have sufficient velocity so they
are able to escape the liquid. Lastly, the molar heat of vaporization of a
liquid is the quantity of heat that needs to be absorbed to vaporize one of
liquid at a given temperature.

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this module is to know the characteristic properties of

crystalline and amorphous solids. With few exceptions, the

Structures in a particles that compose a solid material, whether ionic,

molecular, covalent, or metallic, are held in place by strong
and attractive forces between them. When we discuss solids,
therefore, we consider the positions of the atoms,
molecules, or ions, which are essentially fixed in space,
rather than their motions (which are more important in
liquids and gases). The constituents of a solid can be
arranged in two general ways: they can form a regular
repeating three-dimensional structure called a crystal
lattice, thus producing a crystalline solid, or they can

C
aggregate with no particular order, in which case they form
an amorphous solid (from the Greek morphos, meaning
rystalline solids have regular ordered arrays of
shapeless).
components held together by uniform intermolecular
forces, whereas the components of amorphous solids are
not arranged in regular arrays. The learning objective of
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Crystalline solids, or crystals, have distinctive internal

structures that in turn lead to distinctive flat surfaces, or
faces. The faces intersect at angles that are characteristic
of the substance. When exposed to x-rays, each structure
also produces a distinctive pattern that can be used to
identify the material. The characteristic angles do not
depend on the size of the crystal; they reflect the regular
repeating arrangement of the component atoms, molecules,
or ions in space. When an ionic crystal is cleaved (Figure
12.1), for example, repulsive interactions cause it to break
along fixed planes to produce new faces that intersect at
the same angles as those in the original crystal. In a
covalent solid such as a cut diamond, the angles at which
the faces meet are also not arbitrary but are determined
(left) Crystalline faces. The faces of crystals can intersect at right angles, as in galena (PbS) and
by the arrangement of the carbon atoms in the crystal.
pyrite (FeS2), or at other angles, as in quartz.(Right) Cleavage surfaces of an amorphous solid.
Obsidian, a volcanic glass with the same chemical composition as granite (typically KAlSi 3O8), tends
to have curved, irregular surfaces when cleaved.

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Figure 12.1: Cleaving a Crystal of an Ionic Compound along a Plane of Ions.
Deformation of the ionic crystal causes one plane of atoms to slide along another.
The resulting repulsive interactions between ions with like charges cause the layers
to separate.
Crystals tend to have relatively sharp, well-defined melting
points because all the component atoms, molecules, or ions
are the same distance from the same number and type of
neighbors; that is, the regularity of the crystalline lattice
creates local environments that are the same. Thus the
intermolecular forces holding the solid together are uniform,
and the same amount of thermal energy is needed to break
every interaction simultaneously.
Amorphous solids have two characteristic properties.
When cleaved or broken, they produce fragments with
irregular, often curved surfaces; and they have poorly
defined patterns when exposed to x-rays because their
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components are not arranged in a regular array. An
amorphous, translucent solid is called a glass. Almost any
substance can solidify in amorphous form if the liquid phase
is cooled rapidly enough. Some solids, however, are
intrinsically amorphous, because either their components
cannot fit together well enough to form a stable crystalline
lattice or they contain impurities that disrupt the lattice. For
example, although the chemical composition and the basic
structural units of a quartz crystal and quartz glass are the
sameboth are SiO2 and both consist of linked
SiO4 tetrahedrathe arrangements of the atoms in space
are not. Crystalline quartz contains a highly ordered
arrangement of silicon and oxygen atoms, but in quartz glass
the atoms are arranged almost randomly. When molten
SiO2 is cooled rapidly (4 K/min), it forms quartz glass,
whereas the large, perfect quartz crystals sold in mineral
shops have had cooling times of thousands of years. In
contrast, aluminum crystallizes much more rapidly.
Amorphous aluminum forms only when the liquid is cooled at
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Sci-Chem Magazine
the extraordinary rate of 4 1013 K/s, which prevents the
atoms from arranging themselves into a regular array.
The lattice of crystalline quartz (SiO2). The atoms form a regular arrangement in a
structure that consists of linked tetrahedra.
In an amorphous solid, the local environment, including both
the distances to neighboring units and the numbers of
neighbors, varies throughout the material. Different
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amounts of thermal energy are needed to overcome these
different interactions. Consequently, amorphous solids tend
to soften slowly over a wide temperature range rather than
having a well-defined melting point like a crystalline solid. If
an amorphous solid is maintained at a temperature just
below its melting point for long periods of time, the
component molecules, atoms, or ions can gradually
rearrange into a more highly ordered crystalline form.
Solids are characterized by an extended three-dimensional
arrangement of atoms, ions, or molecules in which the
components are generally locked into their positions. The
components can be arranged in a regular repeating three-
dimensional array (a crystal lattice), which results in a
crystalline solid, or more or less randomly to produce an
amorphous solid. Crystalline solids have well-defined edges
and faces, diffract x-rays, and tend to have sharp melting
points. In contrast, amorphous solids have irregular or
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curved surfaces, do not give well-
resolved x-ray diffraction patterns, and
melt over a wide range of temperatures.
Properties of liquids BONUS
Intermolecular Forces:
Generalizing Properties
Low boiling point= particles
leave liquid solution
Weaker IM forces=lower
boiling point
High boiling point= slow
evaporation
If IM are the sam, heavier
molecules have higher boiling
points
Strength of IM forces:
Hydrogen bond>dipole-
dipole>London desperation
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A Comparative Study
of Citrus Fruits as
Potential Light Source
Abstract
One of the most harmful and hazardous processes that are
occurring in our environment is the disposal of batteries. The proponents
sought research and ways to have an eco-friendly alternative for
batteries. The Philippines, as a tropical country, is known to be abundant
in producing various citrus fruits. In the experiment, the proponents
ventured to discover which among the tropical citrus fruits: oranges,
calamansi and lemons have the capability to exert electrical energy that can
light up an LED light. The said activity was held at Saint Louis School of Don
Bosco Incorporated and at one of the teams residence to conduct the
experiment. Galvanized nails, copper wires, alligator wires, and an LED light
are used to make an electrical circuit out of the 3 sorts of citrus fruits. The
natural alternatives used were derived to be organic and can cause less harm
to the environment. This study is to prove if one of which oranges, calamansi
and lemons have the potential to light a bulb.
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Introduction
Batteries have become a common power source for many household
and industrial applications. This is used especially most in modern times to
produce energy and electricity among our household, work and environment.
But since then, battery in alliance with humans has been proven to be
unfriendly to nature. Time after time, batteries from machines have been
roughly disposed in nowhere causing harmful chemicals to spread all over the
place. This problem is very cautious and we cannot limit the production of
these materials due to the constant increase of evolution in technology and
machinery. Citrus fruits have acidic content that are bold to contribute
electricity. To show awareness and concern to this plague, the proponents of
this project sought to find out how and which citrus fruits have the potential in
producing energy, specifically, light energy to be an alternative for batteries.
Review of Related Literature
Differential Expression of Organic Acid Degradation-related Genes
during Fruit Development of Navel Oranges (Citrus sinensis)
Organic acids from citrus fruits produce flavor and overall quality of a
citrus fruit. Several factors from the environment affect the citric acid level in
it. During navel orange fruit development, citric-acid biogenesis-related citrate
synthase is expressed. A cascade ofCitAco3CitIDH1CitGS2 might be
involved in citric acid degradation in response to different environments
during fruit growth and development.
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Fruit's Potential to Battery Life
Super capacitors are energy storage devices that deliver large amounts
of energy in a short period of time that could also be recharged faster than
deep cycle batteries.
Electric current is the flow of electrons and is measured in units called
amperes or "amps."
Voltage is the force that pushes the electrons through a circuit and is measured
in volts.
Electricity will be produced when two different metals are placed
together in a common conducting solution.
A wet cell consists of a negative electrode, a positive electrode and an
electrolyte, which conducts ions (atoms with an electric charge). In this
scientific project, copper and zinc metals will be used as the electrodes and the
citric acid found in fresh fruit is the electrolyte. The chemistry behind the fruit
cell is that zinc is more reactive than copper which means zinc loses electrons
more easily than copper. Oxidation occurs in the zinc metal strip and zinc
metal loses electrons which then become zinc ions. The electrons then flow
from the zinc strip to the copper strip through an external circuit. In the copper
strip, reduction occurs and the hydrogen ions in the fruit's critic acid juice
accept these electrons to form hydrogen gas; this explains why the
investigator may observe bubbling of gas produced at the copper strip when
the two metals are connected by a wire.
A batteryany batteryconsists of two electrodes (an anode
and a cathode) and an electrolyte. Current, in the form of positive ions such as
protons (the nuclei of hydrogen atoms), flows through the electrolyte from
anode to cathode while a balancing current of electrons, which are negatively
charged that makes the same journey via an external circuit. The electrons can
be employed, before they return to the battery, to do useful work.
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Copper has a cubic crystal

structure. It is the particular variation
(face cantered cubic) that gives it it's
extreme ductility so that you can bend a Methodology
wire into really sharp curves.

Materials
Scope and needed:
4 oranges
Limitations 4 calamansi
4 lemons
5 alligator wires
LED light bulb
This project is limited only on the ability of the fruits that are acidic
such as lemon, orange, calamansi as an alternative battery. Specifically, this is
to determine which fruit is potential and how many fruits are needed to light a
light bulb/LED light.

This experiment is done only for two trials

determining which among oranges, calamansi
and lemons can light a bulb. First, they must
gather all the materials in one place. On a table,
set the fruits in order. Afterwards, members must pierce the nails and the
copper wires into each citrus fruits they have. Next, one member will connect
the nails and coppers through the alligator wires and LED light bulb to the
make the circuit complete. The product is now ready for experimentation.

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Procedures:

1. Prepare your materials.

2. Roll and place your citrus fruits on the platform for 2 minutes to break
up all the juice pockets.
3. Peirce the nail and the copper wire to the citrus fruits.

4. Grab the alligator wires then connect them to each nail and copper of
each fruits together.

5. Connect it with a light bulb and observe if it is going to produce light.

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6. In trial 2, do the same procedures but add one fruit to each set as well
as the alligator wire, copper wire and nail to increase the rate of
electricity that could light the bulb.

Figure 1.3: The set-up of the organic circuit with 3 lemons.

Figure 1.1: The set-up of the organic circuit with 3 oranges.

Figure 2.1: The set-up of the organic circuit with 4 oranges.

Figure 1.2: The set-up of the organic circuit with 3 calamansi.

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Figure 2.2: The set-up of the organic circuit with 4 calamansi.

i.

Figure 2.4: The LED light blinked a few times with the lemon circuit.

Figure 2.3: The set-up of the organic circuit with 4 lemons.

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Interpretation of data
The graph shows the comparison between the other types of citrus
fruits (orange, calamansi, and lemon) in trials 1 and 2.
Trial 1
Number of fruits Fruits
3 Oranges
3 Calamansi
3 Lemons
Trial 2
Number of fruits Fruits
4 Oranges
4 Calamansi
4 Lemons
Conclusion
The study has proven that lemons have the capacity that can generate
electricity among the other fruits. Furthermore, the more nails and coppers,
Observation the more electricity will be conducted and the more number of fruits, the more
No light the amount of electricity it will deliver.
No light
No Light
Recommendation
The members of the group recommend increasing the quantity of
fruits, nails and copper wires to intensify the amount of voltage delivered by
the fruits in their experiment. They should put as much so that they can light
up light bulbs and other lights that require more voltage than LED lights do.
Observation Individuals who are interested with this kind of experiment should not reuse
No light the fruits nor use it for eating because dissolved components of the nails and
No light copper are within the fruits. The fruits must be fresh to increase acidic content
With Light that could generate electricity in a light bulb.

FIRST TRIAL:
Did you know that?
There was no light among the fruits. Lemons are technically berries.
Lemon trees can produce up to 600
SECOND TRIAL: pounds in a year and can grow up
Light from the four lemons only blinked but did not remain for too long. The
other fruits did not light even if it was added and the wire, nail and copper to 20 feet tall!
were increased.

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Freezing point depression and

boiling point elevation: the effects
of solutes and of pressure

F reezing point depression is the lowering of the equilibrium freezing or

melting temperature by solutes in the liquid phase. Solutes in the liquid phase
also raise the equilibrium boiling temperature. Pressure also affects freezing
temperature (a little) and boiling temperatures (a lot).

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Why do substances melt and boil?

To oversimplify only a little, temperature is a measure of how much energy there is
in molecular motion. To begin with an explicit example, let's consider water. When
water molecules are cold enough, they don't have much heat energy so they don't
jostle around too much. Consequently, they can pack together in a very organised
structure, called ice. At high enough temperatures, they have so much energy that
they can escape the attraction of their neighbours. So they form steam, in which the
molecules fly all over the place in a very disordered way. At medium temperatures,
which means that the molecules have moderate amounts of energy (and if the
pressure is high enough*) they form liquid water. Here the molecules have enough
energy to move around, but not enough to escape from their neighbours entirely.
Molecules in liquid water are more ordered than in steam but less ordered than ice.
(As an example of the order in a liquid, we can observe that the centre of each
molecule is about one molecular diameter away from that of its nearest
neighbours.)

Why is the change so sudden? At atmospheric pressure, water melts at 0C

and boils at 100C. What determines the melting point and the boiling point?

The answer is a trade-off between the molecular energy (which we notice as

temperature) and the molecular order: the difference between highly organised
structure in ice, rather close packing in liquid water, and nearly complete
disorganisation in steam. At 0C and 100C, the order effect and the energy
effect are exactly balanced, and so ice and water co-exist at 0C, water and
steam coexist at 100C (at atmospheric pressure).

The crystalline structure of ice is rather difficult to show in two dimensions,

so the sketches below show, schematically, a simpler crystal, liquid and
vapour phase. The patterened circles represent simplistically the substance
in whose melting and evaporation we are interested. The coloured circles

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represent molecules of the air, which is mainly nitrogen. The black circles
(next picture) represent solutes. The sketches are not to scale.
The effects of solutes
What happens if, instead of having pure liquid water, we put some salt or sugar in
the water? In other words, what if our liquid phase is a solution? This makes the
liquid state less organised, because the sugar molecules or salt ions are free to move
about almost randomly. So the liquid water molecules are more disordered (less
regimented) in a solution. The ice and the steam remain unaffected, however: sugar
and salt hardly dissolve at all in ice, nor do they evaporate near 100C.
How does this affect the trade-off between the molecular energy and the
molecular order? The gain in disorder on evaporation is now less, because the
liquid water in solution is more disordered. The energy effect is hardly
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changed, so the energy effect now dominates over a slightly larger range: the
molecules of water in solution have to have slightly more energy (a slightly
higher temperature) in order for the two effects to be in balance. So the
boiling temperature is higher for a solution.
Conversely, when we look at melting, the disorder effect is greater for a
solution: on melting into a solution, water molecules go from the high order of
crystalline ice into an even more disordered state than pure liquid. So the
disorder effect can dominate even at lower temperatures. So the freezing
temperature is lower for a solution.
I mentioned the equilibrium freezing and boiling temperatures above. Time to
explain. Imagine ice floating in pure water at 0C. If we add a little heat, some
ice melts. Remove a little heat and some water freezes. We call this the
equilibrium freezing temperature: 0C for water. However, when one cools
reasonably pure water, it usually cools several degrees below 0C we say it
supercools by several degrees before the first ice crystal appears. That ice
crystal then expands rapidly, giving up latent heat, which warms the nearby
water back to about 0C. More about supercooling and super heating below.
An aqueous solution has a higher boiling point and a lower freezing point than does
pure water.
If the solution is not too concentrated, these two effects are approximately
independent of what the dissolved substance is: a sugar molecule has much the
same effect as a salt ion. So, provided you remember to count each ion separately,
the effect of concentration on boiling point elevation or freezing point depression is
much the same for all small solutes in water. (Macromolecules such as polymers
behave differently because they have lots of neighbouring solvent molecules, and so
affect the solvent much more than simple solutes.)
Antifreeze. So, you might expect that the antifreeze in a radiator not only
stops it freezing, but also helps stop it from boiling. However, the real
situation is more complicated: antifreeze has the disadvantage that it is not
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quite as good as water at transporting heat. Ethylene glycol is one antifreeze.
Salt is used to melt snow and ice on roads in cold countries, but it is not used
in radiators because it is corrosive and crystallises readily. Sugar is not used in
some applications, because concentrated sugar solutions are viscous, and
because they support bugs. However, many organisms use sugars and other
small organic molecules as antifreeze. Seecryobiology.
An interesting observation: The concentration of solutes in blood is less than
that in sea water, so the equilibrium freezing temperature of blood is usually
higher than that of sea water. Consequently, some Arctic and Antarctic fish
live at temperatures below the equilibrium freezing temperature of normal
blood. The bio-antifreeze in their blood is a protein that works in a way
different from the anti-freeze used in car radiators: the antifreeze protein binds
to freezing nuclei and so permits the blood to remain supercooled.
The effect of pressure
Notice that above I've included the proviso "at atmospheric pressure" a few times.
The reason why the pressure is important is that, in the vapour phase, a given
amount of a substance occupies a much larger volume than it does as a liquid. Some
of the energy required to vapourise it goes towards 'pushing the air out of the way'
to make room for the amount evaporated. (The amount of work done is the product
of the pressure P and the change in volume V. Technically, there is a PV term in
the latent heat.) So, at low pressure, it is easier to form the vapour phase and so the
boiling point is lower. The dependence of the transition temperature on pressure is
the Clausius-Clapeyron effect. (Again, being a bit technical, we note that this effect
involves energy - the work done in displacing air - whereas the solute effect involves
entropy - the disordering of the liquid phase.)
Water expands a lot when it boils: one kilogram of water is one litre of liquid
water, but it becomes about 1700 litres of steam at atmospheric pressure. This
means that even modest increases in altitude can measurably reduce the
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boiling temperature. Some people complain that this affects cooking and even
the taste of tea at altitude.
It is also true that pressure changes the melting temperature. However,
because the volume occupied by a kilogram of liquid is not much different
from that occupied by a kilogram of solid, this effect is very small unless the
pressures are very large. For most substances, the freezing point rises, though
only very slightly, with increased pressure.
Water is one of the very rare substances that expands upon freezing (which is
why ice floats). Consequently, its melting temperature falls very slightly if
pressure is increased.
I have been asked: Does freezing point depression with pressure explain the low
friction under an ice-skate? I'm writing this in Sydney, so you might guess correctly
that I don't know much about skating, but let's try to be quantitative. The Clausius-
Clapeyron equation says that the ratio of the change in pressure times the change
in specific volume to the latent heat of the phase change equals the ratio of the
change in transition temperature to the (absolute) melting or boiling temperature.
It's often written as dP/dT = L/T*v. (As we might have guessed from dimensional
considerations i.e. just writing an equation involving the relevant parameters so
as to make the units correct.)
The weight of the skater is say 1 kN. I'm not a skater, but let's start with an estimate
of the skate-ice contact area as say 100 mm2. (The value depends on how far the
skate cuts into the ice. Say 200 mm long by 0.5 mm wide: skaters, is this
reasonable?) So, with this value, the pressure is increased by (1 kN)/100 mm2 =
10 MPa. A kg of water (one litre) freezes to give about 1.1 litre of ice, so the change
in specific volume is about 10-4 m3kg-1. The latent heat of fusion of ice is 330 kJ.kg-1.
So the proportional change in temperature is (10 MPa)(10-4 m3kg-1)/(330 kJ.kg-1),
which is 0.3%. Multiply this by the melting temperature of ice (273 K) and, for this
area, we get an estimate of the temperature change of around 1 K = 1 C. So, with
these values, the calculation suggests that the pressure of an ice skate would reduce
the melting temperature of ice by about 1 C. So, with this estimate for area and if
this were the cause of the slipperiness, ice skating would be possible only at
temperatures only one or a few degrees below freezing. From observation, it is
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possible to ice skate on ice at much lower temperatures than this. To argue that
freezing point depression works over say 10C, we'd need an area of contact of a
skate about 10 mm2 or less. If only the sharp edges were in contact with the ice, this
might be possible, but it seems very low to me, because I'd expect the edges to cut
into the ice and to increase the area of contact. (Again, I seek advice from skaters on
this, and preferably from physicists who are also skaters.)
* This explains why, above, I wrote that liquid water only exists if the
pressure is high enough. At pressures below 611 Pa, there are only two
phases, and ice sublimes to form steam directly, without passing through a
liquid phase. (In this context, the reverse of 'to sublime' is not, as one might
have hoped, 'to ridicule'. At low pressures, steam condenses to form ice.)

Putting aside the Clausius-Clapeyron effect, and under conditions with only small
applied pressure, we'd expect the surface of ice is already somewhat slippery. At the
surface of ice, water molecules are only have opportunities for hydrogen bonds to
their neighbours 'on one side', as it were. Consequently, their energy is not as low as
in bulk ice. So, at equilibrium, they must have a higher entropy. So, even at subzero
temperatures, ice must have a thin water-like layer on the surface, whose thickness
woud be expected to increase at temperatures close to melting.
The comparable calculation for boiling point change is a bit more complicated. The
latent heat in this case is larger (2.3 MJ-1) but the change in specific volume is much
larger (typically a few times 10-2 m3kg-1). So changes in altitude can change the
boiling temperature, and going up a mountain can reduce it by as much as several
degrees.
Further complications - non-equilibrium phases
I've made a simplification above and it's time to look at it. At atmospheric pressure,
pure water does not always boil at 100C nor freeze at 0C. Superheating is the
term for raising the temperature of a liquid above its equilibrium boiling point. I
have a page on superheating in microwave ovens because it is so dangerous.
Supercooling occurs when a liquid is cooled below its equilibrium freezing
temperature. For example, water can sometimes be cooled as much as a few
tens of degrees below 0C without freezing. This phenomenon is important in
cryobiology. See also What is 'unfreezable water'?

When are the boiling temperature and freezing temperature equal? What happens
then?
For all substances, as we lower pressure, the boiling temperature falls much more
rapidly than does the freezing temperature. (For water, the freezing temperature
rises slightly at low pressure.) Hence the obvious question: Are the boiling
temperature and freezing temperature ever equal?

The answer is yes. At the low pressure of 611 Pa (only 0.006 times
atmospheric pressure), pure water boils at 0.01 C, and it also freezes at
0.01 C. The combination of conditions (P, T) = (611 Pa, 0.01 C) is called
the triple point of water because, at this pressure and temperature ice, liquid
water and steam can coexist in equilibrium. This point is used to define our
scale of temperature: by definition, the triple point of water occurs at
273.16 K, where K is the kelvin. 273.16 K = 0.01 C

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Resources

http://www.majordifferences.com/2013/02/difference-between-
chrystaline-and.html#.WLFdV2997IU

http://www.animations.physics.unsw.edu.au/jw/freezing-point-
depression-boiling-point-elevation.htm

https://chem.libretexts.org/Textbook_Maps/General_Chemistry_Textb
ook_Maps/Map%3A_Chemistry_(Averill_and_Eldredge)/12%3A_Solids/12.1
%3A_Crystalline_and_Amorphous_Solids

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