CH 28

Solutions for Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing, 5e (published by Wiley) MPGroover 2012
28 FUNDAMENTALS OF WELDING
Review Questions
28.1 What are the advantages and disadvantages of welding compared to other types of assembly
operations?
Answer. Advantages: (1) it provides a permanent joint, (2) joint strength is typically as high as the
strength of base metals, (3) it is most economical in terms of material usage, and (4) it is versatile in
terms of where it can be accomplished. Disadvantages: (1) it is usually performed manually, so
labor cost is high and the skilled labor to perform it is sometimes scarce, (2) welding is inherently
dangerous, (3) a welded joint is difficult to disassemble, and (4) quality defects are sometimes
difficult to detect.
28.2 What were the two discoveries of Sir Humphrey Davy that led to the development of modern
welding technology?
Answer. The two discoveries of Sir Humphrey Davy were (1) the electric arc and (2) acetylene gas.
28.3 What is meant by the term faying surface?
Answer. The faying surfaces are the contacting surfaces in a welded joint.
28.4 Define the term fusion weld.
Answer. A fusion weld is a weld in which the metal surfaces have been melted in order to cause
coalescence.
28.5 What is the fundamental difference between a fusion weld and a solid state weld?
Answer. In a fusion weld, the metal is melted. In a solid state weld, the metal is not melted.
28.6 What is an autogenous weld?
Answer. An autogenous weld is a fusion weld made without the addition of filler metal.
28.7 Discuss the reasons why most welding operations are inherently dangerous.
Answer. Most welding operations are carried out at high temperatures that can cause serious burns
on skin and flesh. In gas welding, the fuels are a fire hazard. In arc welding and resistance
welding, the high electrical energy can cause shocks that are fatal to the worker. In arc welding, the
electric arc emits intense ultraviolet radiation that can cause blinding. Other hazards include sparks,
smoke, fumes, and weld spatter.
28.8 What is the difference between machine welding and automatic welding?
Answer. An automatic welding operation uses a weld cycle controller that regulates the arc
movement and workpiece positioning; whereas in machine welding, a human worker must
continuously control the arc and the relative movement of the welding head and the work part.
28.9 Name and sketch the five joint types.
Answer. Five joint types are (1) butt, (2) corner, (3) lap, (4) tee, (5) edge. For sketches see Figure
28.3 in the text.
28.10 Define and sketch a fillet weld.
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Answer. A fillet weld is a weld joint of approximately triangular cross section used to fill in the
edges of corner, lap, and tee joints. See Figure 28.4 in text for sketch.
28.11 Define and sketch a groove weld.
Answer. A groove weld is a weld joint used to fill in the space between the adjoining edges of butt
and other weld types except lap. See Figure 28.5 in text for sketch.
28.12 Why is a surfacing weld different from the other weld types?
Answer. Because it does not join two distinct parts, but instead adds only filler metal to a surface.
28.13 Why is it desirable to use energy sources for welding that have high heat densities?
Answer. Because the heat is concentrated in a small region for greatest efficiency and minimum
metallurgical damage.
28.14 What is the unit melting energy in welding, and what are the factors on which it depends?
Answer. The unit melting energy is the amount of heat energy required to melt one cubic millimeter
or one cubic inch of metal. The factors on which it depends are (1) specific heat, (2) melting point,
and (3) heat of fusion of the metal.
28.15 Define and distinguish the two terms heat transfer factor and melting factor in welding.
Answer. Heat transfer factor is the ratio of the actual heat received at the work surface divided by
the total heat generated by the source. Melting factor is the ratio of heat required for melting divided
by the heat received at the work surface.
28.16 What is the heat-affected zone (HAZ) in a fusion weld?
Answer. The HAZ is a region of base metal surrounding the fusion zone in which melting has not
occurred, but temperatures from welding were high enough to cause solid state microstructural
changes.
Problems
Answers to problems labeled (A) are listed in an Appendix at the back of the book.
Power Density
28.1 (A) (SI units) In a laser beam welding process, what is the quantity of heat per unit time (J/s) that is
transferred to the metal if the heat is concentrated in a circle with a diameter of 0.25 mm? Use the
power density provided in Table 28.1.
Solution: PD from Table 28.1 is 9000 W/mm2 for laser beam welding
P = PD x A = 9000 (0.25)2/4 = 442 W = 442 J/s
28.2 (SI units) A heat source transfers 3000 J/sec to a metal part surface. The heated area is circular, and
the heat intensity decreases as the radius increases: 75% of the heat is concentrated in a circular area
that = 3.5 mm in diameter. Is the resulting power density enough to melt metal?
Solution: Area A = (3.5)2/4 = 9.621 mm2
Power P = 0.75(3000) = 2250 J/s = 2250 W.
Power density PD = 2250 W/9.6212 = 234 W/mm2. This power density is most probably sufficient
for melting the metal.
28.3 (USCS units) A heat source transfers 150 Btu/min to a metal surface for welding. The heated area is
approximately circular, and the heat intensity decreases with increasing radius as follows: 50% of
the power is transferred within a circle of diameter = 0.2 in, and 75% is transferred within a
concentric circle of diameter = 0.4 in. What are the power densities in (a) the 0.2-in diameter inner
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circle and (b) the 0.4-in diameter ring that lies around the inner circle? (c) Are these power densities
sufficient for melting metal?
Solution: (a) Area A = (0.2)2/4 = 0.0314 in2
200 Btu/min = 3.333 Btu/sec
Power P = 0.50(3.333) = 1.667 Btu/sec
Power density PD = (1.667 Btu/sec)/0.0314 in2 = 53 Btu/sec-in2
(b) A = (0.42 - 0.22)/4 = 0.0942 in2
Power P = (0.75 - 0.50)(3.333) = 0.833 Btu/sec
Power density PD = (0.833 Btu/sec)/0.0942 in2 = 8.85 Btu/sec-in2
(c) Power densities are sufficient certainly in the inner circle and probably in the outer ring for
welding.
Unit Melting Energy
28.4 (A) (SI/USCS units) Compute the unit energy for melting for aluminum using (a) SI units and (b)
USCS units. Use Table 28.2 as reference for melting temperature.
Solution: From Table 28.2, Tm for aluminum = 930 K (1680 R)
(a) Equation (28.2) for SI units: Um = 3.33(10-6)Tm2 Um = 3.33 x 10-6 (930)2 = 2.88 J/mm3
(b) Equation (28.2) for USCS units: Um = 1.467(10-5)Tm2 Um = 1.467 x 10-5 (1680)2 = 41.4 Btu/in3
28.5 (SI/USCS units) Compute the unit energy for melting for plain low-carbon steel using (a) SI units
and (b) USCS units. Use Table 28.2 as reference for melting temperature.
Solution: From Table 28.2, Tm for plain low carbon steel = 1760 K (3160 R)
(a) Equation (28.2) for SI units: Um = 3.33(10-6)Tm2 Um = 3.33 x 10-6 (1760)2 = 10.32 J/mm3
(b) Equation (28.2) for USCS units: Um = 1.467(10-5)Tm2 Um = 1.467 x 10-5 (3160)2 = 146.5
Btu/in3
28.6 (SI units) Make the calculations and plot on linearly scaled axes the relationship for unit melting
energy as a function of temperature. Use temperatures as follows to construct the plot: 200C,
400C, 600C, 800C, 1000C, 1200C, 1400C, 1600C, 1800C, and 2000C. On the plot, mark
the positions of some of the welding metals in Table 28.2. Use of a spreadsheet program is
recommended for the calculations.
Solution: Equation (28.2) for SI units: Um = 3.33 x 10-6 Tm2. The plot is based on the following
calculated values.
For Tm = 200C = (200 + 273) = 473K: Um = 3.33 x 10-6 (473)2 = 0.75 J/mm3
For Tm = 400C = (400 + 273) = 673K: Um = 3.33 x 10-6 (673)2 = 1.51 J/mm3
For Tm = 600C = (600 + 273) = 873K: Um = 3.33 x 10-6 (873)2 = 2.54 J/mm3
For Tm = 800C = (800 + 273) = 1073K: Um = 3.33 x 10-6 (1073)2 = 3.83 J/mm3
For Tm = 1000C = (1000 + 273) = 1273K: Um = 3.33 x 10-6 (1273)2 = 5.40 J/mm3
For Tm = 1200C = (1200 + 273) = 1473K: Um = 3.33 x 10-6 (1473)2 = 7.23 J/mm3
For Tm = 1400C = (1400 + 273) = 1673K: Um = 3.33 x 10-6 (1673)2 = 9.32 J/mm3
For Tm = 1600C = (1600 + 273) = 1873K: Um = 3.33 x 10-6 (1873)2 = 11.68 J/mm3
For Tm = 1800C = (1800 + 273) = 2073K: Um = 3.33 x 10-6 (2073)2 = 14.31 J/mm3
For Tm = 2000C = (2000 + 273) = 2273K: Um = 3.33 x 10-6 (2273)2 = 17.20 J/mm3
28-1
28.7 (USCS units) Make the calculations and plot on linearly scaled axes the relationship for unit
melting energy as a function of temperature. Use temperatures as follows to construct the plot:
500F, 1000F, 1500F, 2000F, 2500F, 3000F, and 3500F. On the plot, mark the positions of
some of the welding metals in Table 28.2. Use of a spreadsheet program is recommended for the
calculations.
Solution: Equation (28.2) for USCS units: Um = 1.467(10-5)Tm2. The plot is based on the following
calculated values. The plot is left as a student exercise.
For Tm = 500F = (500 + 460) = 960R: Um = 1.467 x 10-5 (960)2 = 13.5 Btu/in3
28.8 (A) (SI units) A fillet weld on low carbon steel has a cross-sectional area of 20.0 mm2 and is 250
mm long. Determine (a) the amount of heat (in joules) required to perform the weld, and (b) the
amount of heat that must be generated by the heat source, if the heat transfer factor = 0.80 and the
melting factor = 0.60?
Solution: (a) Equation (28.2) for SI units: Um = 3.33 x 10-6 Tm2
From Table 28.2, Tm for low carbon steel = 1760 K
Um = 3.33 x 10-6 (1760)2 = 10.32 J/mm3
Volume of metal melted V = 20(250) = 5000 mm3
Hw = 10.32(5000) = 51,600 J at weld
(b) Given f1 = 0.80 and f2 = 0.60, H = 51,600/(0.80 x 0.60) = 107,500 J at source
28.9 (SI units) A U-groove weld is used to butt weld two pieces of 7.0-mm-thick austenitic stainless steel
plate in an arc welding operation. The U-groove is prepared using a milling cutter so the radius of
28-1
the groove is 3.0 mm; however, during welding, the penetration of the weld causes an additional 1.5
mm of metal to be melted. Thus, the final cross-sectional area of the weld can be approximated by a
semicircle with radius = 4.5 mm. The length of the weld = 250 mm. The melting factor of the setup
= 0.65, and the heat transfer factor = 0.90. Assuming the resulting top surface of the weld bead is
flush with the top surface of the plates, determine (a) the amount of heat (in joules) required to melt
the volume of metal in this weld (filler metal plus base metal), and (b) the heat that must be
generated at the heat source?
Solution: (a) From Table 28.2, Tm for austenitic stainless steel = 1670K
Um = 3.33 x 10-6 (1670)2 = 9.29 J/mm3
Aw = r2/2 = (4.5)2 /2 = 31.8 mm2
V = AwL = 31.8(250) = 7950 mm3
Hw = UmV = 9.29(7950) = 73,856 J
(b) H = Hw/(f1f2) = 73,856/(0.90 x 0.65) = 126,249 J
28.10 (USCS units) In an arc welding operation, a groove weld has a cross-sectional area = 0.045 in2 and
is 10 in long. (a) What quantity of heat (in Btu) is required to accomplish the weld, if the metal to be
welded is medium carbon steel? (b) How much heat must be generated at the welding source, if the
heat transfer factor = 0.9 and the melting factor = 0.7?
Solution: (a) Equation (28.2) for USCS units: Um = 1.467 x 10-5 Tm2
From Table 28.2, Tm for medium carbon steel = 3060 R
Um = 1.467 x 10-5 (3060)2 = 137.4 Btu/in3
Volume of metal melted V = 0.045(10) = 0.45 in3
Hw = 137.4(0.45) = 61.8 Btu at weld
(b) Given f1 = 0.9 and f2 = 0.7, H = 61.8/(0.9 x 0.7) = 98.1 Btu at source.
28.11 (USCS units) Solve the previous problem, except that the metal to be welded is aluminum, and the
corresponding melting factor is 60% of the value for steel.
Solution: (a) Equation (28.2) for USCS units: Um = 1.467 x 10-5 Tm2
From Table 28.2, Tm for aluminum = 1680 R
Um = 1.467 x 10-5 (1680)2 = 41.4 Btu/in3
Volume of metal melted V = 0.045(10) = 0.45 in3
Hw = 41.4(0.45) = 18.6 Btu at weld
(b) Given f1 = 0.9 and f2 = 0.70(.60) = 0.42, H = 18.6/(0.9 x 0.42) = 49.2 Btu at source.
28.12 (SI units) In a controlled experiment, it takes 3700 J to melt the amount of metal that is in a weld
bead with a cross-sectional area of 6.0 mm2 that is 150.0 mm long. (a) Using Table 28.2, what is the
most likely metal? (b) If the heat transfer factor is 0.85 and the melting factor is 0.55 for the
welding process, how much heat must be generated at the welding source to accomplish the weld?
Solution: V = AwL = 6.0(150) = 900 mm3
Um = Hw/V = 3700 / 900 = 4.111 J/mm3
Tm = (Um/k)0.5 = (4.111/3.33x10-6)0.5 = 1111 K
From Table 28.2, the metal with the closest melting point to 1111 is Bronze (1120 K)
(b) H = Hw/f1f2 = 3700/ (0.85 x 0.55) = 7,914 Joules
28.13 (SI/USCS units) It is desired to compare two methods of determining the unit melting energy (Um)
for aluminum. The first method is by Equation (28.2). The second method is to compute Um as the
sum of (1) the heat required to raise the temperature of the metal from ambient temperature to its
melting point, which is the volumetric specific heat multiplied by the temperature rise; and (2) the
28-1
heat of fusion. Summarizing the second method, Um = C(Tm - Tamb) + Hf , where = density, C =
specific heat, Tm and Tamb are melting and ambient temperatures, respectively, and Hf = heat of
fusion. Tables 4.1 and 4.2 provide the values for most of these properties. The heat of fusion for
aluminum = 398 kJ/kg = 171 Btu/lb. Make the calculations for both the SI units and U.S.
Customary units. Are the values close enough to validate Equation (28.2)?
Solution: Aluminum properties: Hf = 398,000 J/kg = 171 Btu/lb; from Tables 4.1 and 4.2, Tm =
660C = 1220F, density = 2.7 g/cm3 = 2700 kg/m3= 0.098 lb/in3, specific heat C = 0.21 Cal/g-C
= 879 J/kg-C = 0.21 Btu/lb-F. Assume ambient temperature = 21C = 70F
SI units: First method, Equation (28.2): From Table 28.2, Tm = 930K
Um = 3.33 x 10-6 (930)2 = 2.88 J/mm3
Second method, Um = C(Tm - Tamb) + Hf
Um = (2.7x10-6 kg/mm3)(879 J/kg-C))(660C - 21C) + (2.7x10-6 kg/mm3)(398,000 J/kg)
Um = 1.516 + 1.075 = 2.59 J/mm3
The difference is 10% or 11%, depending on which value is taken as base. These values for the two
methods on aluminum show good agreement.
USCS units: First method, Equation (28.2): From Table 28.2, Tm = 1680R
Um = 1.467 x 10-5 (1680)2 = 41.40 Btu/in3
Second method, Um = C(Tm - Tamb) + Hf
Um = 0.098 lb/in3(0.21 Btu/lb-F)(1220F - 70F) + 0.098 lb/in3 (171 Btu/lb)
Um = 23.67 + 16.76 = 40.43 Btu/in3
The difference is 2% to 3%, depending on which value is taken as base. These values show
excellent agreement. For aluminum, at least, Equation (28.2) is validated by the second method.
One must remember that the values of volumetric and thermal properties give in Tables 4.1 and 4.2
are dependent on temperature; they are not constants as portrayed in our calculations.
Energy Balance in Welding
28.14 (A) (SI units) The power developed in an arc-welding operation = 3000 W. This is transferred to the
work surface with a heat transfer factor = 0.80. The metal to be welded is aluminum whose melting
point is given in Table 28.2. Assume the melting factor = 0.40. A fillet weld is to be made with a
cross-sectional area = 20.0 mm2. Determine the travel speed at which the welding operation can be
accomplished.
Solution: From Table 28.2, Tm = 930K for aluminum.
Um = 3.33 x 10-6(930)2 = 2.88 J/mm3
v = f1 f2 RH/UmAw = 0.8(0.4)(3000)/(2.88 x 20) = 16.7 mm/s
28.15 (SI units) Solve the previous problem except that the metal to be welded is high carbon steel, and
the melting factor = 0.60.
Solution: From Table 28.2, Tm = 1650K for high carbon steel.
Um = 3.33 x 10-6(1650)2 = 9.07 J/mm3
v = f1 f2 RH /UmAw = 0.9(0.6)(3000)/(9.07 x 20) = 7.9 mm/s
28.16 (SI units) An arc welding operation on nickel performs a groove weld. The cross-sectional area of
the weld = 30.0 mm2. The welding velocity is 4.0 mm/sec. The heat transfer factor is 0.82, and the
melting factor = 0.70. Determine the rate of heat generation required at the welding source to
accomplish this weld.
Solution: From Table 28.2, Tm = 1720K for nickel.
Um = 3.33 x 10-6(1720)2 = 9.85 J/mm3
28-1
f1 f2 RH = UmAw v
RH = Um Aw v/f1 f2 = 9.85(30)(4)/(0.82 x 0.70) = 2059 J/s = 2059 W
28.17 (USCS units) The power source in an arc welding operation on titanium generates 100 Btu/min,
which is transferred to the work surface with heat transfer factor = 0.85 and melting factor = 0.6. A
continuous fillet weld is to be made with a cross-sectional area = 0.05 in2. Determine the travel
speed at which the welding operation can be accomplished.
Solution: From Table 28.2, Tm = 3730R for titanium.
Um = 1.467 x 10-5 (3730)2 = 204 Btu/in3
v = f1 f2 RH /UmAw = 0.85(0.6)(100)/(204 x 0.05) = 5.0 in/min
28.18 (USCS units) In a submerged arc welding operation on low-carbon steel to make a fillet weld, the
cross-sectional area = 0.04 in2 and the travel speed = 9 in/min. If the heat transfer factor = 0.95 and
melting factor = 0.5, determine the rate of heat generation required at the heat source to accomplish
this weld.
Solution: From Table 28.2, Tm = 3160R for high carbon steel.
Um = 1.467 x 10-5 (3160)2 = 146.5 Btu/in3
v = 15 = f1 f2 RH/UmAw = 0.95(0.5)RH /(146.5 x 0.04) = 0.081 RH
RH = 9/0.081 = 111.1 Btu/min
28.19 (SI units) A fillet weld is used to join two medium carbon steel plates, each having a thickness of
5.0 mm. The plates are joined at a 90 angle using an inside fillet corner joint. The velocity of the
welding head is 6 mm/sec. Assume the cross section of the weld bead approximates a right isosceles
triangle with a leg length of 4.5 mm, the heat transfer factor is 0.80, and the melting factor is 0.58.
Determine the rate of heat generation required at the welding source to accomplish the weld.
Solution: Aw = bh/2 = 4.5(4.5)/2 = 10.125 mm2
From Table 28.2, Tm = 1700K
Um = 3.33 x 10-6 (1700)2 = 9.62 J/mm3
RH = UmAwv/(f1f2) = 9.62(10.125)(5.0) / (0.8 x 0.58) = 1260 J/sec = 1260 W.
28.20 (A) (USCS units) In a spot-welding operation, two 1/16-in-thick aluminum plates are joined. The
melted metal at each joint formed a disk-shaped nugget with a diameter of in. The power is on for
0.4 sec. Assume the final nugget had the same thickness as the two aluminum plates (1/8-in thick),
the heat transfer factor was 0.80, and the melting factor was 0.50. Determine the rate of heat
generation that was required at the heat source to accomplish this weld.
Solution: From Table 28.2, Tm = 1680R for aluminum.
Um = 1.467 x 10-5 (1680)2 = 41.4 Btu/in3
V = D2/4 (2t) = (0.252/4)(2)(1/16) = 0.0061 in3
Hw = UmV = 41.4(0.0061) = 0.254 Btu
H = Hw /(f1f2) = 0.254/(0.80 x 0.5) = 0.635 Btu
RH = H/T = 0.635/0.4 = 1.59 Btu/sec = 95.3 Btu/min
28.21 (SI units) A surfacing weld is applied to a ring-shaped plate made of low carbon steel. The outside
diameter of the ring = 750 mm, and its inside diameter = 500 mm. The filler metal is a harder
(alloy) grade of steel, whose melting point is assumed to be the same as the base metal. A thickness
of 4.0 mm will be added to the plate, but with penetration into the base metal, the total thickness
melted during welding = 7.0 mm, on average. The surface will be applied by rotating the ring while
the welding head is fed from the outside toward the inside of the ring, thus creating a spiral welding
path. The operation will be carried out automatically with the beads laid down in one long,
continuous operation at a travel speed = 8.0 mm/s, using welding passes separated by 6 mm.
Assume the welding bead is rectangular in cross section: 7 mm by 6 mm. The heat transfer factor =
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0.8, and the melting factor = 0.65. Determine (a) the rate of heat that must be generated at the
welding source, and (b) how long it will take to complete the surfacing operation.
Solution: (a) From Table 28.2, Tm = 1760K for low carbon steel.
Um = 3.33 x 10-6(1760)2 = 10.32 J/mm3
RH = UmAwv/f1f2 = 10.32(7 x 6)(8)/(0.8 x 0.65) = 5927 J/s
(b) Area of ring surface A = (7502 5002)/4 = 245,437 mm2
Total length of cut = 245,437/6) = 40,906 mm
Time to travel at v = 8 mm/s = 40,906 /8 = 5113 s = 85.22 min
28.22 (USCS units) An axle-bearing surface made of high carbon steel has worn beyond its useful life.
When it was new, the diameter was 4.00 in. The length of the bearing surface is 7.0 in. In order to
restore it, the diameter is turned to 3.90 in to provide a uniform surface. Next the axle is built up so
that it is oversized by the deposition of a surface weld bead, which is deposited by rotating the axle
at 3.0 rev/min on the lathe and feeding the welding head along the surface as in a turning operation.
The weld metal deposited is a similar composition to the steel in the axle. The weld bead height is
3/32 in above the original surface. In addition, the weld bead penetrates 1/16 in into the surface of
the axle. The width of the weld bead is 0.25 in; thus, the feed on the lathe was set to 0.25 in/rev.
After the surface weld is applied, the axle is turned again to achieve the original diameter of 4.00 in.
Assuming the heat transfer factor was 0.80 and the melting factor was 0.65, determine (a) the
relative velocity between the workpiece and the welding head, (b) the rate of heat generated at the
welding source, and (c) how long it took to complete the welding portion of this operation.
Solution: (a) v = ND = 3.0(3.90) = 36.76 in/min = 0.6126 in/sec
(b) From Table 28.2, Tm = 2960R for high carbon steel.
Um = 1.467 x 10-5(2960)2 = 128.5 Btu/in3
RH = Um Aw v/f1f2 = 128.5 (0.25(3/32+1/16)) 36.76/(0.8 x 0.65)
= 128.5(0.0391)(36.76)/0.52 = 355 Btu/min
(c) Tweld = L/(fN) = 7.0/(0.25 x 3) = 9.33 min
28-1

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Solutions for Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing, 5e (published by Wiley) MPGroover 2012

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