BT01 REVIEWER

WOOD
Wood is
- that fibrous substance which composes the trunk and branches of a tree that lies between the pitch
and the bark.
- defined as water conducting, strengthening and storage tissues of branches, stem and roots of trees.
- a building material made from trees. It is a natural polymer composed of cells in the shape of long, thin
tubes with tapered ends. The cell wall consists of cellulose crystals, which are bonded together by a complex
amorphous lignin composed of carbohydrates. Most of the cells in a tree trunk are oriented vertically.
Consequently, properties of wood in the direction of cell axes, usually referred to as longitudinal, or parallel to
grain, differ from those in the other (radial or circumferential) directions, or across the grain.
Wood is known as Xylem.
Properties of Wood as Building Material

Strong material

Durable

Light in weight

Ease of working and fastening

With artistic and natural beauty
Physical Properties of Wood

Compression Resistance along grain or fibers

Stiffness ability to resist bending stress

Tensile Strength ability to resist lengthwise stresses

Shearing Strength ability of fibers to resist rupture along or across the grain
Moisture is an important factor affecting the strength of wood. Strength increases with the degree of wood
seasoning.
Knots and other wood defects affect the strength in the size, character and location of these defects.
Weight is proportionate to strength, heavier stronger lighter weaker
Hardness is expressed as resistance to indentation or to saw or axe across the grain.
1) Weight the heavier the harder
2) Degree of seasoning
3) Structural Elements
Cleavability is wood's resistance to split along the grains

Wood Classifications: Woods are classified by oxogens

Oxogens are new layers that grow on the outer surface each year on woods.
Mode of Growth

Exogenous outward growing trees (lumber)

Inogenous inward growing trees

Density refers to the quality of the mass and volume of the wood classified as
1. Softwood - conifers and evergreen
a. softwood lumber is classified as dry, moisture content 19% or less and green, moisture content
above 19%.
2. Hardwood-deciduous and broad leaves (Most Philippine Woods)
American Softwood Lumbers Standards for Softwood:
1. Yard Lumber.
a. Lumber of grades, sizes, and patterns generally intended for ordinary construction and general building
purposes.
2. Structural Lumber.
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a. Lumber 2 in or more nominal thickness and width for use where working stresses are required.
3. Factory and Shop Lumber.
a. Lumber produced or selected primarily for manufacturing purposes.
Softwoods are classified according to extent of manufacture as:
1. Rough Lumber.
a. Lumber that has not been dressed (surfaced) but has been sawed, edged, and trimmed.
2. Dressed (Surfaced) Lumber.
a. Lumber that has been dressed by a planning machine (for the purpose of attaining smoothness of
surface and uniformity of size)
i. on one side (S1S)
ii. two sides (S2S)
iii. one edge (S1E)
iv. two edges (S2E)
v. or a combination of sides and edges (S1S1E, S1S2, S2S1E, S4S).
3. Worked Lumber.
a. Lumber that, in addition to being dressed, has been matched, shiplapped or patterned:
4. Matched Lumber.
a. Lumber that has been worked with a tongue on one edge of each piece and a groove on the opposite
edge.
5. Shiplapped Lumber.
a. Lumber that has been worked or rabbeted on both edges, to permit formation of a close-lapped joint.
6. Patterned Lumber.
a. Lumber that is shaped to a pattern or to a molded form.
Nominal Size Classifications for Softwoods:
1. Boards.
a. Lumber less than 2 in in nominal thickness and 2 in or more in nominal width. Boards less than 6 in in
nominal width may be classified as strips.
2. Dimension.
a. Lumber from 2 in to, but not including, 5 in in nominal thickness,and 2 in or more in nominal width.
Dimension may be classified as framing, joists, planks, rafters, studs, small timbers, etc.
3. Timbers.
a. Lumber 5 in or more nominally in least dimension. Timber may be classified as beams, stringers, posts,
caps, sills, girders, purlins, etc. Actual sizes of lumber are less than the nominal sizes, because of shrinkage and
dressing. In general, dimensions of dry boards, dimension lumber, and timber less than 2 in wide or thick are
14 in less than nominal; from 2 to 7 in wide or thick, 12 in less, and above 6 in wide or thick, 34 in less.
4. Green-lumber
a. less than 2 in wide or thick is 132 in more than dry; from 2 to 4 in wide or thick, 116 in more, 5 and 6
in wide or thick, 18 in more, and 8 in or above in width and thickness, 14 in more than dry lumber. There are
exceptions, however.

Yard lumber is classified on the basis of quality as:

1. Appearance. Lumber is good appearance and finishing qualities, often called select.
i. Suitable for natural finishes
1. Practically clear
2. Generally clear and of high quality
3. Suitable for paint finishes
4. Adapted to high-quality paint finishes
5. Intermediate between high-finishing grades and common grades, and partaking
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6. somewhat of the nature of both

2. Common. Lumber suitable for general construction and utility purposes, often given various commercial
designations.
a. For standard construction use
b. Suitable for better-type construction purposes
c. Well adapted for good standard construction
d. Designed for low-cost temporary construction
e. For less exacting purposes
f. Low quality, but usable
3. Structural lumber
a. is assigned modulus of elasticity values and working stresses in bending, compression parallel to grain,
compression perpendicular to grain, and horizontal shear in accordance with ASTM procedures. These values
take into account such factors as sizes and locations of knots, slope of grain, wane, and shakes or checks, as well
as such other pertinent features as rate of growth and proportions of summerwood.
4. Factory and shop lumber
a. is graded with reference to its use for doors and sash, or on the basis of characteristics affecting its use
for general cut-up purposes, or on the basis of size of cutting. The grade of factory and shop lumber is
determined by the percentage of the area of each board or plank available in cuttings of specified or of given
minimum sizes and qualities. The grade of factory and shop lumber is determined from the poor face, although
the quality of both sides of each cutting
5. must be considered.

Hardwoods.
Because of the great diversity of applications for hardwood both in and outside the construction industry,
hardwood grading rules are based on the proportion of a given piece that can be cut into smaller pieces of
material clear on one or both sides and not less than a specified size. Grade classifications are therefore based
on the amount of clear usable lumber in a piece.
Special grading rules of interest in the construction industry cover hardwood interior trim and moldings, in
which one face must be practically free of imperfections and in which Grade A may further limit the amount of
sapwood as well as stain. Hardwood dimension rules, in addition, cover clears, which must be clear both faces;
clear one face; paint quality, which can be covered with pain; core, which must be sound on both faces and
suitable for cores of glued-up panels; and sound, which is a general-utility grade.
Hardwood flooring is graded under two separate sets of rules:
1. for maple, birch, and beech
2. for red and white oak and pecan.
In both sets of rules, color and quality classifications range from top-quality to the lower utility grades.
Oak may be further sub-classified as quarter-sawed and plain-sawed. In all grades, top-quality material must be
uniformed in color, whereas other grades place no limitation on color.
Shingles are graded under special rules, usually into three classes: Number 1, 2, and 3. Number 1 must
be all edge grain and strictly clear, containing no sapwood. Numbers 2 and 3 must be clear to a distance far
enough away from the butt to be well covered by the next course of shingles.
Leaves

Needle shape

Broad shape

Wood Color and Shades

White

Red
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Yellow

Brown

Orange

Black
Grain Classifications

Straight grain

Cross grain

Fine grain

Coarse grain
Nature of the surface (when sawed)

Plain

Grain

Figure
Plywood
Plywood consists of thin sheets, or veneers, of wood glued together. The grain is oriented at right angles in
adjacent plies. To obtain plywood with balancethat is, which will not warp, shrink, or twist undulythe plies
must be carefully selected and arranged to be mirror images of each other with respect to the central plane.
The outside plies or faces are parallel to each other and are of species that have the same shrinkage
characteristics. The same holds true of the cross bands. As a consequence, plywood has an odd number of
plies, the minimum being three.
Principal advantages of plywood over lumber are its more nearly equal strength properties in length and width,
greater resistance to checking, greatly reduced shrinkage and swelling, and resistance to splitting.
The approach to equalization of strength of plywood in the various directions is obtained at the expense of
strength in the parallel-to-grain direction; i.e., plywood is not so strong in the direction parallel to its face plies
as lumber is parallel to the grain. But plywood is considerably stronger in the direction perpendicular to its face
plies than wood is perpendicular to the grain. Furthermore, the shearing strength of plywood in a plane
perpendicular to the plane of the plywood is very much greater than that of ordinary wood parallel to the grain.
In a direction parallel to the plane of the plywood, however, the shearing strength of plywood is less than that
of ordinary wood parallel to the grain, because in this direction rolling shear occurs in the plywood; i.e., the
fibers in one ply tend to roll rather than to slide.
Depending on whether plywood is to be used for general utility or for decorative purposes, the veneers
employed may be cut by peeling from the log, by slicing, or today very rarely, by sawing. Sawing and slicing give
the greatest freedom and versatility in the selection of grain. Peeling provides the greatest volume and the
most rapid production, because logs are merely rotated against a flat knife and the veneer is peeled off in a long
continuous sheet.
Plywood is classified as interior or exterior, depending on the type of adhesive employed. Interior-grade
plywood must have a reasonable degree of moisture resistance but is not considered to be waterproof. Exterior-
grade plywood must be completely waterproof and capable of withstanding immersion in water or prolonged
exposure to outdoor conditions.
In addition to these classifications, plywood is further sub-classified in a variety of ways depending on the
quality of the surface ply. Top quality is clear on one or both faces, except for occasional patches. Lower
qualities permit sound defects, such as knots and similar blemishes, which do not detract from the general
utility of the plywood but detract from its finished appearance.
Particle Board. Wood chips, sawdust, and flakes are pressed with a binder (ureaformaldehyde or phenol-
formaldehyde) to form boards (sheathing, underlayment, corestock), having uniform strength and low
shrinkage in the plane of the board.
Hardboard. Wood chips (exploded by high-pressure steam into wood fibers) and lignin are pressed to form
boards of various densities. Additives may add weather resistance and other properties.
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Increasing moisture content reduces all strength properties except impact bending, in which green wood is
stronger than dry wood The maximum amount of imbibed moisture the cell walls can hold is known as the
fiber-saturation point, and for most species is in the vicinity of 25 to 30% of the oven-dry weight of the wood.
Separation of grain, or checking, is the result of rapid lowering of surface moisture content combined with a
difference in moisture content between inner and outer portions of the piece.
Checks are radial cracks caused by nonuniform drying of wood.
Splits are cracks that result from complete separation of the wood fibers across the thickness of a member and
extends parallel to the grain.
Shakes are another type of defect.
Usually parallel to an annular ring, they develop in standing trees, whereas checks and splits are seasoning
defects.)
One of the principal advantages of glued-laminated timber construction is relative freedom from checking.

Cement
In general, a cement is a binder, a substance which sets and hardens independently, and can bind other
materials together.
opus caementicium - the word used by Romans to refer to cement, describing masonry which resembled
concrete, made from crushed rock with burnt lime as binder. The volcanic ash and pulverized brick additives
which were added to the burnt lime to obtain a hydraulic binder were later referred to as cementum,
cimentum, cment and cement.
Characteristics of Cements used in construction are :

Hydraulic

Non-hydraulic
The most important use of cement is the production of mortar and concrete.
Mortar and Concrete - the bonding of natural or artificial aggregates to form a strong building material which is
durable in the face of normal environmental effects. Cement should not be confused with concrete as the term
cement explicitly refers to the dry powder substance. Upon the addition of water and/or additives the cement
mixture is referred to as concrete, especially if aggregates have been added.
History
Concrete was made from a hydraulic mixture of hydrated non-hydraulic lime and a pozzolan was first used on a
large scale by Roman engineers.
Pozzolans used:

natural pozzolans (trass or pumice)

artificial pozzolans (ground brick or pottery)
Types of modern cement
1. Portland Cement
Cement is made by heating limestone with small quantities of other materials (such as clay) to 1450C in a kiln,
in a process known as calcination.
The resulting hard substance, called 'clinker', is then ground with a small amount of gypsum into a powder to
make 'Ordinary Portland Cement', the most commonly used type of cement (often referred to as OPC).
Portland cement is a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar and most non-speciality grout. The most common use
for Portland cement is in the production of concrete. Concrete is a composite material consisting of aggregate
(gravel and sand), cement, and water. As a construction material, concrete can be cast in almost any shape
desired, and once hardened, can become a structural (load bearing) element. Portland cement may be gray or
white.
a. Portland Cement Blends
i. Portland Blastfurnace Cement contains up to 70% ground granulated blast furnace slag, with the rest
Portland clinker and a little gypsum.
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All compositions produce high ultimate strength, but as slag content is increased, early strength is reduced,
while sulfate resistance increases and heat evolution diminishes. Used as an economic alternative to Portland
sulfate-resisting and low-heat cements.[8]
b. Portland Flyash Cement contains up to 30% fly ash. The fly ash is pozzolanic, so that ultimate strength is
maintained. Because fly ash addition allows a lower concrete water content, early strength can also be
maintained. Where good quality cheap fly ash is available, this can be an economic alternative to ordinary
Portland cement. Portland Pozzolan Cement includes fly ash cement, since fly ash is a pozzolan, but also
includes cements made from other natural or artificial pozzolans. In countries where volcanic ashes are
available (e.g. Italy, Chile, Mexico, the Philippines) these cements are often the most common form in use.
c. Portland Silica Fume cement. Addition of silica fume can yield exceptionally high strengths, and
cements containing 5-20% silica fume are occasionally produced. However, silica fume is more usually added to
Portland cement at the concrete mixer.
d. Masonry Cements are used for preparing bricklaying mortars and stuccos, and must not be used in
concrete. They are usually complex proprietary formulations containing Portland clinker and a number of other
ingredients that may include limestone, hydrated lime, air entrainers, retarders, waterproofers and coloring
agents. They are formulated to yield workable mortars that allow rapid and consistent masonry work. Subtle
variations of Masonry cement in the US are Plastic Cements and Stucco Cements. These are designed to
produce controlled bond with masonry blocks.
2. Expansive Cements contain, in addition to Portland clinker, expansive clinkers (usually sulfoaluminate
clinkers), and are designed to offset the effects of drying shrinkage that is normally encountered with hydraulic
cements. This allows large floor slabs (up to 60 m square) to be prepared without contraction joints.
3. White blended cements may be made using white clinker and white supplementary materials such as
high-purity metakaolin.
4. Colored cements are used for decorative purposes. In some standards, the addition of pigments to
produce "colored Portland cement" is allowed. In other standards (e.g. ASTM), pigments are not allowed
constituents of Portland cement, and colored cements are sold as "blended hydraulic cements"
Very finely ground cements are made from mixtures of cement with sand or with slag or other pozzolan type
minerals which are extremely finely ground. Such cements can have the same physical characteristics as normal
cement but with 50% less cement particularly due to their increased surface area for the chemical reaction.
Even with intensive grinding they can use up to 50% less energy to fabricate than ordinary Portland cements.
5. Non-Portland Hydraulic Cements
a. Pozzolan-lime cements. Mixtures of ground pozzolan and lime are the cements used by the Romans,
and are to be found in Roman structures still standing (e.g. the Pantheon in Rome). They develop strength
slowly, but their ultimate strength can be very high. The hydration products that produce strength are
essentially the same as those produced by Portland cement.
b. Slag-lime cements. Ground granulated blast furnace slag is not hydraulic on its own, but is "activated"
by addition of alkalis, most economically using lime. They are similar to pozzolan lime cements in their
properties. Only granulated slag (i.e. water-quenched, glassy slag) is effective as a cement component.
c. Supersulfated cements. These contain about 80% ground granulated blast furnace slag, 15% gypsum or
anhydrite and a little Portland clinker or lime as an activator. They produce strength by formation of ettringite,
with strength growth similar to a slow Portland cement. They exhibit good resistance to aggressive agents,
including sulfate.
d. Calcium aluminate cements are hydraulic cements made primarily from limestone and bauxite. The
active ingredients are monocalcium aluminate CaAl2O4 (CA in Cement chemist notation) and Mayenite
Ca12Al14O33 (C12A7 in CCN). Strength forms by hydration to calcium aluminate hydrates. They are well-
adapted for use in refractory (high-temperature resistant) concretes, e.g. for furnace linings.
e. Calcium sulfoaluminate cements are made from clinkers that include ye'elimite (Ca4(AlO2)6SO4 or
C4A3 in Cement chemist's notation) as a primary phase. They are used in expansive cements, in ultra-high early
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strength cements, and in "low-energy" cements. Hydration produces ettringite, and specialized physical
properties (such as expansion or rapid reaction) are obtained by adjustment of the availability of calcium and
sulfate ions. Their use as a low-energy alternative to Portland cement has been pioneered in China, where
several million tonnes per year are produced[11][12]. Energy requirements are lower because of the lower kiln
temperatures required for reaction, and the lower amount of limestone (which must be endothermically
decarbonated) in the mix. In addition, the lower limestone content and lower fuel consumption leads to a CO2
emission around half that associated with Portland clinker. However, SO2 emissions are usually significantly
higher.
6. "Natural" Cements correspond to certain cements of the pre-Portland era, produced by burning
argillaceous limestones at moderate temperatures. The level of clay components in the limestone (around 30-
35%) is such that large amounts of belite (the low-early strength, high-late strength mineral in Portland cement)
are formed without the formation of excessive amounts free lime. As with any natural material, such cements
have very variable properties.
7. Geopolymer cements are made from mixtures of water-soluble alkali metal silicates and aluminosilicate
mineral powders such as fly ash and metakaolin.
Concrete
It is produced by mixing the ff:

Portland cement

Aggregates

Water
Standards:for Portland cement ASTM c150/PNS 07:2000
Composition:

Lime

Silica

Alumina

Iron oxide

Other oxides
Types of Portland Cement

Type 1 - Normal Portland Cement

Type 2 - Moderate Portland Cement

Type 3 - High-early strength Portland cement

Type 4 - Low heat Portland cement

Type 5 - Sulfate-resisting Portland cement
Water

Must be free of organic material, clay, and salts.

Water-cement ratio
Aggregate

Fine aggregate

Coarse aggregate
Admixtures
May be added to concrete mix to alter its properties.

Air entraining agents

Accelerators

Surface-active agents

Water-reducing agents

Coloring agents

Damproofing agents
Concrete is normally specified according to the compressive strength it will develop within 28 days after
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placement.

7 days for high-early strength.
CONCRETE TEST
Slump test - workability and creep

Compression test
CONCRETE MIXES

Class AA 1: 1 : 3

Class A 1: 2 : 4

Class B 1: 2 : 5

Class C 1: 3 : 6
Masonry
Refers to man-made units which are formed and hardened into modular building units.
Masonry units are formed from shapeless materials and hardened in either of the two ways:

Through heat

Through chemical actions
Clay occurs in 3 principal forms:

Shales

Surface clay

Fire clays
Classes of clay:

Calcareous

Non-calcareous
Stone
An aggregate or combination of minerals, each of which is composed of inorganic chemicals substances. To
qualify as a construction material, stone should have the ff. qualities:

Strength

Hardness

Durability

Workability

Density

Appearance
Stone may be classified according to geological origin into the ff. types:

Igneous

Metamorphic

Sedimentary
Stone is used in construction in the ff. forms:

Rubble

Dimension stone

Flagstone

Crushed stone
Types of stone works:

Ashlar

Rubble work

Trim
MORTARS & PLASTERS
- a proportioned mixture of siliceous materials (sand, crushed stone) and cement (lime, Portland) which, after
being prepared in a plastic state with water, hardens into a stone-like mass.
DEFINITIONS:
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Mortar is cement mix used to glue masonry units to each other, or other surface finishing materials like tiles,
bricks, stones to a receiving structure like a wall or floor.
Plaster is mortar applied to wall surfaces as a preparation or a hard finish coat.

CEMENT (Concrete)
MORTARS
-is a proportioned mixture of cement, fine aggregate and water.
-For first-class mortars 1 part of cement should be added to not more than 3 parts of sand.
-Replacing 10 or 15 percent of the cement by volume with hydrated lime gives greater workability and increases
the strength of the mortar.
-For rubble stonework, 1 : 4 will be much stronger than lime mortar.
-For the top surface of floors and walks, use 1 : 1 to 1-1/2.
-Mortar made with fine sand requires a much larger quantity of cement to obtain a given strength than mortar
made with coarse sand.
- Mortar may be mixed by hand or mechanical mixers, the latter being preferred for large quantities.
- When the mixing is done by hand, it should be done on platforms made watertight to prevent the loss of
cement.
- The cement and sand should be mixed dry in small batches in the proportions required on a clean platform.
- Water is added and the whole remixed until it is homogeneous in color and leaves the mixing hoe clean when
drawn out.
- Mortar should never be retempered after it has begun to set.
PLASTER
- is a mortar of cementitious material ( lime, gypsum or cement), sand and water which is applied in coats
(layers) to masonry surfaces, lath or various types of plaster board to give a hard finish surface to interior or
exterior walls and ceilings.
-the word plaster refers to gypsum plaster and the words gypsum and plaster are often used interchangeably.
-Fiber or hair is sometimes added to the mixture to give increased strength as when used for the first coat.
-is a mortar of cementitious material ( lime, gypsum or cement), sand and water which is applied in coats
(layers) to masonry surfaces, lath or various types of plaster board to give a hard finish surface to interior or
exterior walls and ceilings.
-the word plaster refers to gypsum plaster and the words gypsum and plaster are often used interchangeably.
-Fiber or hair is sometimes added to the mixture to give increased strength as when used for the first coat.
-Plastering is done according to two basic methods: two-coat and three-coat.
A Three-coat job consists of :
1. a first binding coat called scratch coat;
2. a second straightening coat called the brown-coat; and
3. a final coat called the finish coat.
In the two-coat work, the scratch and brown coats are combined into one.
PLASTER TYPES & USES
1. LIME PLASTER
2. GYPSUM PLASTER
3. PORTLAND CEMENT PLASTER
4. SGRAFFITO

1. LIME PLASTER
Lime putty (hydrated lime and water), mixed on the job with sand and gypsum plaster, used for two and three-
coat finish surfaces for interior walls and ceilings.
Scratch coat : 1 part lime putty, 1 part Portland cement or Keenes cement, 2-3/4 parts sand by weight.
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Brown coat : 1 part lime putty, 1part Portland cement or Keenes cement, 3 parts sand by

by weight.
Brown coat : 1 part lime putty, 1part Portland cement or Keenes cement, 3 parts sand by weight.
Finish coat:
Hard finish : 1 part lime putty, 1/3 gypsum plaster by volume
Sand float : 1 part lime putty, gypsum plaster, 2 parts sand by volume
2.GYPSUM PLASTER
Gypsum plaster. Plaster of Paris mixed with clay, lime and other materials in combinations covered by
trademarks or patents. Mixed on the job with water, sand, lime putty, hair or fiber for two or three-coat finish
surfaces for interior walls and ceilings; or used dry as ingredient for hard or sand float finish with lime plaster .
High-strength gypsum plaster. Same as gypsum plaster but mixed to meet established standards. Mixed on
the job with water, sand, lime putty, hair or fiber for two and three-coat finish surfaces for both exteriors and
interiors.
-Scratch and brown coats : 1 part high-strength gypsum plaster to 2 parts sand by weight.
-Hard finish : lime putty to 1 part high- strength gypsum plaster by volume
Fibered gypsum plaster. Gypsum plaster premixed with fibers. Mixed on the job with water and sand for
scratch coat for three-coat plastering job
Prepared gypsum plaster. Gypsum plaster mixed with fine white sand. Used for two and three-coat finish
surfaces for interior walls and ceilings .
-Scratch and brown coats : mix per manufacturers instructions.
-Finish coat: Any type of final coat plaster (gypsum, Keenes cement, lime or prepared finish coat
Bonding plaster. Gypsum plaster mixed with ingredients develop more adhesive strength in combinations
covered by trademarks or patents. Used for interior finish for smooth concrete walls or ceilings. Mix and apply
as per manufacturers directions
Lightweight gypsum plaster, fire-resistant plaster. Gypsum plaster mixed on the job with water, perlite,
vermiculite or other suitable mineral aggregate. Lightweight gypsum plaster is used when weight is important,
and for fire-proofing other materials such as steel. Applied on lath and for interior use only .
-Scratch & brown coats : 2 sand, 2 cu. ft. perlite or vermiculite per 100 lbs. of plaster.
-Brown coat: 3 sand, 3 cu ft. perlite or vermiculite per 100 lbs. of plaster.
-Finish coat:
-Hard finish: 1/3 gypsum plaster, 1 lime putty by volume
Sand Float Finish: 1 gypsum plaster, 1-1/2 sand by vol.
Keenes cement. Plaster of Paris mixed with alum or borax or other materials and burned (calcined) at 932F.
Mixed on the job with water, lime putty and fine white sand as hard finish for two and three-coat gypsum
plaster.
For interior use only :
-Hard finish : 1 Keenes cement, lime putty, 1/10 fine white sand by weight .
-Sand float finish : Keenes cement, 2 lime putty, 4 sand by volume.
Plaster of Paris. For ornamental plaster work and castings.
Molding plaster. For ornamental plaster work and castings. Mix with water as per manufacturers directions.
Acoustics plaster. For acoustic treatment of interior walls and ceilings. Applied on gypsum plaster base coats.
Mix with water as per manufacturers directions.
3.PORTLAND CEMENT PLASTER
Mixed with water, sand and lime putty. Used for two and three-coat finish surfaces for exterior and interior
walls and ceilings
-Scratch and brown coats : 1 cement, lime putty, 3 sand.
-Sand float finish : 1 cement, lime putty, 3 sand.
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Thickness of plaster coats depends on the type of material to which the plaster is applied. Generally, the total
thickness is 5/8 on metal lath and on lathing board and gypsum block. In three-coat plastering work, the
scratch and brown coats are thick at minimum; the finish coat is 1/8 with a minimum of 1/16 at any point.
For two-coat work, the base coat is and the finish coat is the same as three-coat work.
4.Sgraffito PLASTER is highly decorative type of plaster work developed in Italy during the Renaissance. This
type of technique consists of applying two or three thin coats of plaster different colors and then cutting away
certain areas of one or two coats to produce a three-dimensional colored design.
UNIT MASONRY
DEFINITION:
Masonry - is a built-up construction or combination of building materials as clay, concrete, or stone set in
mortar; or plain concrete.
Terms:
a. Bed The horizontal surfaces on which the stones or bricks of walls lie in the courses.
b. Course A continuous layer of bricks, stones, or other masonry units
c. Wythe or Tier Each continuous, vertical section of the wall, one masonry unit thick.
d. Bond That connection between bricks, stones or other masonry units formed by lapping them one
upon another carrying up the work, so as to form an inseparable mass of building, by preventing the vertical
joints falling over each other (also called a breaking joint).
e. Stretcher A brick or block masonry laid lengthwise of a wall
f. Header A brick or block masonry extending over the thickness of the wall

g. Heading course A course in which the bricks or other masonry units are all headers.
h. Soldier A unit laid on its end with its face perpendicular to the face of the wall.
i. Quoins The corner stones at the angles of buildings, usually rusticated so as to project from the
normal surface of the wall.
j. Bond Stones Stones running through the thickness of the wall at right angles to its face, in order to
bind it together.
k. Blocking or Blocking Course A course of stones placed on top of cornice crowning the walls .
STONE
Stone, together with wood and clay, are the basic building material of man. The history of architecture until as
late as 1900 was largely the history of stone in architecture.
-Stone was the structural material, the exterior and interior finishing material, the flooring material and in many
cases the roofing material.
-It was also used for all types of sculpture, statuary, and decorative and ornamental applications.
-Today, stone is largely used as a surface finishing material for both the exterior and interior of buildings.
COMMONLY USED ARCHITECTURAL STONES:

1. granite
2. marble
3. travertine
4. limestone
5. sandstone
6. slates
STONE (Common Classifications)
1.Rubble Stone.
Stone delivered from the quarries rough and irregular shape.
2.Dimension Stone.
Stone cut into specific size, squared to dimensions, and to a specific thickness
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STONEWORK: The types of stonework are based on the shape and the surface treatment of finish of the stone :
1.Rubble work.
Masonry of rough, undressed stones.
When only the roughest irregularities are knocked off, it is called scabbled rubble, and when the stones in each
course are rudely dressed to a nearly uniform height, range rubble .
2.Random work.
Stones fitted together at random without any attempt to lay them in course.
3.Ashlar.
Squared stones in regular courses, in contradistinction to rubble work .
a. Ranged work or coursed ashlar Uniform courses with stones uniform in size.
b. Broken range ashlar
Course laid with the horizontal joints uninterrupted but the width of the courses and the length of the stones are
varied to produce a wall with a less regular pattern.
c. Random course their rectangular shape and are laid on horizontal beds but no effort is made to
continue the horizontal beds through in an uninterrupted manner. Large stones combine with small ones in a
convenient and, if possible, an interesting manner.
d. Rustic or Rock work Courses of stone face which is jagged, so as to present a rough surface.
* Rustication occurs when heavier stones or areas of stone project from the normal face of the surrounding
wall or of the joint themselves.
BRICKS
- are structural units of clay or shale formed while plastic and subsequently fired.
- manufacture of brick consists essentially of screening, grinding, or working the clay to the desired
consistency for moulding, whether by hand or machine.
- After moulding, the bricks are dried and then burned in kilns for many hours at high temperatures,
approximately 2000F.
- These processes purify the raw products, make it uniform and homogeneous, burn out all combustible
matter, and result in a product which is both stable and physically permanent .

Standard size of brick is 3-3/4 x 2-1/4 x 8.

BRICKS (MOST FREQUENTLY USED TYPES IN ARCHITECTURE:)

a. Common or building brick.
Used for all purposes, including facing.
b. Facing brick.
Specially processed to give certain specific surface characteristics. Used for exposed masonry surfaces.
c. Glazed brick.
These have a smooth outer surface with a dull satin or high gloss finish. They are load bearing, fire resisting, and
impervious. They are usually formed with vertical hollow cores through the body with scoring on the back.
d. Fire (refractory) brick.
These are ordinarily made from a mixture of flint clay and plastic clay, and are used for the lining of furnaces,
fireplaces, and chimneys.
BRICKWORK
a. Common Bond.
Consists of five stretcher courses and then a header course. It is generally begun with a row of headers at the
bottom course
b. English Bond.
Consists of alternate courses of stretchers and headers .
c. Flemish Bond.
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Consists of alternate headers and stretchers in each course .

d. Herringbone.
The bricks are laid diagonally to form a herring-bone pattern.
BRICK WORK (JOINTING)
1. Flush joint
2. Recessed joint
3. Weathered joint
4. Keyed joint
5. Weathered pointing
6. Raked out joint

Mortar joints between brick courses are usually from 4.5mm (3/16) to 12mm ().

CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCK

Concrete Hollow Block (CHB) is a hollow masonry unit, with two or three cells or cores, made of the
following ingredients: water, Portland cement, and various types of aggregate such as sand, gravel, and crushed
stone.
Lightweight concrete hollow blocks are also manufactured with such aggregates as cinders, expanded
slag, expanded shale or clay. Expanded blast furnace slag rates the highest in fire resistance, and due to its
cellular structure, has high sound and thermal insulation quality.
These are manufactured by machine-mixing the ingredients, pouring the mix into molds, and curing the block
by air drying. A steam-and-pressure curing process is also used which can produce concrete hollow block in a
few hours.
Standard CHB sizes are from thicknesses of 100mm (4), 150mm (6) and 200mm (8) x height of
200mm (8) x length of 400mm (16).
CHB of 100mm (4) thickness should be used only for interior partition walls where weather-tightness is
not required.
The different types of concrete hollow block include:
1. Stretchers
2. Corner Blocks
3. Beam & Lintel
4. Header
5. Jamb Blocks

Installation:
Concrete hollow blocks should be laid on a full bed of mortar with horizontal and vertical joints 10mm
(3/8) thick.
Reinforcement for 200mm (8) thick walls shall be 12mm diameter vertical bars at 600mm on center
and 12mm horizontal bars every third course.
All horizontal reinforcement shall be tied to the vertical reinforcement at their intersections.
Dowel bars should be placed into the piers, columns, slabs, leaving 20 bar diameters exposed to splice
with the reinforcement of the hollow blocks.
Block cells with reinforcement are filled with cement mortar.
Concrete hollow block walls should have a reinforced concrete lintel or beam block course every twelfth
course; and a concrete column stiffener at every 4.80 meters length.

DURISOL BLOCK
- lightweight block made from fiber and cement.
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- two-core, 100mm (4) or 150mm ( 6) x 87mm (7-1/2) x 600mm (24).

- Reinforcement shall be 10mm vertical bars at 720mm (36) on center and at every 4th course.Every
- 4th course should be a beam block course. Cores shall be solidly filled with cement mortar.

PLASTER BLOCK
- also known as gypsum partition blocks, are usually made of gypsum, vegetable fibers as binders, and
reinforcement.
- used for lightweight, fire-resistant interior partitions and for furring and fireproofing columns.
- Gypsum hollow blocks are manufactured in units of 75mm (3), 100mm (4) or 150mm ( 6) thicknesses, x
300mm (12) height x 700mm (30) length.
- Gypsum solid block is manufactured only with a 50mm (2) thickness.

STRUCTURAL CLAY TILE

- Structural clay tile are hollow masonry units, open at two ends with interior webs or partitions 19mm () to
25mm (1) dividing the block into longitudinal cells.
In its manufacture, the various shapes of clay tile are formed through special dies and then wire-cut into the
required lengths.
It may have a smooth or scored (grooved) surface. Structural clay tile is classified into:
1. Load-bearing wall tile. 300mm x 300mm x 300mm (12 x 12 x 12)
2. Non-load bearing, fireproofing, partition, and furring tile. 100mm (4) or 125mm (5) x 200mm x 300
mm

TYPES OF METALS

IRON
Pure Iron is:
tough
malleable silvery-white metal
soft and ductile as copper
easily magnetized
most magnetically permeable of the metals
oxidizes rapidly in air and is readily attacked by most acids.
can be hardened by heating and sudden cooling
made more pliable or more workable by heating and slow cooling.
At very low temperatures is very brittle at red heat it is soft, and at white heat it can be welded
As pure iron passes through these temperature ranges, it undergoes changes in its structure and properties that
are vitally important in the preparation of steel (an iron-carbon alloy).
The commercial form in which iron is first prepared is crude or pig iron.
This impure form which contains 3% to 4% carbon and varying amount of phosphorous, silicon, sulfur, and
manganese, is the starting point from which all other kinds of iron and iron alloys (or steel) are produced.
The key to the various types of iron and steel is the carbon-iron relationship.
CAST IRON
is an iron-carbon alloy that contains more than 1.7% carbon
is poured while molten into forms
it can be easily cast into any shape, but it is too hard and brittle to be shaped by hammering, rolling, or
pressing.
Cast iron is used in the architectural field mainly for piping and fittings, ornamental ironwork, hardware, as the
base metal for porcelain enameled plumbing fixtures, and for miscellaneous casting such as floor and wall
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brackets for railings, vents, circular stairs manhole covers, and gratings.
The types of cast iron generally used are gray cast iron and malleable cast iron. Cast irons find their
largest use in heavy machinery and industry because it has significant compressive strength and the ability to
absorb energy and stop vibration.
WROUGHT IRON
is almost pure iron with less than 0.1% carbon, usually not more than 0.05%.
contains 2.5%, of slag (iron silicate) in purely physical association, not alloyed.
Wrought iron is soft, malleable, tough, fatigue-resistant, and resistant to progressive corrosion.
It has good machinability and can be forged, bent, rolled, drawn, and spun. It can be welded by any of the
commonly used procedures. Wrought iron is available in the form of pipes, plates, sheets, special shapes, and
bars.
Wrought iron is now used in the architectural field primarily in the form of genuine wrought iron pipe, chain,
sheet, and ornamental ironwork. Wrought iron pipe is used extensively for plumbing, heating, and air
conditioning where a corrosion-resistant, tough, durable material is required.
Because it is intrinsically related to classical architecture and requires high skilled craftsmanship, wrought
ironwork today is used only in furniture, railing, fences, grilles, and small decorative objects.
STEEL
The word steel refers usually to plain carbon steels that is defined as alloys of iron and carbon which
do not contain more than 2% carbon and which are made in malleable or ingot form.
In the plain or straight carbon steels the iron is always in excess of 95%.
phosphorus, sulfur, oxygen and nitrogen are present, the last three as impurities.
Manganese, silicon, aluminum, copper and nickel may also be present either as residual impurities or as
elements deliberately added in small quantities to control the properties of the steel.
Carbon steel can be wrought, rolled, cast, and welded, but not extruded.
DIFFERENT KINDS OF STEEL:
1. WROUGHT CARBON STEELS
a. Structural steel. This is a medium carbon steel with its carbon content controlled to give both the
strength and ductility necessary for its use.
Structural steel is available in angles, channels, I-beams, H columns,T shapes, Z shapes, plates, round pipe
columns, sheet piling, open web joists and light steel framing shapes
b. Reinforcement of concrete . Usually deformed bars of varying grades and diameters.
c. Sheet and strip. Steel sheet is made from low carbon steels generally containing about 0.15% carbon
and not exceeding 0.25% carbon. Strip by definition is sheet material that is 12 or less wide. It is used in
fabricated form as decking galvanized sheet, expanded metal, panels and sandwich panels, and as a base metal
for porcelain enamel.
d. Corrugated steel. This is rigidized sheet fabricated from low-carbon cold or hot-rolled steel sheets which
are either galvanized or covered with some type of bituminous coating. If galvanized, corrugated steel is silvery
in color and has a glittering frosted surface. It is
generally available in 18, 20, 22. 24, and 26 gauge sheet and strip.
e. Steel Mesh and Wire Cloth. They are used for concrete reinforcement, lath for plaster, stucco, and
cement, fencing, insect screens.
f. Steel Windows and Doors

2. ALLOY STEELS
steels to which manganese, silicon, aluminum, titanium, and molybdenum have been added in
sufficient quantity to produce properties unobtainable in carbon steels in cast, rolled or heat-treated form.
The alloying elements are added to increase the following properties:
strength
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hardness
ease and depth of hardenability
performance at high or low temperatures
electromagnetic properties
wear resistance
electrical conductivity or resistivity
In structural applications only the properties of:
 strength
 expansion
 resistance to corrosion
 ductility, and
 workability
are of interest to the architect.
a. High-strength low-alloy steels are a group of trade name steels with improved mechanical properties
and resistance to atmospheric corrosion, They are being increasingly used as reinforcing for pre-stressed
concrete, high strength bolts, special structural steels and cables for elevators, etc.
b. Stainless steels generally used in architecture are highly alloyed steels that contain more than 10%
chromium. They are characterized by their resistance to heat, oxidation and corrosion. They are used where
corrosion resistance, durability, and minimum of maintenance is necessary principally for exterior and interior
wall finishes, doors, windows, trims, railings, signs and letters, appliances, etc.
COPPER
is ductile, malleable, nonmagnetic metal with a characteristic bright, reddish brown color.
has the highest electrical and thermal conductivity of any substances except silver.
Copper useful alloys have enough strength for minor structural work
easily worked.
It is attacked by alkalis and many of the common acids.
It is highly resistant to corrosion by air and salt water.
On exposure it soon reacts to form a surface layer of an insoluble green salt which retards further corrosion;
this green color on copper is known as its patina
Copper can be cast, drawn, extruded, hot and cold worked, spun, hammered, punched, welded, brazed,
and soldered.
The galvanic action of copper must be considered when copper is used in architecture. When in contact
with many of the common construction materials and in the presence of an electrolyte; it will corrode these
materials near the area of contact.
The copper itself, being cathode, will not corrode. Therefore a careful check should be made of the
methods of attachment, support and securing into place.
As copper is one of the best electrical conductors, it finds tremendous use in the entire electrical field, from
very fine wires to bus bars.
TIN
is a soft, ductile, malleable, bluish-white metal.
Because it is normally covered with a thin film of stannic oxide, it resists corrosion by air, moisture,
sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide (which usually tarnishes and corrodes other metals).
takes a highly reflective polish and has the ability to wet other metals
The main use of the tin is in metallic form of either pure tin or tin-containing alloys for protective
coatings on stronger metals.
Architectural uses of tin include bronzes, brasses, terneplate, mirrors, gilding, solders, hardware and
fusible alloys.
ZINC
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is medium hard, bluish-white metal

is characterized by brittleness and low strength.
is readily attacked by acids and alkalis.
It is resistant to corrosion by water. On exposure to air, a film of zinc carbonate or oxide forms which protects
zinc from further oxidation
is medium hard, bluish-white metal
is characterized by brittleness and low strength.
is readily attacked by acids and alkalis.
It is resistant to corrosion by water. On exposure to air, a film of zinc carbonate or oxide forms which
protects zinc from further oxidation.
The most important uses of zinc are
as protective coatings (galvanizing) on iron and steel
as die-casting metal, and
as an alloying element in brasses.
Galvanizing is the process whereby a protective coat of zinc is applied to steel and iron to protect them
against corrosion.
The advantage of coating them with zinc is that, should the iron or steel become exposed through wear,
aging or discontinuities, galvanic reaction between the coating and the base metal causes the zinc to corrode
and form compounds which cover and continue to protect the iron and steel for as long as any zinc remains.
The most common galvanized material used in architecture is galvanized iron (steel) sheet and strip.
Galvanized sheets become defaced and discolored when subjected to dampness and extremes of
temperature.
If the sheets are piled flat in the open or tightly bundled in a warehouse, the zinc coating can also be
damaged by the consequent absence of oxygen and carbon dioxide between two sheets.
This absence prevents the formation of a protective film of zinc carbonate; instead zinc hydroxide forms and
destroys the galvanizing.
BRASS
fundamentally an alloy of copper and zinc with small quantities of other elements sometimes added to
give the special qualities.
The copper-zinc proportions may vary from 95% copper and 5% zinc to 55% copper and 45% zinc.
As a class, brass alloys are less hard and strong than steels (iron-base alloys) but are superior in workability and
resistance to corrosion.
All brasses react with other metals. When brass is used in direct contact with any other metal, a careful
check should be made of its position on the galvanic series.
Brass should not come into direct contact with iron, steel or stainless, aluminum, zinc or magnesium if
there is an electrolyte present or the possibility of one forming at the point of contact.
In architecture, brasses are used for doors, windows, door and window frames, and for ornamental
metalwork such as railings, trims, grilles, etc.
They are also used extensively for finish hardware, plating of hardware, and other miscellaneous accessories
such as screws, nuts and bolts, anchors, etc.
True bronze is an alloy of copper and tin which varies only slightly from 90% copper and 10% tin
composition.
This bronze is a rich golden-brown metal, originally worked by forging and particularly suited for casting
since it is corrosion resistant, dense and hard enough to take an impression of a mold of any delicacy whatever.
The term bronze however, is no longer used in this limited sense. In commercial practice the terms brass
and bronze may be used without much regard for their original meanings.
The term bronze now usually has a prefix and indicates alloys of copper with silicon, manganese,
aluminum, and other elements with or without zinc, e.g. silicon bronze.
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A few brasses are known as bronzes because they have the characteristic bronze color.
Of the three types of so-called bronzes in architectural work, only one is true bronze. This is the
statuary bronze, which consist usually of 97% copper, 2% tin and 1% zinc.
As for the others, architectural bronze is really a leaded brass, and commercial bronze is one of the
more commonly used brasses (90% copper and 10% zinc).
The architectural uses of bronze are confined to statuary, plaques, medallions and other ornamentation, and
miscellaneous rough and finish hardware.
CHROMIUM
is a steel-white metal which takes a brilliant polish and is harder than cobalt or nickel.
It is nonmagnetic at ordinary temperatures but becomes magnetic at 13F.
It does not tarnish in air, resists oxidizing agents, is soluble in acids and strong alkalis.
The principal use of chromium is an alloying ingredient in ferrous and nonferrous metallurgy.
Chromium plating is one of the most commonly encountered usage of this material in architecture. It
gives a thin, hard, bright, wear resistant surface which sheds water when highly polished. The metals that can
be plated with chromium include aluminum, copper, iron, magnesium, nickel, titanium, zinc and their alloys.
The chromium is electro deposited as a thin layer of pure metal.
is an inert silvery metal
is resistant to strong alkalis and to most acids.
It resembles iron in strength and toughness and copper in its resistance to oxidation and corrosion.
Nickel takes a high polish and can be hot and cold rolled forged, bent, extruded, spun, punched and drawn.
When alloyed with other metals, nickel imparts its qualities of strength, hardness, toughness, ductility,
corrosion resistance, and strength at high temperatures to the resulting material. The major use of nickel
therefore is in alloys.
Another important use of nickel is as protective or decorative coating for other metals. It can be applied to the
following base metals and their alloys: aluminum, brass, copper, iron, magnesium, steel, tin, and zinc.
LEAD
Lead is a blue-gray, soft, very heavy metal (the heaviest of the common metals). It is extremely workable, has
good corrosion resistance, is easily recovered from scrap materials, and is relatively impenetrable to radiation.
The corrosion resistance of lead arises from the fact that metallic lead does not react with many compounds or
solutions, and with certain others it forms compounds which act as protective coatings against further
corrosion.
Lead is available (1) extruded in the forms of pipe, rod, wire, ribbon, etc. (2) rolled into sheet, foil, strip, (3) cast.
There are several grades of lead metal of which corroding lead, chemical lead and common desilverized lead are
of interest to the architect. Corroding lead is used for fine white lead paints, red lead, litharge (see PAINT).
Chemical lead and common desilverized are used for sheet, pipe, powdered lead, ribbon lead and alloys.
Lead also finds many uses in rough hardware items such as expansion shields for securing bolts, screws, and
other accessories in masonry, washers, lead-headed nails,etc.
ALUMINUM
is a soft, nonmagnetic silvery metal
characterized by its light weight (1/3 that of iron, brass or copper)
low melting point
high thermal and electrical conductivity (surpassed only by silver and copper)
moderately high coefficient of expansion
readily combines with oxygen to form aluminum oxide, a transparent film that makes it corrosion
resistant
is readily attacked by alkalis, hydrochloric acid and other dilute acids.
is subject to galvanic action and should therefore be electrically insulated from direct contact with
metals other than zinc, cadmium, magnesium and nonmagnetic stainless steel.
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is easily worked: can be hot or cold rolled, extruded, forged, pressed, drawn, molded, stamped, bent
and shaped.
can be riveted, bolted, welded, brazed and soldered.
In architectural work practically all fabricated forms of aluminum are used:
- rod
- bar
- extrusion
- casting
- sheet
- strip, etc.
Extrusion is the process of shaping material by forcing it to flow through a shaped opening in a die.
Extruded material emerges as an elongated piece with the same profile as the die opening.
However, these products are not fabricated from pure aluminum but in alloy combination with iron,
silicon, copper, manganese, magnesium, zinc, chromium and nickel in small quantities to give strength and
other desirable characteristics but often reduces its corrosion resistance
Alclad is a term applied to certain aluminum products, refers to the protective coating (cladding)
applied, primarily for corrosion resistance, to thin sheets of an alloy whose corrosion resistance has been
decreased by the constituents added to give strength and other characteristics.
Cladding improves the appearance of the alloy. This thin, integral cladding usually consists of pure
aluminum, magnesium silicide, or zinc alloys, with or without manganese.

Types of Aluminum
ALUMINUM SHEET AND STRIP, used
For roofing, flashing, gutter, etc
ALUMINUM FOIL - rolled to a thickness of 0.005 (above 0.005 it is technically considered to besheet),
used mainly for thermal insulation and vapor barriers. It may serve also as a surface finish material when
laminated to various sheet and board materials. In this form it also supplies additional insulation value to the
sheet or board.
CORRUGATED ALUMINUM. This is rigidized sheet abricated of special aluminum alloys specifically
developed for this purpose. It usually consists of an aluminum alloy core of one type clad with another, highly
corrosion-resistant aluminum roofing and siding.
STRUCTURAL ALUMINUM
When aluminum is used as a structural material, important factors, arising from its physical and
chemical characteristics, are considered:
- Aluminum can be extruded; therefore a structural shape can be produced economically to meet the
specified structural design requirements.
- Very corrosion resistant aluminum alloys are available; requiring no painting and the thickness of
sections can be reduced since a safety margin is not necessary to cover loss of strength due to corrosion
- Aluminum is very lightweight material, hence aluminum girders and columns show increased
efficiency with large bay spacing. However, because the modulus of elasticity of aluminum alloys is lower than
steel, its means that buckling is a possibility and should always be checked.
ALUMINUM DOORS & WINDOWS
These are generally fabricated from extrusions and rolled shapes.
ALUMINUM PANELS & SANDWICH PANELS
- are pre-fabricated units, generally manufactured
- using dimensions of modular and non-modular window-width for building exterior, and
- in 600mm, 900mm, and 1200mm widths for interior partitions and dividers.
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Panels for the exterior of buildings primarily consist of :

- an aluminum exterior facing which may be an aluminum casting
- an extrusion or sheet material which has been pressed, stamped or formed into specially design
shapes.
A sandwich panel comprises a system of construction called skin construction.
A cellular core of aluminum or other material has a skin of aluminum applied and bonded to both sides,
thereby forming a unified whole in which all the components work as one.
ORNAMENTAL ALUMINUM
Many kinds of rods, bars, pipes, railings, fittings, and special shapes are manufactured as stock
items for use in ornamental design of railings, grilles, screens, etc.
Aluminum Mesh and Wire Cloth
- are used for fencing, particularly chain link fencing and insect screening
Mechanical finishes - obtained by grinding polishing, scratching, sandblasting, embossing, or other
treatment of the surface to achieve a desired effect or to provide a base for other finishes.
Chemical finishes - based on chemical reactions with the aluminum surface to achieve one of the
following results:
(a) etching, cleaning, or polishing of the surface to remove any oxide film or surface irregularity and
provide a design, a clean surface texture, or a polished effect; and
(b) oxidizing the surface with aluminum or other metallic oxides that protect the surface or serve as a
base for subsequent treatment, or both. Chemical finishes permit only limited colors that are not as satisfying
as the color films obtained on electrolytically-applied (anodized) oxide films.
Electrolytic finishes Commonly referred to as anodized finishes, these finishes are based on the specific
ability of aluminum to develop a protective coating of oxide on its surface.
The coating formed may be transparent or opaque. It is hard, yet when colored finishes are desired, it is
porous enough to absorb dyes until the final treatment which seals the surface.
Of the colors used in anodic treatments, architectural gold has proven to be one of the most stable
from the standpoint of fade resistance. Others are blue and, more recently, brown and black.
Electroplating. Aluminum can be covered with a protective or decorative film or another metal, usually
by electrodeposition. In the case of copper and nickel, the coating should be complete and unbroken; otherwise
there will be galvanic action which is destructive to aluminum.
Porcelain or Vitreous Enamel. This finish forms a hard, resistant surface. It is available in a broad color
range that creates a different feeling in that colors are glassy, whereas anodic color is metallic in nature.
Paint. Paint, lacquer and enamel can be applied as finishes to aluminum surfaces that have been
prepared by a suitable chemical treatment finish. Lead base paints must not be used on aluminum.

METHODS OF JOINING METALS:

SOLDERING
is a method to join metals, to make electrical connections, to seal joints hermetically with another
lower melting metal or alloy called the solder.
Since the temperatures used are comparatively low, there is no alloying action between the solder and
the metals being joined, which are usually stronger than the solder itself.
Soldered joints have very little tensile, shear or impact strength; therefore this method should not be
used where a strong joint is required.
Solders are mostly alloys of tin and lead in various proportions with small percentages of other
elements added to give special characteristics. They can be divided into the following major types:
- tin-lead
- tin-lead-antimony
- silver-lead.
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Tin-lead solder of the 50% tin, 50% lead variety is the most commonly used general purpose of solder.
Some tin-lead are used for coating the metals before soldering. This is known as pre-tinning.
Soldering Types
1. Metal Bath Dip
defined as a metal-joining process where the workpieces to be joined are immersed in a pot of molten
solder.
Because of the relatively low melting temperature of the solder (between 350 and 600 degrees F), only
adhesion between the solder and the workpieces results.
A flux or metal cleaner is used to prepare the workpiece for bonding with the solder.
Typically, dip soldering is an automated process used extensively in the electronics assembly industry.
2. Soldering Iron
In this method the iron piece is preheated and applied to the joint along with the solder and the flux (the flux is
a substance used in soldering to clean the surfaces of the metals to be joined and to aid fluidity); the heat from
the iron forms the soldered joint.
3. Torch
The parts to be soldered are heated by the torch flame and then the solder and flux are applied. This method is
limited to metals which can be heated without altering their characteristics.
4. Sweat Head Method
The heating of the metals to be joined causes the solder to run into the joint. This is the method used for
joining copper tubing and fittings.
Fluxes for soldering are generally of three types: corrosive, neutral and noncorrosive.
Corrosive fluxes are known as acid type and salt type fluxes and include chlorides of zinc, ammonium, calcium,
magnesium, aluminum and other metal. Care should always be taken with the corrosive fluxes. The residue
must be quickly removed, as it is not only corrosive to the metal being joined, but it is also electrically
conductive as a rule and therefore cannot be used for most electrical work.
Neutral fluxes are mild in type and are used for easily soldered metals such as copper, brass, lead, and tin plate.
Stearic acid is a typical neutral flux.
Noncorrosive fluxes leaves residues which are noncorrosive and nonconductive and therefore need not be
removed. Rosin is the principal flux of this type.
Noncorrosive fluxes are weak their fluxing action and their use are limited to the easily soldered base metals.

BRAZING
Brazing is a type of soldering in which the operating temperatures are higher (but lower than in welding) and in
which stronger and higher-melting alloys are used to fill the joints, which consequently are stronger than
ordinary soldered joints. The bond is obtained by alloying between the brazing material and the surface of the
joined metals.
Brazing is generally used where the shape and position of the joint or the composition of the metal or metals
are not adaptable to welding. In brazing the type of metal to be joined, the brazing material, and their color are
equally important because galvanic action, strength of the joint, matching of colors play a significant part in the
finished product.
Brazing materials fall into six major types: aluminum-silicon, copper-phosphorous, silver, copper, and copper-
zinc, magnesium, and heat-resistant alloys. Each type is particularly suited to a certain group of metals. The
brazing materials are prepared by melting and mixing together the metallic ingredients to fixed and controlled
proportions.

WELDING
Welding is the process by which two metals are so joined that there is an actual union of the interatomic bonds.
This may be brought about by close contact, heating, pressure, adding molten metal, or combinations of these
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methods. The resulting joints are as strong or stronger than the metals joined.
Welding may be divided into two general types: pressure welding in which pressure and heat make the weld;
and fusion welding, in which the heat and added metal make the weld. In fusion welding the methods of
heating are gas flame and electric arc. The gas flame now generally used is acetylene mixed with oxygen. It will
deliver about 5500F of heat which is sufficient to melt the welding rod and the surrounding metal and then
fuse them together. In electric-arc method, when the welding rod (or electrode) is brought near the joint of the
metals to be welded, an electric arc is formed which melts and fuses the metal and the welding rod.

RIVETS
Rivets are devices used to join or fasten the metals. The rivet, a metal cylinder or rod which has a head at one
end, is inserted through holes in the materials being joined, and then the protruding end is flattened to tie the
two pieces of material together.

METHODS OF CONCRETE REINFORCEMENT

STEEL BARS
Reinforcement for concrete construction is mostly in the form of steel bars and rods of round or square cross
section. The bars may be plain or deformed (with lugs or projections for better bonding to the concrete). They
are called billet-steel bars or rail-steel bars.
Billet-steel bars are made by the open hearth furnace by the acid Bessemer furnace and meet fixed chemical
compositions. They are rolled from billets directly reduced from ingots and come in three grades: structural,
intermediate, and hard. For architectural purposes the intermediate grade is the most generally used. Rail-steel
bars are rolled from standard T-rails and come only in one grade. Steel bars vary in size from to 1-1/4 and in
lengths of 20 or 30 feet.

WIRE FABRIC
Wire fabric made of cold-drawn steel wire is widely used for the reinforcement of concrete slabs and floors, as
well as for stuccoed work.
Welded-wire mesh, also called welded-wire fabric, used to reinforce concrete slabs used in light construction.,
consists of a series wires welded together to form a grid pattern. It comes in various sizes & spacings and
gauges, e.g. 4 x 4 6/6, 6 x 6 8/8, etc. The first pair of numbers refer to the spacing of the wires: the second
pair refers to the gauge of the longitudinal and transverse wires respectively. Thus, for example, a 6x 6
10/10 mesh (read it six six ten ten) will be both No. 10 gauge wires spaced 6 apart bothways (the smaller the
gauge number the heavier the wire). Welded wire fabric is available in rolls 5 or 6 ft. wide, 150, 200, and 300 ft.
long.
1. Triangular-Mesh Wire Fabric
- is built up of either single or stranded longitudinal wires with cross wires or bond-wires running
diagonally across the fabric. The longitudinal wires are spaced at 4 on centers and the cross wires 4 or
8 apart.

EXPANDED MESH
This is manufactured from solid steel sheets. To form the expanded mesh, the sheet is first cut or pierced in
staggered slots or patterns; then the sheet is held by the two sides parallel to the slots and stretched by
pressure until the desired openings or forms are obtained. Sheets may also be stamped, perforated or
deformed into an open mesh.
The forms into which sheet can be shaped include diamond, crimp, herringbone and Z-rib, to name only a few.
Expanded mesh is therefore free from mechanical and welded joints., e.g. STEELCRETE

LATHS
 BT01 REVIEWER

In addition to the various meshes mentioned above, permanent centering or self-centering laths are produced
in many forms. These laths are furnished either in flat or segmental sheets, pressed into a series of solid ribs,
between which the metal is stamped, perforated or deformed into an open mesh-work. These laths are
furnished painted or galvanized, and in open-hearth mild steel or in special copper-bearing or alloy steels, e.g.
RIBPLEX, HYRIB.

STORAGE & CARE FOR METAL REINFORCEMENT

Metal reinforcement shall be stored in racks above the ground and away from moisture and vegetation. If a
large quantity of reinforcement is stored at the site for an extended period, it is well to build shed over the
storage racks. A bright-red rust, such as forms in a few days on reinforcement exposed to rain, is not in any way
detrimental. Actual rust scales, however, may indicate a reduction in the effective cross section of the bar. Deep
scaling should be considered a sufficient reason for condemning the use of reinforce unless it is first cleaned of
mill and rust scale and used as the equivalent of a smaller size. All reinforcement should be kept free from oil
which will tend to reduce the bond between concrete and steel.

PLASTICS
The term PLASTICS is essentially a commercial classification to which no strict scientific definition can be
applied. It is used to describe a product of synthetic origin which is capable of being shaped at some stage of its
manufacture, but is not rubber, wood, leather or metal.
It is made from a number of common substances such as coal, salt, natural gas, cotton, wood and water, from
which relatively simple chemicals known as monomers are built up into chainlike molecules of high molecular
weight called polymers.
These polymers have low extensibility, can be molded, extruded, cut or worked into a variety of shapes and
objects, rigid or non-rigid, relatively light, which are formed by condensation polymerization and by vinyl
polymerization.
Plastics can be hard, soft, clear, opaque, light, heavy, heat resistant or easily softened by hot water.
CLASSIFICATION OF PLASTICS:
1. Cellulose plastics
2. Synthetic resin plastics
3. Plastics derived from proteins and natural resins
TWO SUB-TYPES OF RESINS:
1. THERMOPLASTIC
2. THERMOSETTING (Thermocuring)
DEFINITIONS:
a. Thermoplastics - soften when heated and harden when cooled regardless of the number of times the
process is repeated. They have a molecular structure which is essentially linear or threadlike in form.
b. Thermosetting -set into shape permanently when heat and pressure are applied during the forming
stage. They have a molecular structure in a 3-dimensional arrangement
EXAMPLES:
a. Thermoplastics
1. Acrylics
2. Cellulosics
3. Polyethylene
4. Polystyrene
5. Polyvinyl
6. Polycarbonate
7. Polypropylenes
8. Nylons
 BT01 REVIEWER

9. Fluoroplastics
10. Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS)
b. Thermosetting
1. Melamine & Urea
2. Epoxies
3. Alkyds
4. Phenolics
5. Polyesters
6. Urethane
7. Silicones
THERMOPLASTIC EXAMPLES:
a. ACRYLIC
Popular brands are LUCITE and PLEXIGLASS, this material combines the transparency of glass (but not
scratch-proof quality) with plastics shatterproof quality. Used principally for skylights, skydomes, safety glass,
paints, adhesives, finish hardware, & lighting fixtures
b. CELLULOSICS - primarily cellulose acetate or butyrate, used principally for paints and lacquers, and
transparent sheeting.
c. POLYETHYLINE (PE)
- Ziegler PE is a hard, strong, tough and rigid thermoplastic for household and industrial applications.
- - ICI PE developed by Imperial Chemical Industries of Britain is a high-pressure, low-density PE that is
flexible, tough and slightly resilient thermoplastic used in construction as pond or lagoon lining, and water-
vapor barriers and dampproofing.
e. POLYSTYRENE
In spite of its sensitivity to solvent action, its is one of most important thermoplastics because of its excellent
transparency and rigidity and its easy moldability. It is non-water absorbent, it is found in colorful, but brittle
wall tiles. It is one of several plastics used in lighting fixture diffusers. In foam form, it has become an important
thermal insulator. Also found in paint for concrete.
e. POLYVINYL CHLORIDE (PVC) - is a largely amorphous, rigid, tough, solvent-resistant, flame-resistant
thermoplastic. Used for resilient floor tile, films, pipes, and for paint lacquers, adhesives and safety glass.
f. POLYCARBONATES -a family of linear polyesters, is a white, substantially amorphous, very tough and
strong material with good heat resistance up to 150 deg C and excellent dimensional stability. It is injection-
molded to produce plates, rods, gears, and other shaped parts that advantageously replace die-cast metal parts.
Used for skylights.
g. POLYPROPYLENE - tough plastic with good resistance to heat and chemical action.
h. NYLONS
The term nylon refers to a family of polymers called linear polyamides. It is desired for the following properties:
exceptionally strong, elastic, abrasion resistant, easy to wash, resistant to damage from oil and many chemicals,
can be precolored or dyed in wide range of colors, and resilient.
i. FLUOROPLASTICS -are a class of paraffinic polymers that have some or all of the hydrogen replaced by
fluorine. The fluoroplastic group is characterized by excellent chemical resistance, excellent heat resistance,
good electrical properties, and excellent wear resistance. However, despite these attributes, perhaps the most
desired characteristic of this group of plastics is their ability to resist abrasion.
j. ACRYLONITRILE BUTADIENE STYRENE (ABS) - is a styrenic resin with improved toughness and heat
resistance. ABS exhibits high gloss, low shrinkage, and good dimensional stability, is widely used in injection
molding of appliances, furniture, and automotive parts. ABS also has high melt strength suitable for the
production of extruded sheet, some of considerable size and thickness. Applications include panels for large
appliances and thermoformed items such as hot tubs and recreational vehicle parts .
 BT01 REVIEWER

THERMOSETTING PLASTIC EXAMPLES:

a. MELAMINE and UREA - hard, durable and dimensionally stable, these similar plastics are resistant to
chemicals, electric potential, and heat. Melamine is well known for its use in molded dishes, while urea is useful
for incandescent light diffusion and for baked enamels .
b. EPOXY
- used in buildings for its remarkable adhesive qualities. It may also be used for special paints that are
chemically resistant and for special caulking compounds.
c. ALKYDS
- appear chiefly as molded electrical parts, and as the vehicle in paints, lacquers, and enamels .
d. PHENOLICS
- used for paints, baked enamels, adhesives, impregnating resins for paper and wood, and finish hardware.
e. POLYESTER
- the plastic most commonly used in large glass-fiber reinforced translucent panels that are strong, rigid,
and impact-resistant. Also used for impregnating paper and wood, as laminating material, and for contact
adhesive.
f. URETHANES
- used in paint coatings, and as foams, are self-adhesive.
g. SILICONES
- used for clear, water-repellant paints for concrete and masonry surfaces above grade.

SHEETS
Usually made of acrylate, polyester, or polystyrene plastics, either plain or reinforced with glass-fiber, are
available in flat or corrugated sheets and various deformed shapes.
Thicknesses vary from 1.5mm to 2.38mm (1/16 to 3/32 inches).
Plastic sheets can be used to replace glass in any type of windows or doors, skylights, shower enclosures, or in
any area where a translucent, transparent or opaque material in a wide variety of colors are needed in the
interior.
As corrugated sheet, plastics make good roofing material and other similar uses as sheet plastic.

WATERPROOFING & DAMPPROOFING

WATERPROOFING OF CONCRETE
A mortar or concrete is considered impermeable when it does not permit passage or flow of water through its
pores or voids.
The absorption of a mortar or concrete is the property of drawing in or engrossing water into its pores or voids
by capillary action or otherwise.
If the pores or voids between particles are sufficiently large and connected from surface to surface of the wall,
the concrete will be permeable to water.
If the pores or voids are very minute, but connect with one another, theoretically they may act as capillary
tubes, but the capillary forces will tend to hold the water and prevent the passage of water.

WATERPROOFING OF CONCRETE
The various methods of waterproofing concrete may be classified as follows :
a. Impermeability through Dense Concrete
Accurate grading and proportioning of the concrete materials in order to secure a concrete so dense as
to be waterproof.
b. Waterproofing Coatings and Washes
Applying waterproof coatings or washes to the concrete after it is in place.
 BT01 REVIEWER

c. Integral Waterproofing Compounds

Mixing foreign substances with the concrete.
d. Membrane Waterproofing
Surrounding the concrete with layers of waterproofing materials.
f. Impermeability through Dense Concrete

Portland cement mortar and concrete can be made practically waterproof or impermeable without the use of
any integral waterproofing materials; but in order to obtain such impermeable concrete or mortar considerable
care should be exercised in selecting good materials :
Well-graded sands containing considerable graded fine material are preferable for making impermeable
concrete, or fine material in the form of hydrated lime, finely ground clay, or an additional quantity of cement
will be of value.
The consistency of the concrete mixture should be wet enough so that it can be puddled, mixture
should be well spaded against the forms to avoid the formation of pockets on the surface.
Care should be taken not to over trowel which may cause erasing the coating will be effective
Permeable concrete results from :
Defective workmanship, resulting from improper proportioning, lack of thorough mixing, separation of
the coarse aggregate from fine aggregate in transporting and placing the mixed concrete, lack of density
through insufficient tamping or spading, improper bonding of work joints .
Permeable concrete results from :
The use of imperfectly sized and graded aggregates.
The use of excessive water, causing shrinkage cracks and formation of laitance-seams .
The lack of proper provision to take care of expansion and contraction, causing subsequent
cracking.

Waterproofing Coating & Washes

The materials employed as surface coatings may be classified as follows :
Alum and soap mixtures applied in alternate mixtures (known as the Sylvester process), which penetrates the
pores of the concrete forming insoluble compounds due to chemical action between the alum and soap
solutions, and these compounds prevent percolation.
use in proportions of gal. of soap to 1 gal. of water, and 2oz. of alum to 1 gal. of water, both
substances to be perfectly dissolved in water before using.
should be applied with a soft, flat brush (one for each solution), the soap boiling hot and the alum
solution at 60 to 70F.
Alum, lye and cement washes
Cement grout, with or without the addition of water-repellants.
Paraffin and other mineral bases, applied cold in solution or prepared in melted.
Miscellaneous materials of unknown composition sold under various trade names
Specially prepared bituminous products, e.g., FLINT-KOTE, JOHN-MANSVILLE, etc .
a. Asphalt emulsions - Generally called Asphalt Base Clay Emulsions, minute asphalt particles dispersed in
water and maintained in suspension (until applied) by a mineral colloid emulsifying agent. When the water
vehicle evaporates, resilient reinforced weatherproof film remains which resist the passage of free water but
allows movement of water vapor through the film and are classed as breathing films.
b. Cutback Asphalts - composed of a variety of products from thin liquids to heavy paste, often one
or more asphalts dissolved in solvent are filled with minerals and fibers to meet requirements of different
coating uses and provide tough, durable films resistant to the passage of water vapor.
c. Integral Waterproofing Compounds
These are manufactured and sold under various trade names, and are available in powder or liquid form, e.g.:
 BT01 REVIEWER

SAHARA, POZOLITH, AQUELLA, Truscon, ZILICON, ANTI-HYDRO

The addition of the integral waterproofing compounds will not, however, compensate for lean mixtures, nor for
poor materials, nor for poor workmanship in the fabrication of concrete
c. Membrane Waterproofing
Layers of waterproofing materials used in this method range from ordinary tar paper laid with coal-tar pitch to
asbestos or asphalted felt laid in asphalt.

PRE-FORMED ROOFING

TYPES OF ROOFING
1. Sheet Metal Roofing
i. Galvanized Iron Roofing various corrugations & rib sections
ii. Aluminum Roofing various corrugations & rib sections
2. Plastic Roofing
i. Plastic various corrugations & rib sections
ii. Polycarbonates corrugated & flat sheets
3. Tile Roofing
i. Clay
ii. Concrete
4. Shingles
i. Wood
ii. Tar
5. Sheet Metal Roofing

Galvanized Iron Roofing

Corrugated galvanized iron sheets are manufactured in lengths of 5 to 12 ft. in 1 ft. increments, the 8 ft
length being the most commonly used.
Width of sheets is 32. Each sheet has 10 corrugations with a pitch of 3.
For roofing, Ga. 26 is generally specified, Ga. 24 is preferred.
Galvanized iron sheets are also sometimes used as siding for industrial buildings. When used as
siding, courses shall be lapped at least 6.
Aluminum Roofing
Corrugated aluminum is rigidized sheet fabricated of special aluminum alloys specifically
developed for this purpose.
Has a high insulating value and is about one-sixth lighter than similar materials.
Is silvery in color, strong and does not stain adjoining materials.
It reacts, however, with dissimilar materials, lead-base paints green or damp wood, certain
wood preservatives, lime mortar, concrete, and other masonry materials and must be insulated from
contact with these materials .
Width of sheets are 32-5/8, 32, 31-1/2, 31-1/8, and 30-5/8; lengths are from 6 to 12 ft. in 1 ft.
increments. Number of corrugations for 32 sheets and wider is 12; sheets of narrower width have 10
corrugations
Plastic Roofing
Corrugated or Ribbed Roofing
Corrugated sheets are manufactured in in same widths and lengths as Metal Sheet Roofing.
Metal reinforced plastic roofing is available.
Ideally used in sites of high salinity levels.
Width of sheets are 32-5/8, 32, 31-1/2, 31-1/8, and 30-5/8; lengths are from 6 to 12 ft. in 1 ft.
 BT01 REVIEWER

increments. Number of corrugations for 32 sheets and wider is 12; sheets of narrower width have 10
corrugations
Sheet Roofing
Polycarbonate Sheets.
Ideally used in greenhouses, patios, outdoor sheds, and skylights.
Tile Roofing
Clay Tiles
Concrete Tiles
Shingles Roofing
Wood Shingles
Tar / Asphalt Shingles
JOINT SEALANTS
TYPES OF JOINT SEALANTS
Bituminous Cement
is a black substance available in solid, semi-solid, or liquid states at normal temperatures.
composed of mixed indeterminate hydrocarbons, appreciably soluble only in carbon disulfide or
other volatile liquid hydrocarbon.
used for sealing built-up roofing, and joints and cracks of concrete pavements.
Silicone Sealant
GLASS & GLAZING
DEFINITIONS:
1. Glass is a hard, brittle, chemically inert substance produced by fusing silica together with a flux and a
stabilizer into a mass that cools to a rigid condition without crystallization. It is used in building construction in
various forms.
2. Foamed or cellular glass is used as rigid, vapor proof thermal insulation.
3. Glass fibers are used in textiles and for material reinforcement. In spun form, glass fibers form glass
wool, which is used for acoustical and thermal insulation.
4. Glass block is used to control light transmission, glare, and solar radiation.
5. Glass, however, is used most commonly to glaze the window, sash and skylight openings of buildings.
The three major types of flat glass are the following:
1. Sheet glass is fabricated by drawing the molten glass from a furnace (drawn glass), or by forming a
cylinder, dividing it lengthwise, and flattening it (cylinder glass). The fire-polished surfaces are not perfectly
parallel, resulting in some distortion of vision. To minimize this distortion, glass should be glazed with the wave
distortion running horizontally.
2. Plate glass is formed by rolling molten glass into a plate that is subsequently ground and polished after
cooling. Plate glass provides virtually clear, undistorted vision.
3. Float glass is manufactured by pouring molten glass onto a surface of molten tin and allowing it to cool
slowly. The resulting flat, parallel surfaces minimize distortion and eliminate the need for grinding and
polishing.
Float glass is the successor to plate glass and accounts for the majority of flat-glass production.
Other types of glass include the following
1. Annealed Glass is cooled slowly to relieve internal stresses.
2. Heat-strengthened Glass is annealed glass that is partially tempered by a process of reheating and
sudden cooling. Heat-strengthened glass has about twice the strength of annealed glass of the same thickness.
3. Tempered Glass is annealed glass that is reheated to just below the softening point and then rapidly
cooled to induce compressive stresses in the surfaces and edges of the glass and tensile stresses in the interior.
Tempered glass has three to five times the resistance of annealed glass to impact and thermal stresses but
cannot be altered after fabrication. When fractured, it breaks into relatively harmless pebble-sized particles.
 BT01 REVIEWER

4. Laminated or Safety Glass consists of two or more plies of flat glass bonded under heat and pressure to
interlayers of polyvinyl butyral resin that retains the fragments if the glass is broken. Security glass is laminated
glass that has exceptional tensile and impact strength.
5. Wired Glass is flat or patterned glass having a square or diamond wire mesh embedded within it to
prevent shattering in the event of breakage or excessive heat. Wired glass is considered a safety glazing
material and may be used to glaze fire doors and windows.
6. Patterned Glass has a linear or geometric surface pattern formed in the rolling process to obscure vision
or to diffuse light.
7. Patterned Glass has one or both sides acid-etched or sandblasted to obscure vision. Either process
weakens the glass and makes it difficult to clean.
8. Spandrel Glass is an opaque glass for concealing the structural elements in curtain wall construction,
produced by fusing a ceramic frit to the interior surface of tempered or heat-strengthened glass.
9. Insulating Glass is a glass unit consisting of two or more sheets of glass separated by a hermetically
sealed air space to provide thermal insulation and restrict condensation; glass edge units have a 3/16 (5) air
space; metal edge units have a or (6 or 13) air space.
10. Tinted or Heat-absorbing Glass has a chemical admixture to absorb a portion of the radiant heat and
visible light that strike it. Iron oxide gives the glass a pale blue-green tint; cobalt oxide and nickel impart a
grayish tint; selenium infuses a bronze tint.
11. Reflective Glass has a thin, translucent metallic coating to reflect a portion of the light and radiant heat
that strike it. The coating may be applied to one surface of single glazing, in between the plies of laminated
glass, or to the exterior or interior surfaces of insulating glass.
12. Low-emissivity (Low-E) Glass transmits visible light while selectively reflecting the longer wavelengths of
radiant heat, produced by depositing a low-e coating either on the glass itself or over a transparent plastic film
suspended in the sealed air space of insulating glass.
HARDWARES
Nails
Nails are straight, slender pieces of metal having one end pointed and the other enlarged and flattened for
hammering into wood or other building materials as a fastener.
Material:
Nails are usually of mild steel, but may also be of aluminum, copper, brass, zinc or stainless steel.
Tempered, high-carbon steel nails are used for greater strength in masonry applications.
The type of metal used should be compatible with the materials being secured to avoid loss of holding
power and prevent staining of the materials.
Length and Diameter of the Shank:
Nail lengths are designated by the term penny (d).
Nails range in length from 2d, about 1 (25) long, to 60d about 6 (150) long
Nail length should be about 3 x thickness of the material being secured
Large diameter nails are used for heavy work while lighter nails are used for finish work; thinner nails
are used for hardwood rather than for softwood.
Form of the Shank:
Nail Heads:
Flat heads provide the largest amount of contact area and are used when exposure of the heads is
acceptable.
The heads of finish nails are only slightly larger than the shaft and may be tapered or cupped.
Double-headed nails are used for easy removal in temporary construction and concrete formwork
Nail Points:
Most nails have diamond-shaped points.
Sharp-pointed nails have greater holding strength but may tend to split some woods; blunt points
 BT01 REVIEWER

should be used for easily split woods.

Nail shafts may be cement-coated for greater resistance to withdrawal, or be zinc-coated for corrosion
resistance.
Power-Driven Fasteners:
Pneumatic nailers and staplers, driven by a compressor, are capable of fastening materials to wood,
steel or concrete.
Power-driven fasteners use gun-power charges to drive a variety of studs into concrete or steel.
Screws
Screws are metal fasteners having tapered, helically threaded shanks and slotted heads, designed to be driven
into wood or the like by turning, as with a screwdriver. Because of their threaded shafts, screws have greater
holding power than nails, and are more easily removable. The more threads they have per inch, the greater
their gripping strength. Screws are classified by use, type of head, material, length and diameter.
Material: - steel, brass, aluminum, bronze, stainless steel
Lengths: to 6 (13 to 150)
Diameter: up to 24 gauge
The length of a wood screw should be about 1/8 (3) less than the combined thickness of the boards being
joined, with to 2/3 of the screws length penetrating the base material. Fine-threaded screws are generally
used for hardwoods while coarse-threaded ones are used for softwoods.
Holes for screws should be predrilled and be equal to the base diameter of the threads. Some screws, such as
self-tapping and drywall screws, are designed to tap corresponding female threads as they are driven.
Bolts
Bolts are threaded metal pins or rods, usually having a head at one end, designed to be inserted through holes
in assembled parts and secured by a mating nut. Carriage bolts are used where the head may be inaccessible to
the placement of a nut or where an exceptionally long bolt would be needed to penetrate a joint fully.
Lengths: to 30 (75 to 760)
Diameter: to 1- (6 to 32)
Washers
Washers are perforated disks of metal, rubber or plastic used under the head of a nut or bolt or at a
joint to distribute pressure, prevent leakage, relieve friction or insulate incompatible materials.
Washers
Lock washers are specially constructed to prevent a nut from shaking loose
Load-indicating washers have small projections that are progressively flattened as a bolt is tightened, the gap
between the head or nut and the washer indicating the tension in the bolt
Bolts
Expansion bolts are anchor bolts having a split casing that expands mechanically to engage the sides of
a hole drilled in masonry or concrete.
Molly is a trademark for a brand of expansion bolt having a split, sleeve-like sheath threaded so that
turning the bolt draws the ends of the sheath together and spreads the sides to engage a hole drilled in
masonry or the inner surface of a hollow wall.
Expansions shields are lead or plastic sleeves inserted into a predrilled hole and expanded by driving a
bolt or screw into it.
Toggle Bolts
are used to fasten materials to plaster, gypsum board and other thin wall materials. They have two
hinged wings that close against a spring when passing through a predrilled hole and open as they emerge to
engage the inner surface of a hollow wall into it.
Rivets
Rivets are metal pins that are used for permanently joining two or more structural steel members by
passing a headed shank through a hole in each piece and hammering down the plain end to form a second
 BT01 REVIEWER

head. Their use has been largely superseded by the less labor-intensive techniques of bolting or welding.
Explosive rivets, used when a joint is accessible from one side only, have an explosive-filled shank that
is detonated by striking the head with a hammer to expand the shank on the far side of the hole.
Adhesives
Adhesives are used to secure the surfaces of two materials together. Numerous types of adhesives are available,
many of them being tailor-made for use with specific materials and under specified conditions. They may be
supplied in the form of a solid, liquid, powder or film; some require a catalyst to activate their adhesive
properties. Always follow the manufacturers recommendations in the use of an adhesive. Important
considerations in the selection of an adhesive include:
Strength: Adhesives are usually strongest in resisting tensile and shear stresses and weakest in resisting
cleavage or splitting stresses.
Curing or setting time: This ranges from immediate bonding to curing times of up to several days
Setting temperature range: Some adhesives will set at room temperature while others require baking at
elevated temperatures.
Method of bonding: Some adhesives bond on contact while others require clamping or higher
pressures.
Characteristics: Adhesives vary in their resistance to water, heat, sunlight and chemicals as well as their
aging properties.
Common Types of Adhesives:
1. Animal or fish glues are primarily for indoor use where temperature and humidity do not vary greatly;
they may be weakened by exposure to heat or moisture.
2. White or polyvinyl glue sets quickly, does not stain and is slightly resilient.
3. Epoxy resins are extremely strong, waterproof and may be used to secure both porous and nonporous
materials; they may dissolve some plastics. Unlike other adhesives, epoxy glues will set at low temperatures
and under wet conditions.
4. Resorcin resins are strong, waterproof and durable for outdoor use, but they are flammable and their
dark color may show through paint.
5. Contact cement forms a bond on contact and therefore does not require clamping. It is generally used
to secure large sheet materials such as plastic laminate.
PAINT FINISHES:
TRANSPARENT FINISHES
WOOD STAINS:
1. Oil Wood Stains
Pigments are derived from various earth clays. After they are dissolved in linseed oil, the coloring particles
remain suspended between the oil molecules. For spreading the color particles over large surfaces, the ground
oil color is thinned with turpentine .
2. Water Stains
These are made from anilyne dyes and mineral extracts which have been dissolved in hot water .
3. Spirit or Alcohol Stain
These are mixed with alcohol-solution anilyne powders and warmed alcohol.
The method of applying wood stains:
1. Clean wood surface by planing, scraping and sanding.
2. If water stain is to be used, sponge wood with damp rag and allow to dry.
3. Resand with finer grit paper.
4. Fill holes, dents, cracks, etc. with crack filler colored to match stains. When dry, sand smooth.
5. Dust and clean with benzene rags.
6. Apply stain, using brush or sponge with grain.
7. Apply shellac wash coat 6 parts alcohol to 1 part shellac.
 BT01 REVIEWER

The method of applying wood stains:

8. Scuff surfaces lightly with fine sandpaper by hand.
9. Apply paste filler and wash off in 10 minutes.
10. Sand, dust and clean.
11. Apply shellac wash coat.
12. Sand, dust and clean.
13. Select any of the ff. finishes:
a.) shellac and wax, b) varnish, c.) lacquer
The method of applying wood stains:
Paste Fillers
Composed of silex (stone dust), japan-drier, linseed oil, turpentine, and sometimes colors ground in oil.
Filler is applied with the grain and allowed to dry flat for about 10 minutes. It is then wiped off across
the grain with burlap or some other coarse material.
Paste fillers requires about 24 hours for drying before it can be sanded.
Crack Fillers
Plastic wood putty, stick shellac, etc. They are used for filling nails holes, cracks and dents.
SHELLAC:
Shellac is made by refining seed lac and its natural color is orange; white shellac is obtained by
bleaching.
Lac is a resin exuded by certain insects in India in the twigs of trees. These twigs with the resin attached
are called sticklac and are crushed and washed to produce seed lac.
Shellac is an under or a preparatory coat for varnish and wax finishes, but is not satisfactory as an
indepen-dent finish because it is not durable and turns white from contact with water. It is also used to
cover wood knots before a priming lead and oil coat is applied because it kills the resin in the knot and
prevents discoloration.
VARNISH:
It is a resolution of resin in drying oil (oil varnish) or in a voltatile solvent such as alcohol or turpentine
(spirit varnish). It contains no pigment and hardens into a smooth, hard and glossy coat by the oxidation
of the oil or by the evaporation of the alcohol.
The chief resins used in varnishes are
- copal of African fossil gums;
- dammar or resins from Singapore and the East Indies;
- the residue left under the extraction of turpentine from pine resins, and rosin esters, obtained by
treating resin with glycerine to make it waterproof when dry.
In general, oil varnishes are more durable than spirit varnishes. Spirit varnishes are either dammar
varnish, mad by treating dammar resins with turpentine, or shellac varnish, made by dissolving white or
orange shellac in grain alcohol. They dry by the evaporation of the solvent.
Drying time is from 4 to 24 hours.
Varnish should never be applied when the weather is moist.
Lacquer is made synthetically, and is closely related to rayon or nylon fabrics. It requires a special
thinner sold by each manufacturer for his own brand.
Average drying time is 1-1/2 hours. For fine lacquer finishes, a special undercoat of lacquer sealer is
applied over a wash coat of shellac.
After the sealer has dried, it is sanded or steel-wooled to give the lacquer a gripping surface
OPAQUE FINISHES
PAINT:
Paint is a mixture containing a pigment and a vehicle.
The pigment is that solid, finely ground portion which gives to paint the power to obscure, hide or color
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the surface.
The vehicle is the fluid portion of the paint. It carries the particles of the pigment in suspension and by
the oxidation deposits and hardening binds them to painted surface or by evaporation deposits them
thereon.
1. Pigments:
Pigments may be divided into white and colored pigments. The white pigments can, in turn, be divided further
into hiding or active pigments and extender pigments.
1. Pigments:
a. Hiding or Active Pigments
are those which when mixed with the drying oil, produces an opaque finishing material.
The most widely used active pigment is white lead which, when used alone withlinseed oil, will produce
an excellent durable paint.
Other active white pigments include:
- zinc oxide
- lithopone
- titanium dioxide.
a. Extender Pigments are inert pigments which when mixed with the drying oils possess very little
hiding power. They are often referred to as fillers, extenders or suspenders. They serve to prevent the
primary pigment from settling in a hard mass at the bottom of the paint can. The extender pigments
include:
- calcium carbonate
- silica and
- mica.
All paints other than white paints also contain color pigments in addition to white pigments. A good
exterior paint should contain not less than 65% pigment by weight. High quality exterior paints contain
not more than 10% of extender pigments
2. Vehicle:
The vehicle or liquid portion of the paint consists of:
- a binder which forms the film
- the drier to speed up formulation of the film and
- the thinner or the volatile solvent .
The volatile solvent facilitates application and contributes, through its evaporation, to the drying of the paint,
but is not a permanent part of the film.
The type of solvent used in a paint determines whether it is a
- water-base paint (where the solvent is water) or
- oil-base paint (where the solvent is an
organic liquid).
The vehicle of a paint should not contain more than 35% of the paints volume by weight .
The principal paint for exterior wood surfaces is oil paint, which contains white lead as the white paint
pigment, color pigments and extenders in a vehicle consisting of a drying oil, usually linseed oil, dryers,
and turpentine as the solvent or thinner. Other drying oils used are
- tung or china oil,
- soybean and
- fish oils.
Driers are added to the vehicle of paints containing drying oils to accelerate the hardening of paint by
speeding the union of the oil with oxygen from the air.
A good paints vehicle will contain 85 to 95% drying oil and the rest thinners and driers.
Driers
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Driers may be classified into two types:

- oil driers, used in powdered or crystalline form
such as litharge (monoxide of lead),
manganese dioxide, borate; and
- liquid driers, inorganic compounds of lead,
manganese and cobalt, which are dissolved in
turpentine or benzene and which mix readily
with the oil at ordinary temperatures.
Thinners
Thinners act as a solvent both for the materials of the paint and for the resin in the wood surface
thereby
Thinners
providing greater penetration and anchorage in the wood pores. It improves the brushing and spreading
qualities of the paint and also hastens its drying by absorbing oxygen from the air and transferring it to
the drying oil. The best thinner is turpentine, a spirit obtained by steam distillation of the resin or gum
which exudes from pine trees. (The residue of the distillation is known as rosin, used in the making of
varnish.) Other thinners include mineral spirits (petroleum distillation products) benzol, solvent naptha.
Turpentine is also added to the first or priming coat to assist the penetration of the paint and in much
smaller quantities to the outer coats especially for exterior work.
Because it dries without a gloss, it is mixed with the final coats for interior finishes when a flat or dull
finish is required.
PAINT TYPES:
Alkyd-resin or oil-resin emulsion paints
where oil and resin emulsified in water makes a heterogeneous finishing material by an emulsifying
agent such as casein.
A great advantage of oil resin paint is that its viscosity can be easily reduced by the addition of water.
Water is added as a thinner for the same reason that turpentine or mineral spirits is added to oil paints.
Other advantages of oil-resin emulsion paints are that it dries quickly (two coats can be applied the
same day); it is easy to apply; it is easy to recoat with itself or other paint, and it has little tendency to
fade.
PAINT TYPES:
Synthetic latex (rubber-base) paints
is made from synthetic latex which acts as the pigment binder and the film-forming material for the
paint.
A careful balance of synthetic latex and alkyds resins gives a solution that can thinned with water for
application as a continuous film with excellent adhesion and wash ability.
Synthetic latex paints have little tendency to turn yellow because, unlike oil paints, they absorb very
little oxygen from the air.
Latex paint is the preferred paint for the plaster, cement, concrete and masonry
Portland cement-base paints
a water-base paint (where the solvent is water) used for painting concrete and masonry surfaces
Enamel paints
paints which use varnish as a vehicle. They have the ability of levelling brush marks, are more resistant
to washing and rough usage, and have a harder and tougher film. They can have either a glossy, semi
glossy or matt finish.
Rust-inhibiting paints
protective paints for ferrous metal and are of two types: - priming paint, e.g. red lead, litharge, lead
chromate; - finish paints, e.g., lead sulfate and zinc dust.
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PAINT BEHAVIOUR & DEFECTS:

Well-formulated paint, skillfully applied over a properly prepared surface wears by gradual chalking and
maintains a smooth, tough and durable film that constitutes a satisfactory surface for repainting. Such a paint
film will remain an effective protective coating for a period of three to five years depending upon the locality
and the characteristics of the original surface. It requires little treatment beyond surface dusting in preparation
for repainting
Defective paint behavior and surface failures, on the other hand, are traceable to three main causes:
1. Improper paint formulation.
2. Inadequate surface preparation and careless application.
3. Faulty construction or building materials
Film defects may result from one or any combination of these. The following are the various paint defects, their
causes, prevention
a. Excessive or premature chalking
evidenced by surface dusting and rapid thinning of the film, sometimes to bare wood.
caused by improper formulation or paint application.
too high a percentage of volatile thinner forms a porous film subject has completely worn away.
Too high a percentage of volatile thinner forms a porous film subject has completely worn away.
May be prevented by strict adherence to high standards of paint formulation and application.
b. Sagging & Running
marked by irregular wavy lines that texture an otherwise smooth finish film.
cause is usually paint formulation with too low a pigment volume, or too heavy and careless an
application of a thin-consistency paint. It occurs sometimes when repainting an interior if an original
gloss surface has not been cut by light sanding.
Cure of condition necessitates sanding the irregularities and repainting. Prevention involves maintaining
proper proportions of pigment and linseed oil as to formulation and careful brushing of properly thinned
paint as to application
c. Storm Spotting
usually occurring after continuous rains and electric storms, are characterized by unsightly and irregular
color changes.
Rain sometimes absorbs nitrates and peroxides formed by electrical discharges and penetrates the paint
film, changing the refractive index of the coating.
Cure of condition can sometimes be accomplished by rubbing spots with alcohol. Subsequent
weathering usually restores the original color within a month or two.
d. Washing
is characterized by streaking on the surface, fading color, the final exposure of the original surface and
accumulation of pigment particles below the painted area.
caused by water-soluble compounds in pigments of poor paints or soluble compounds which develop by
chemical reactions in the paint are dissolved during rain storms and wash out of the film.
also when paints are applied during periods of high humidity and low temperatures, the film structure may
be injured during the drying period.
e. Stains
are surface discolorations which often disappear gradually as the paint film wears. Sometimes, however,
they go through the film necessitating its removal and subsequent repainting.
Metal stains are sometimes caused by water dripping from exposed metal.
Prevention involves coating metal. Galvanized iron should be painted with metallic zinc dust in spar
varnish or paint containing zinc oxide.
Mildew stains are caused by air-borne fungi that feed on oil and multiply rapidly. They cannot be easily
removed. Old growth should be removed.
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before repainting by washing with 1 lb. of tri-sodium phosphate or sodium carbonate in 1 gallon of water.
For prevention, the paint can be treated with about 1/4 oz. of mercuric chloride per gallon.
f. Checking
characterized by minute cracks on the surface of elastic paint films. Usually it is not a serious film defect,
for checks do not extend through the film.
cause is improper application or improper formulation of undercoats. The finish film is applied over a
body coat not quite enough for a proper foundation. Unequal tensions occur in drying and small surface
checks result.
cure of condition involves wire brushing affected areas and repainting if checking does not disappear
under influence of normal wear.
prevention involves allowance of sufficient drying time between coats and formulation of the body coat
with a minimum amount of oil in order to develop a hard foundation for finish.
f. Alligatoring
an advance state of checking, varying in degree to a coarse texturing of the finish film.
cause involves application of a harder drying finish over soft or slow-drying under-coats. As in checking,
poor formulation with too much linseed oil in the priming or body coat may result in alligatoring.
cure of condition, if extensive, requires removal of the film and repainting.
prevention necessitates precautions noted above to prevent checking
g. Cracking & Scaling
characterized by irregular cracks that subsequently curl at the edge, flake and finally scale off. Over
wood, scaling is usually most marked in direction of or across the grain.
cracking is a wear characteristic of hard-drying paints that contain large proportions of zinc oxide
pigment.
scaling comes from the water pressure when moisture seeps through the crack to the original surface.
The condition is common to any surface coated with paint improperly formulated to withstand local
conditions
cure of condition at an early stage requires vigorous brushing and recoating with a less brittle film.
prevention involves formulation to produce a tougher, more elastic film. Usually this means an increased
percentage of white lead.
h. Blistering & Peeling
characterized by swelling of the entire film which is usually followed by a break in the film and
subsequent peeling.
cause is water pressure from behind the film due to faulty construction that allows moisture seepage or
abnormal condensation. This is a mechanical damage that may occur whatever the type or quality of
paint used.
sometimes also results also when damp surfaces are covered by quick-drying paints.
This type of damage may be evident on wood, stucco or masonry surfaces.
cure of condition requires complete removal of the paint and repainting as for new work.
prevention necessitates permanent removal of the moisture sources, often involving extensive repairs
and waterproofing.
i. Spot Fading
characterized by color changes and flatting of gloss in irregular patches on the film.
cause is from uneven oil absorption, usually a result of insufficient coats or a priming coat improperly
formulated to penetrate and adequately seal surface pores. It may be emphasized when skimping is
attempted, that is, application of two coats when three are needed, or the use of a cheaply formulated
paint.
cure of condition is repainting.
prevention requires merely the exercise of proper painting technique.
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j. Wrinkling
not to be confused with alligatoring, is marked by a tough, leather-like texturing.
cause is usually when paint is put on too thickly and not well brushed out and may be contributed to by
formulation if too high a proportion of oil is used in finish coats.
cure of condition requires only sanding and repainting if texture is slight. Otherwise, film removal is
indicated with subsequent painting as for new work .
prevention requires strict adherence to high standards of paint formulation and thorough brushing out
in application