VARACTOR DIODE

A varactor diode symbol

Varactor diode symbol

As the primary function of a varactor diode is as a variable capacitor, its circuit symbol represents this.
Sometimes they may be shown as ordinary diodes, whereas more usually the varactor diode circuit symbol
shows the bar as a capacitor, i.e. two lines.
Varactor diodes are always operated under reverse bias conditions, and in this way there is no conduction.
They are effectively voltage controlled capacitors, and indeed they are sometimes called varicap diodes,
although the term varactor is more widely used these days.
Varactor diodes, or as they are sometimes called, varicap diodes are a particularly useful form of
semiconductor diode. Finding uses in many applications where electronically controlled tuning of
resonant circuits is required, for items such as oscillators and filters, varactor diodes are an essential
component within the portfolio of the electronics design engineer. However to be able to use varactor
diodes to their best advantage it is necessary to understand features of varactor diodes including the
capacitance ratio, Q, gamma, reverse voltage and the like. If used correctly, varactor diodes provide very
reliable service particularly as they are a solid state device and have no mechanical or moving elements
as in their mechanical variable capacitor counterparts.

Varactor diode basics

The varactor diode or varicap diode consists of a standard PN junction, although it is obviously optimised
for its function as a variable capacitor. In fact ordinary PN junction diodes can be used as varactor diodes,
even if their performance is not to the same standard as specially manufactured varactors.
The basis of operation of the varactor diode is quite simple. The diode is operated under reverse bias
conditions and this gives rise to three regions. At either end of the diode are the P and N regions where
current can be conducted. However around the junction is the depletion region where no current carriers
are available. As a result, current can be carried in the P and N regions, but the depletion region is an
insulator.
This is exactly the same construction as a capacitor. It has conductive plates separated by an insulating
dielectric.
The capacitance of a capacitor is dependent on a number of factors including the plate area, the dielectric
constant of the insulator between the plates and the distance between the two plates. In the case of the
varactor diode, it is possible to increase and decrease the width of the depletion region by changing the
level of the reverse bias. This has the effect of changing the distance between the plates of the capacitor.
Frequency-Multiplier Diodes

Microwave diodes designed primarily for frequency-multiplier service include varactor diodes and step-
recovery diodes.

Varactor Diodes.

A varactor diode is basically a voltage variable capacitor. When a reverse bias is applied to the diode, it
acts as a capacitor. Its capacitance depends upon the value of the reverse bias. Varactor diodes made with
gallium arsenide are optimized for use at microwave frequencies. Their main application in microwave
circuits is as frequency multipliers.

Figure 1 A Varactor Frequency Multiplier

Figure 1 above shows a varactor frequency-multiplier circuit. When an input signal is applied across the
diode, it alternately conducts and cuts off. The result is a nonlinear or distorted output containing many
harmonics. When a tuned circuit is used in the output, the desired harmonic is selected and others are
rejected. Since the lower harmonics produce the greatest amount of energy, varactor multipliers are
usually used only for doubling and tripling operations. In Fig. 1, the input tuned circuit L1C2 resonates at
the input frequency fin, and the output tuned circuit L2C3 resonates at two or three times the input
frequency, as desired. In practice, the tuned circuits are not actually made up of individual inductors or
capacitors. Instead, they are microstrip, stripline, or cavity resonators. Capacitors C1 and C4 are used for
impedance matching.

A varactor frequency multiplier does not have gain like that of a class C amplifier used as a multiplier. In
fact, a varactor introduces a signal power loss. However, it is a relatively efficient circuit, and the output
can be as high as 80 percent of the input. Typical efficiencies are in the 50 to 80 percent range. No external
source of power is required for this circuit; only the RF input power is required for proper operation.
Outputs up to 50 W are obtainable with special high-power varactors.

Varactors are used in applications in which it is difficult to generate microwave signals. Usually it is a lot
easier to generate a VHF or UHF signal and then use a series of frequency multipliers to put it into the
desired microwave region. Varactor diodes are available for producing relatively high-power outputs at
frequencies up to 100 GHz.
Step-Recovery Diodes.

Another diode used in microwave frequency-multiplier circuits like that in Fig. 1 is the step-recovery diode
or snap-off varactor. It is a PN-junction diode made with gallium arsenide or silicon. When it is forward-
biased, it conducts as any diode, but a charge is stored in the depletion layer. When reverse bias is applied,
the charge keeps the diode on momentarily. Then the diode turns off abruptly. This snap-off produces an
extremely high-intensity reverse current pulse with a duration of about 10 ps (1 ps = 10^-12 s) or less. It
is extremely rich in harmonics. Even the higher harmonics are of relatively high amplitude. Step-recovery
diodes can also be used circuits like that in Fig. 1 to produce multipliers with power ratings up to 5 and 10
W. Power ratings of 50 W can be obtained. Operating frequencies up to 100 GHz are possible with an
efficiency of 80 percent or better.

Blake

The varactor diode is familiar from its lower-frequency use as a means of providing capacitance that can
be changed by varying the voltage that reverse biases the diode. Varactors are found in such devices as
frequency synthesizers and frequency modulators. They can serve the same function at microwave
frequencies.

There is, however, another use to which varactors can be put in the microwave part of the spectrum. They
are often used in multipliers, which should be familiar from earlier chapters, but they are even more useful
at microwave frequencies. They can be used to generate microwave signals with crystal-controlled
stability, something that is otherwise difficult to accomplish at such high frequencies. All that is required
is that there be a nonlinear circuit that will generate harmonics of the input signal and a tuned circuit
to emphasize the desired harmonic and reject the fundamental and any undesired harmonics.

All diodes are nonlinear in the knee region of their characteristic curve, but varactors, due to their
variable capacitance, can also be used with reverse bias as nonlinear devices, achieving greater efficiency.
A variation of the varactor, known as the step-recovery or snap diode, can also be used as a multiplier. It
is operated with forward bias for most of the cycle of the fundamental. During this period, a charge is
stored in the diode. When the diode becomes reverse biased at the input cycle peak, the charge plows
back across the junction as a brief pulse with a high harmonic content.

Since varactor multipliers are passive devices, they are obviously has a gain of less than unity. They can
be quite efficient, though: an efficiency of 50% is not unusual. This compare quite favorably with
generating a microwave signal directly.