To cite this paper: Int. J. Rock Mech. & Min. Sci. 34:3-4, paper No. 336.

Copyright 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd

Copyright 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd

Int. J. Rock Mech. & Min. Sci. Vol. 34, No. 3-4, 1997 ISSN 0148-9062
To cite this paper: Int. J. RockMech. &Min. Sci. 34:3-4, Paper No. 336

SPECIALLY DESIGNED TECHNIQUES FOR CONDUCTING

C O N S O L I D A T E D U N D R A I N E D T R I A X I A L T E S T S ON L O W
PERMEABILITY SHALES
B. Wulg Co P . T a n lg To A o k i 2

1 Australian Petroleum Cooperative Research Centre, CSIRO Petroleum, Melbourne, Australia

2 Taisei Corporation, Technology Research Center, Yokohama, Japan

ABSTRACT
As part of a study on drilling fluid-shale interactions, a consolidated undrained triaxial testing program
was conducted on the mechanical behaviour of low permeability shales. Novel techniques and rock
mechanics equipment for testing shales have been developed. The main testing techniques for conducting
a consolidated undrained triaxial test on the shales are as follows:
Novel fibreglass sidedrains to accelerate the processes of back saturation and consolidation, and
equilibrium of pore pressure during undrained axial loading;
Use of simulated pore fluid for sample preparation and saturation;
Saturation and consolidation under an elevated back pressure;
Slow axial strain rate to ensure pore pressure measurements made at the ends of the specimen to be
representative of the pore pressure inside the specimen.
C o p y r i g h t 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd

KEYWORDS

L a b o r a t o r y Test T r i a x i a l T e s t i n g T e s t i n g M e t h o d s S h a l e s C o m p r e s s i v e S t r e n g t h
Mechanical Properties Intact Rock Permeability Deformation Rock Properties

INTRODUCTION
Shales comprise most of the formations penetrated by oil and gas wells in hydrocarbon exploitation, and
instability in shale formations during drilling remains a major problem facing the oil and gas industry. As
a borehole is drilled, in situ stresses and pore pressure in its vicinity are redistributed and the support
previously provided by the excavated rock is partially replaced by drilling mud. If the redistributed
effective stresses exceed the load bearing capacity of the surrounding rock, whether it be due to
insufficient mud support or interactions between drilling mud and shale, the borehole failure may occur
either by:
Hole size reduction due to large deformation and plastic flow of the rock into the borehole, without
the rock losing all of its strength; or
Hole enlargement due to brittle failure.

ISSN 0148-9062
To cite this paper: Int. J. Rock Mech. & Min. Sci. 34:3-4, paper No. 336. Copyright 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd

Such instabilities can lead to a number of problems such as complete or partial collapse of the well or
even loss of a well prior to reaching its target. The cost to overcome such instabilities can account for
over 10% of overall drilling cost (Steiger, Leung 1991 and Santarelli, Carminati 1995).
Traditionally, shale instability problems were managed to some extent by using oil based mud. However,
the move away from oil based mud due to environmental constraints has created a need for better
understanding of water based mud-shale interactions. As a result, a growing interest in rock mechanical
properties of shales has been observed in the last ten years (Swan et al. 1989 and Steiger, Leung 1991).
Triaxial tests have been widely used in determining rock and soil mechanical properties. The relevance
of consolidated undrained triaxial test results to borehole stability analyses has been well established
(Steiger, Leung 1991, and Aoki et al. 1995). However, determination of the mechanical properties of
shales is often complicated by the fact that the properties of these materials fall between those of rocks
and stiff or hard soils. Whilst their lithology is often similar to that of clay soils, their strength and
deformation characteristics may be more akin to those of rocks. Furthermore, shales often exhibit very
low permeability (microdarcy to nanodarcy range) and high porosity (e.g. 30%). This makes the standard
triaxial test facilities and procedures for rocks or soils unsuitable for shales, in terms of effective stress
concept.
As part of a study on drilling fluid-shale interactions, a research project was conducted on the mechanical
behaviour of low permeability shales. Aoki et al. 1995 described some aspects of a triaxial testing
system specially designed for conducting consolidated undrained triaxial tests on shales. This paper
describes the further developments to the system and emphasises on the techniques and procedures for
testing shales. Using the triaxial testing system, a large number of tests have been carried out on
synthetic, outcrop and downhole shales. The results of consolidated undrained triaxial tests on Pierre II
shale are presented and discussed.

TESTING EQUIPMENT
The triaxial testing system for shales is similar in principle to that used for testing hard rocks, with in-cell
instrumentation, and high stiffness and loading capacity, but without a hydraulic servo-control system. It
consists of a loading frame with a stepping motor pump driven actuator, cell and pore pressure control
systems and a system for temperature control.

Triaxial Cell and Sample Stack Assembly

The triaxial cell has a capacity of 40 MPa. The inner diameter of the cell is considerably larger than the
sample which allows the installation of internal instruments such as load cell, radial and axial
displacement transducers, and heating elements and temperature sensors to directly measure the sample
responses.
The sample stack assembly, as shown in Figure 1 includes:
A specimen mounted between two (top and bottom) platens. It is encased with a flexible
impermeable Viton (a fluoro-carbon rubber) membrane separating the confining fluid from the
specimen;
Two steel platens with provision for pore pressure measurement at both ends of the specimen. There
are grooves engraved on the platen surfaces (without using porous disk). The diameter of the platens
is the same as the specimen (within _+0.05mm);

ISSN 0148-9062
To cite this paper: Int. J. Rock Mech. & Min. Sci. 34:3-4, paper No. 336. Copyright 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd

Two diametrically positioned LVDTs clamped on the top and bottom platens to measure the sample
axial displacements;
Two pairs of cantilevers, positioned orthogonally outside the membrane, to monitor sample diameter
change during testing;
A load cell located on the top platen for the measurement of the axial deviator force applied onto the
specimen.

Axial Loading System

The axial loading system consists of a high stiffness loading frame and an actuator which is driven by a
fast responding and high precision stepping motor pump controlled by a computer. The two axial
displacement measurements are averaged electronically and fedback to the control computer. The
measured average axial displacement is then compared with the required value and the stepping motor
pump is controlled to make the required adjustments so as to conform to a pre-designed axial
displacement (strain) rate.
A stiff loading frame and a fast responding hydraulically servo-controlled actuator are normally required
to conduct controlled loading in post-peak strength region for hard brittle rocks. For soft weak rocks,
such as shales, this is not as critical as for hard brittle rocks. Because of the much smaller force required
to deform a soft shale specimen than is required for that of hard rocks and the high stiffness of the
loading flame, the majority of the energy released in the post-peak strength region is stored in the
pressurised oil in the actuator. For the specially designed testing system for shales, the energy stored in
the actuator in the post-peak region can be released rapidly by reversing the stepping motor pump
direction. Hence the post-peak stress-strain curves can be routinely obtained for shales, although the
actuator is not hydraulically servo-controlled. A hydraulically servo-controlled actuator may not be
suitable for long term testing. Furthermore, the stepping motor pump driven actuator equipped with an
uninterruptable power supply system, is less prone to short term power failure. However, it has been
observed that the stepping motor pump is inadequate to conduct controlled loading in post-peak strength
region for brittle rocks with above medium strength.

Cell Pressure System

The cell pressure system consists of the triaxial cell and a stepping motor pump. Long term stability of
the cell pressure is crucial for the testing of shales. The stepping motor pump system can provide a
constant cell pressure (within +5 kPa) over a period of a few months.

Pore Pressure System

The pore pressure system includes a stepping motor pump, an oil-pore fluid interface and two platens
with pore pressure ports, lines and pressure transducers.
The experience in measuring pore pressure in soil testing demonstrated that the compressibility of pore
pressure measuring system can have a significant effect on the accuracy of the measured values (e.g.
Wissa 1969). A number of factors can influence the measuring system compressibility such as the
volume and compressibility of pore fluid and stiffness of the tubing. To reduce the compressibility of the
pore pressure measurement system, it is important that the free volume of fluid in the pore pressure line
be kept as small and the pore fluid line is as rigid as possible. As shown in Figure 1, no porous disk was
used in between sample ends and steel platens. The fluid volume for the system is 0.35 cm 3 in the
pedestal and bolster and 1.18 cm 3 between the top end of specimen and the shut-off valve (Aoki et al.

ISSN 0148-9062
To cite this paper: Int. J. Rock Mech. & Min. Sci. 34:3-4, paper No. 336. Copyright 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd

1995).

SPECIALLY DEVELOPED TECHNIQUES FOR TESTING SHALES

Because of the permeability and mechanical characteristics of shales, several testing techniques were
specially developed for conducting triaxial tests on shales which may not be needed for testing hard
rocks. These include fibreglass sidedrains, low axial strain loading rate, the use of simulated pore fluid
for saturating shales and temperature control during testing.

Fibreglass Sidedrain
Sidedrain has been widely used in testing low permeability soils to expedite the redistribution of pore
pressure developed inside the sample and to shorten the testing duration. Filter paper is normally used as
the sidedrain material for soils. However, filter paper is ineffective at high effective confining pressure
(e.g. Leroueil 1988) and alternative sidedrain materials are needed for testing shales which may be
subjected to high effective confining pressures.
After a trial of a range of materials, thin fibreglass strands (diameter 0.017 ram) were selected for the
sidedrain. The material is very flexible, has very low shear strength and introduce a very small volume of
free pore fluid in addition to that in the pore pressure measurement system. The effectiveness of the
fibreglass strands as sidedrain material was evaluated by using an aluminium sample. The evaluation
procedure is as follows:
Attach fibreglass strands in two orthogonal directions on the sample and ensure that they are in
contact with the grooves on the end surfaces of the top and bottom sample platens;
Install the sample in the triaxial cell;
Apply a pre-selected confining pressure;
Apply a pore pressure of 5 MPa to top and bottom ends of the sample;
Close the top pore pressure line;
After the top pressure has stabilised, increase the bottom pore pressure to 9 MPa.
Top and bottom pore pressures and confining pressure are continuously monitored. This evaluation
procedure was repeated for a range of effective confining pressures which would be used for testing
shales. The variation of the time required to reach 50% and 75% equilibrium between top and bottom
pressures with effective confining pressure are presented in Figure 2.
It can be seen that the time to reach equilibrium increases with effective confining pressure, indicating
that the drainage capacity of the fibreglass sidedrain decreases with the pressure. However, the rate of the
decrease in drainage capacity slows down with the increase in effective confining pressure. At an
effective confining pressure of 27 MPa, the fibreglass sidedrain is still effective although the time
required to reach 50% and 75% of equilibrium increased by 5 and 10 times respectively in comparison
with the time required at an effective confining pressure of 5 MPa.
The test procedure described above was repeated on the aluminium sample with filter paper as sidedrain
material. The sample was covered in full length with four strips (each 10 mm wide) of Whatman No. 50
filter paper. It was observed that at an effective confining pressure of 5 MPa, a period of 10 hours was
required to reach 75% equilibrium between top and bottom pore pressures. No top pore pressure response
was observed after 16 hours at an effective confining pressure of 10 MPa, indicating that the filter paper

ISSN 0148-9062
To cite this paper: Int. J. Rock Mech. & Min. Sci. 34:3-4, paper No. 336. Copyright 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd

sidedrain was virtually ineffective at that pressure.

The effectiveness of the fibreglass sidedrain used on low permeability shales was further assessed by
conducting saturation tests on Johnstone samples (Johnston, Choi 1986). The sidedrain configuration is
shown in Figure 3. Thin fibreglass strands were placed on the lateral surface of a sample in two
orthogonal directions. In order to have two independent pore pressure measurements in an undrained test,
the fibreglass strands were terminated one sample radius from the undrained end of the sample. The test
was conducted by injecting pore fluid at 5 MPa from one end of the sample which was subjected to a
hydrostatic pressure of 6 MPa, and the pore pressure at the other (undrained) end of the sample was
monitored. As shown in Figure 4, the saturation of the Johnstone sample with fibreglass sidedrain was at
least four times faster than the test without the sidedrain, although it is much longer than the theoretically
predicted time for sidedrain with infinite drainage capacity (Head 1986).

Temperature Control
The effect of room temperature on experimental results of hard rock may not be significant because of
the short test duration. However, for a long term triaxial test on shale, change in room temperature during
the test can have significant effects in at least three aspects:
Pore pressure measurement since temperature change can induce significant change in the
measurement in a rigidly confined, saturated pore pressure system (Aoki et al. 1995);
Electronic instruments such as pressure transducers and LVDTs, as their offsets and calibration
factors may change as a result of temperature change;
To a lesser extent, alteration of mechanical properties of the shale specimen.
With a triaxial test on shale lasting from a few days to a few weeks, the change in temperature can be
significant and may have considerable effects on the test results. Hence, a temperature control system
was developed for the shale testing system, which consists of a computer-controlled electrical heater
surrounding the specimen stack assembly inside the triaxial cell (see Figure 1), and a heater outside the
cell controlled by a temperature controller. The cell and the loading frame are well insulated and the
temperature control system is capable of maintaining a constant temperature within +0.25 C in a period
of a few weeks.

Axial Strain Rate

To determine the effective stress which a saturated shale specimen is subjected to during testing, pore
pressure and externally applied cell pressure and axial stress must be known. In a drained test, the
loading rate is kept sufficiently slow to prevent development of any significant excess pore pressure and
hence, the back pressure is taken as the pore pressure inside the specimen. However, in an undrained test,
it is necessary to measure the change in pore pressure developed during the axial loading.
Due to friction restraint imposed on the specimen ends by the rigid platens, a pore pressure gradient
inside the specimen is likely to develop for an undrained triaxial test on low permeability shales (Blight
1963). The pore pressure measurements conveniently made at the ends of the specimen may be different
from that at middle of the sample. As such, a slow axial strain loading rate is essential for the pore
pressure measurements to be representative of the pore pressure inside the specimen. With the testing
system reported in this paper, an average axial strain rate in the order of 10 -8 strain/second can be
routinely achieved on a 50 mm long sample.

ISSN 0148-9062
To cite this paper: Int. J. Rock Mech. & Min. Sci. 34:3-4, paper No. 336. Copyright 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd

Sample Preparation and Simulated Pore Fluid

Shale samples were obtained from well-preserved 4" diameter cores for the downhole shale, or
undisturbed preserved blocks for outcrop shale. Cylindrical plugs of 1" diameter were cored in different
directions with respect to the bedding plane, as determined by the test program. A mineral spirit was used
as the coring fluid and the lateral surface of the plugs was then thoroughly washed with a simulated pore
fluid which was prepared based on the composition of the shale pore fluid. The plugs were cut in the
shape of right cylinder with a length to diameter ratio of at least 2, and subsequently lapped in a metal
core holder. The simulated pore fluid was used in the cutting and lapping of the sample ends. Upon
completion of the lapping, the wet samples were wrapped in plastic wrap and sealed in an air tight
container before being set up in the triaxial cell.

TESTING PROCEDURES
Before commencing the consolidated undrained triaxial testing program on shales, the stability and
resolution of the transducers were checked using an aluminium sample under an elevated confining
pressure, axial stress, pore pressure and temperature. Special attention was paid to the pore pressure
measurement system as any leakage between cell and pore pressures, and pore pressure and atmosphere
during testing would invalidate the pore pressure measurements. After the required axial stress, confining
and pore pressures and temperature were established, the pore pressure measurement system was shut in
for an extended period of time, to observe any leakage in the pore pressure measurement system.
The testing procedure for a consolidated undrained triaxial test on shales includes sample installation,
back saturation, undrained hydrostatic loading, consolidation and undrained axial deviatoric loading.

Sample Installation
After installing fibreglass sidedrains, the sample was jacketed with a Viton membrane. The jacketed
sample and end platens were then installed onto the stack assembly within the triaxial cell. The stack
assembly incorporated the connections required between the pore pressure system and the end platens, an
internal load cell and instrumentations for measurement of radial and axial displacements of the
specimen, heating elements and thermocouples. It is important that the pore pressure system, including
the end platens, are fully saturated with the simulated pore fluid and no air was trapped inside the system.
After the triaxial cell was filled with hydraulic oil, the internal heating element and the external heater
were switched on.

Back Pressure Saturation and Undrained Hydrostatic Pressurisation

After the cell temperature has stabilised at the required temperature, confining and back pressures were
increased to 6 and 5 MPa respectively. A back pressure of 5 MPa was used to ensure all air bubbles are
dissolved in the pore fluid under an elevated temperature. The sample was assumed to have been
saturated when the pore pressure measured at the other (undrained) end was equal to the back pressure of
5 MPa.
Once saturation was achieved, the back pore pressure line was closed. The confining pressure was then
increased to the required level for consolidation. The pore pressure system remained closed until the pore
pressures at both sample ends have stabilised. The Skempton's pore pressure parameter B (Skempton
1954), defined as the ratio of pore pressure change to confining pressure change was determined from the
stabilised pore pressures.

ISSN 0148-9062
To cite this paper: Int. J. Rock Mech. & Min. Sci. 34:3-4, paper No. 336. Copyright 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd

Isotropic Consolidation
Upon the stabilisation of the pore pressures induced during undrained isotropic loading, the back pore
pressure line was opened and controlled at 5 MPa to allow consolidation of the sample. The pore
pressure at the undrained end of the sample was monitored continuously. When the difference between
the pore pressure at the undrained end and back pressure is 2% of the back pressure, the consolidation
process was terminated by closing the back pore pressure valve.

Undrained Deviatoric Loading

The undrained deviatoric loading was conducted under a constant average axial strain rate. The selection
of loading rate is very important for low permeability shales. An initial estimate of the strain rate was
made based on the procedures commonly adopted in experimental soil mechanics, taking into account
specimen size, drainage configuration and material properties such as coefficient of consolidation and
permeability. The axial strain loading rate used in the test will be slower than the estimate value.
Furthermore, it was observed in a previous study on the mechanical properties of low permeability shales
that the time to 100% degree of consolidation and the coefficient of consolidation were dependent on the
applied effective confining pressure (Wu et al. 1990). Hence, the axial strain rate estimated from the
consolidation test results with the highest effective confining pressure to be used for the testing program
would be lowest. In the study reported in this paper, the testing program started with the test with the
highest effective confining pressure. The strain rate adopted for the test was applied to the other tests
with lower effective confining pressures to avoid the effects of strain rate at different effective confining
pressures. The suitability of the axial strain rate adopted in the tests was verified during loading by
monitoring the response of the pore pressure measured at both ends of the sample to deviatoric loading.
Any significant difference between the two pore pressure measurements would indicate a pore pressure
gradient inside the sample. The strain rate was further confirmed on a few samples at the end of the
undrained deviatoric loading by holding the axial stress constant for a considerable period of time at the
end of the test. No significant change in pore pressure was observed, indicating that the axial strain rate
was sufficiently slow to allow the pore pressure inside the sample to reach equilibrium.
On completion of each test, the sample was returned to atmospheric condition in reverse order of
pressurisation so as to maintain sample and sleeve integrity. Offsets of the various transducers were
rechecked. The tested sample was then weighed and failure pattern recorded. Finally, some of the
samples were dried for 24 hours at 105 C to measure its water content.

E X A M P L E E X P E R I M E N T A L RESULTS
Using the test procedure and techniques specially developed in this study, a large number of consolidated
undrained triaxial tests were conducted on low permeability shales, including downhole and outcrop
shales. Reported below are some of the results of Pierre II shale. Some of its petrophysical properties are
summarised in Table 1. All the tests were conducted at a constant temperature of 35 C and a range of
effective confining pressures.
The Pierre II shale samples, cored perpendicular to the bedding plane, had nominal diameter of 25 mm
and length 50 mm. Sidedrains of 17 x 1 0 - 3 m m diameter fibreglass strands were installed on all the
samples.
It can be determined from Table 1 that the shale has quite a high degree of saturation in its natural state
and as a result, the time duration required for back saturation was quite short. The degree of saturation

ISSN 0148-9062
To cite this paper: Int. J. Rock Mech. & Min. Sci. 34:3-4, paper No. 336. Copyright 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd

was further checked in the subsequent undrained hydrostatic loading. Figure 5 shows an example of the
pore pressure response to undrained hydrostatic loading. For this particular test, the confining pressure
was applied in four stages while the pore pressure lines were closed. Consistently high value of
approximately 0.95 for the pore pressure parameter B was obtained for all the stages which indicated that
the sample was saturated. A pore pressure parameter of essentially 1 will only be obtained for materials
with very large matrix compressibility (e.g. soils) in comparison with that of pore fluid (Aoki 1995).
Figure 6 shows a typical experimental result for an isotropic consolidation stage. The method which is
common to soil testing for determining theoretical 100% consolidation time (tloo) was adopted for the
shale. The material has a tlo o of approximately 6400 min. The axial strain rate with a 95% pore pressure
equilibrium was then estimated based on tlo o, taking into account the sidedrain configuration.

Typical stress-strain relationship and pore pressure response during the undrained axial deviatoric
loading are shown in Figure 7. The strain rate adopted for the test was 3 x lO-S/second. The suitability of
the strain rate was confirmed by comparing the pore pressure measurements at both ends of the sample,
and by monitoring the pore pressure changes while holding the axial stress and confining pressure
constant at the end of the test. A total of 6 consolidated undrained tests were conducted on this shale and
the peak strength data for the shale is given in Figure 8. It can be seen that the peak strength behaviour
can be adequately described using a linear Mohr-Coulomb strength criterion with a cohesion of 1.1 MPa
and angle of internal friction 14 .

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

As part of a study on drilling fluid-shale interactions, a consolidated undrained triaxial testing program
was conducted on the mechanical behaviour of low permeability shales. Novel techniques and rock
mechanics equipment for testing shales have been developed. A large number of tests have been carried
out on synthetic, outcrop and downhole shales. The main testing techniques for conducting a
consolidated undrained triaxial test on low permeability shales are as follows:
A novel fibreglass sidedrain to accelerate the processes of back saturation and consolidation, and
equilibrium of pore pressure during undrained axial loading. Thin fibreglass strands used as
sidedrain have little effects on measured strength, deformation and pore pressures. Unlike filter
paper sidedrain used in soil testing, which is only effective at low effective confining pressures, the
fibreglass sidedrain can be used at a range of effective confining pressures which is representative of
downhole effective stress conditions;
The use of simulated pore fluid for sample preparation and saturation so as to minimise pore
fluid-shale interaction;
Saturation under an elevated back pressure. Full saturation can be ensured by measuring the pore
pressure at the undrained end of the sample which is not subjected to the back pressure;
Consolidation under an elevated back pressure;
Deviatoric axial loading at a low constant axial strain rate which is estimated from consolidation
data and can be verified during the loading.

ISSN 0148-9062
To cite this paper: Int. J. Rock Mech. & Min. Sci. 34:3-4, paper No. 336. Copyright 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd

FIGURES

Paper 336, Figure 1.

.j
i i
I I L
A: l.o~d cell
i ..... '! B B: T o p platen

.r m C - ""~' D: Radiaf d[.~placement

transducer
E: B o l t ~ m I)Ialen
II 1-: B o t t n m p o r e
pressure Iransducer
E: 3
!1
~ I G: Belster
E ...j H: Axial rI[spIaeement
T i.
I tr'~nsdueer
l-" V i t o t t ~II~tlbt-,q|IC
.l'. H e a t i n g e [ e m e n t

Figure 1. Details of the sample stack assembly of the triaxial testing system for shales (modified from Aoki et al.
1995).

ISSN 0148-9062
To cite this paper: Int. J. Rock Mech. & Min. Sci. 34:3-4, paper No. 336. Copyright 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd

Paper 336, Figure 2.

I~.

1D5
'--2
" TIMETO 75% " "___'_2_-'. . . . T. . . . . . .
. .
E. Q U
.
I L. I B. R I U M ..-. ......
...~-.-"*---

.. . . . . : . . . . . .
'~, ~0

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

.i f

iv, ~"
"_.)

.~'.5 ./ . . . . . ... ~ - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . .
/ ..--"
.-I
iI >~." "['[ME". "1"O 5"'% "

C ;I. ) ;i'-"- F.QI,'TT.III,~]I IM

,_~'
. . . . . .

/ ,

. . ~ . . . . . . , . . . . . . .

I I

L~ "5 ZO 25 "~

E]-I-EC 11%"E C E L L t ' R E S S [ 2 R E r..Ml'a)

Figure 2. Pore pressure equilibrium time as a function of effective confining pressure on an aluminium sample with
fibreglass sidedrain.

Paper 336, Figure 3.

Fibreglass

II
strands

.... . . . . ...
i-
" r -
f

Figure 3. Configuration of fibreglass sidedrains on a shale sample.

ISSN 0148-9062
To cite this paper: Int. J. Rock Mech. & Mm. Sci. 34:3-4, paper No. 336. Copyright 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd

Paper 336, Figure 4.

B ~,c.k- pru55U[%~

5 -- -

m _ . _ .
- ~ - : ..'-..' . . . . .

~-(3-- -

- - 2

U9

: i
I ") "~' 3 -I,.;. .':0 5;) - 3 :::..
TIM E ,:[HOUR;,

Figure 4. Effect of fibreglass sidedrains on saturation time of a shale.

Paper 336, Figure 5.

B = 0.(~Se .....
i
"2_" I
"2" Confining i'~,~ss;Jrc I B =0.,;'5': !

.-i

23
1,9 -, [ ~B:.~.9.5~.
~ '-.. . . . . ,. . . . .

~rk'.~stlrL'
rG 3 -
^

[-7
"'--1. . . . . I

'.213 /3 I;C I TM i , %~ i?Q .1.%.:i) "n 0 .'-C~2 -" I " 2"'C "-i!"5'
L.-L,-\PEI)T!.%-tb;([.-~ur)

Figure 5. Pore pressure response to undrained hydrostatic pressurisation.

ISSN 0148-9062
To cite this paper: Int. J. Rock Mech. & Mm. Sci. 34:3-4, paper No. 336. Copyright 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd

P a p e r 336, F i g u r e 6.

I." ~ -. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ':1

12

o_.
~~'i rc Pressure ....... -'$ ! -..io

",.'c:l'Jt,,er: ic ) ~ . .'~ . . . . . . . . . . . .
,..J

J
. . . . 2,~:< "~ . . . . . . . . 7 - ". = =
C ,":.' 7:
. . . . . ' i ~ i'>

,1 . . . . . . -.,-

~., Ltl .'.iS d,:: ,%::, i I.:l.I 120 14,;

5QLAZ~}_/J4,OOr T I M li (mi:l.'j

Figure 6. Typical consolidation behaviour of Pierre II shale.

P a p e r 336, F i g u r e 7.

-.j . . . . .
A X IAL. 5""~ E,~~;

~1') :.. .~.r ,--.- . . . . . . . . . .

5,._,..:" .
:
. .
: .
: . .
: ........
,
:

--- "5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1 _:- . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .

" PORJ2 PX~f3LRE

',
~"'- . . . . . . . . . . . . i . ...... : :' --~" '

:'~ :j . . . . . . . . . . . : .

, ..... ~ , : : : . V l ~ : - : ~ ....
5~ .25 .:0 -15 ,:~ -I o ,< I~ 15 20 7~ ?0 3,~ -~ 4 ~.

S"J']'I. A I N (r;:,.i Ili s t r m . ~ }

Figure 7. Typical stress strain-relationship and pore pressure response during undrained deviatoric loading.

ISSN 0148-9062
To cite this paper: Int. J. Rock Mech. & Mm. Sci. 34:3-4, paper No. 336. Copyright 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd

Paper 336, Figure 8.

:,-.' ,

--i .::

." i .: ...: :'.: I 7 I i .') i~ "':'.

L.;'.; LC'L i '~'_5."C'KM.M. ~'YRE~ ,:MK,3

Figure 8. Peak strength of Pierre II shale.

TABLES

Paper 336, TABLE 1.

TABLE 1
P E T R O P H Y S I C A L P R O P E R T I E S OF P I E R R E II S H A L E
-.r

Permeability Water Content Porosity b Density ~

(/.tD) (%) (%) (g/ee)
I =' ' P " 11

0.113 - 0.03C 22.7 26.2 2.04

a: Effective confining )ressure from 2.43 MPa to 26.62 MPa:
b: Helium porosimetry;
c: N a t u r a l state

References

References
Aoki T., Tan C. P., Cox R. H. T., Bamford W. E. 1995. Determination ofanisotropic poroelastic parameters
of a transversely isotropic shale by means of consolidated undrained triaxial tests. Proc. 8 th Int. Cong. Rock
Mech. T. Jujii Ed, Tokyo, Japan, 2, 172-176.

ISSN 0148-9062
To cite this paper: Int. J. Rock Mech. & Min. Sci. 34:3-4, paper No. 336. Copyright 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd

Aoki T. 1995. Discussion on the effective stress law for soft rocks. Prefailure deJormation ofgeomateriaIs,
Shibuya, Mitachi and Miura Eds, Balkema, 2, 1218-1219.
Bishop A. W. 1973. The influence of an undrained change in stress on the pore pressure in porous media of
low compressibility. Geotechnique, 23, 435-442.
Blight G. E. 1964. The effect of non-uniform pore pressures on laboratory measurements of the shear strength
of soils, Syrup lab. shear testing soils', ASTM STP361, ASTM, Philadelphia, USA, 173-184.
Head K. 14. 1986. Effective stress tests', Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing, 3, Pentech Press, London.
Johnston I. W., Choi S.K. 1986. A synthetic soft rock for laboratory model studies. Geotechnique, 36:2,
251-263.
Leroueil S., Tavenas F., La Rochelle R, Tremblay M. 1988. Influence of filter paper and leakage on triaxial
testing. Advanced triaxial testing of soil and rock, ASTM STP 977, R. T. Donaghe, R. C. Chaney and M. L.
Silver, Eds., ASTM, Philadelphia, USA, 189-201.
Santarelli F. J., Carminati S. 1995. Do shales swell? A critical review of available evidence. SPE/IADC
paper 29421, Proc. 1995 SPE/IADC Drilling Conf., Amsterdam.
Skempton A. W. 1954. The pore pressure coefficients A and B. Geotechnique, 4:4, 143.
Steiger R. R, Leung R K. 1991. Consolidated undrained triaxial test procedure for shales. Rock mechanics
as a MultidispIinary Science, Proc. 32nd U.S. Syrup., J. C. Roegiers Ed, 637-646.
Swan G., Cook J., Bruce S., Meehan R. 1989. Strain rate effects in Kimmeridge bay shale. Int. J. Rock
Mech. Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr, 26:2, 135-149.
Wissa A. E. Z. 1969. Pore pressure measurement in saturated stiff soils. J. SoilMech. AndFound. Div. Proc.
Am. Soc. Civil Eng. 95:4, 1063-1073.
Wu B., Marsden J. R., Hudson J. A. 1990. Undrained mechanical behaviour ofmudstone. Proc. 26th Ann.
Conf. Eng. Group Geol. Soc., Leeds, U.K. 105-114.

ISSN 0148-9062