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Welding Process, Defects
Welding Process, Defects
(a) Butt joint (b) Corner joint (c) T joint (d) Lap joint (e) Edge joint
Ease of Maintenance
Design Variability
Visual Inspection
Large Parts
Small Parts
Tolerances
Relibility
Strength
Cost
Method
Arc welding 1 2 3 1 3 1 2 2 2
Resistance welding 1 2 1 1 3 3 3 3 1
Brazing 1 1 1 1 3 1 3 2 3
Bolts and nuts 1 2 3 1 2 1 1 1 3
Riveting 1 2 3 1 1 1 3 1 2
Fasteners 2 3 3 1 2 2 2 1 3
Seaming, crimping 2 2 1 3 3 1 3 1 1
TABLE 12.1 Comparison of various joining
Adhesive bonding 3 1 1 2 3 2 3 3 2 methods.
Note: 1, very good; 2, good; 3, poor.
General Summary
1, highest; 5, lowest
Gas mixture
FIGURE 12.2 Three basic types of oxyacetylene flames used in oxyfuel gas welding and cutting
operations: (a) neutral flame; (b) oxidizing flame; (c) carburizing, or reducing, flame. (d) The principle of
the oxyfuel gas welding operation.
C2H2 + O2 mixture
Torch
withdrawn
Torch
Flame heating
of surfaces
Upsetting
force
Clamp
(a) (b)
FIGURE 12.3 Schematic illustration of the pressure gas welding process; (a) before, and
(b) after. Note the formation of a flash at the joint, which can later be trimmed off.
Specific Energy, u
Material J/mm3 BTU/in3
Aluminum and its alloys 2.9 41
Cast irons 7.8 112
Copper 6.1 87 Heat input
Bronze (90Cu-10Sn) 4.2 59 H VI
Magnesium 2.9 42 =e
Nickel 9.8 142 l v
Steels 9.1-10.3 128-146
Stainless steels 9.3-9.6 133-137
Titanium 14.3 204
Welding speed
TABLE 12.3 Approximate specific energy VI
required to melt a unit volume of commonly v=e
welded materials. uA
Electrode
cable Weld metal Arc
FIGURE 12.4 (a) Schematic illustration of the shielded metal arc welding process. About one-half of all
large-scale industrial welding operations use this process. (b) Schematic illustration of the shielded
metal arc welding operation.
7
5 4
2
FIGURE 12.5 A weld zone showing the build-up
3
sequence of individual weld beads in deep welds. 6
8
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Submerged Arc Welding
Electrode-wire reel
Flux hopper
Voltage and
current control
Unfused-flux
recovery tube
Wire-feed motor
Electrode cable
Contact tube
Workpiece Voltage-pickup
Weld backing leads (optional)
Ground
FIGURE 12.6 Schematic illustration of the submerged arc welding process and equipment. Unfused
flux is recovered and reused.
Travel
Nozzle
Wire guide and
Shielding gas contact tube
Arc
Solidified weld metal
Base metal Molten weld metal
(a)
Feed control
Control system Wire
Gas out
Gun control Gas in
Shielding-gas source
Gun
Workpiece
FIGURE 12.7 (a) Gas metal arc welding process,
Voltage control
formerly known as MIG welding (for metal inert
Wire-feed
drive motor Welding machine gas). (b) Basic equipment used in gas metal arc
welding operations.
Contactor control 110 V supply
(b)
Molten slag
Arc
Solidified weld metal Base metal
Metal droplets covered with
thin slag coating forming
Molten molten puddle
weld metal
FIGURE 12.8 Schematic illustration of the flux-cored arc welding process. This
operation is similar to gas metal arc welding.
Drive rolls
Electrode conduit Wire reel
Welding wire
Gas
Wire-feed drive
Oscillator
Electrode lead
Welding gun Oscillation (optional)
Water
Gas
Gas box Consumable
Gas guide tube
Water out Water out Molten slag
Welding wire Supplementary Work
shielding gas Molten weld pool
Water in Water in Workpiece
Fixed shoe Moveable shoe Retaining shoe
(ground) lead
Water in
Primary shielding gas
Water out
Travel
Electrical conductor
Tungsten electrode
Gas passage
Shielding gas
Filler wire Arc
Solidified weld metal
Molten weld metal
(a)
Inert-gas
ACor DC
Cooling-water supply
welder
supply
Torch
Filler rod
FIGURE 12.11 (a) Gas tungsten arc welding
Drain
Workpiece process, formerly known as TIG welding (for
tungsten inert gas). (b) Equipment for gas
Foot pedal (optional)
tungsten arc welding operations.
(b)
Plasma gas
Shielding gas
Power Power
supply supply
+
(a) (b)
FIGURE 12.12 Two types of plasma arc welding processes: (a) transferred and (b)
nontransferred. Deep and narrow welds are made by this process at high welding
speeds.
Laser welds
(a) (b)
FIGURE 12.13 Comparison of the size of weld beads in (a) FIGURE 12.14 Gillette Sensor razor cartridge,
electron-beam or laser-beam welding with that in (b) with laser-beam welds.
conventional (tungsten arc) welding. Source: American Welding
Society, Welding Handbook, 8th ed., 1991.
Base metal
0.43 mm 260
330 Heat-affected
zone
355
Hardness (HV)
(a) (b)
Weld Weld
Weld
FIGURE 12.19 Examples
of various incomplete Base
metal B
fusion in welds. Incomplete fusion from oxide Incomplete fusion in a
or dross at the center of a joint, groove weld
Incomplete fusion in fillet welds. especially in aluminum
B is often termed !bridging"
(a) (b) (c)
Incomplete
penetration
(a)
FIGURE 12.19 Examples of various incomplete
Good weld
fusion in welds.
Overlap Undercut
Porosity
Lack of
penetration
(b) (c)
Weld
Toe crack
Transverse
crack
Longitudinal
Crater crack Base metal
cracks
Underbead
crack
FIGURE 12.22 Crack in a weld bead, due to the fact that the two components
were not allowed to contract after the weld was completed. Source: Courtesy of
Packer Engineering.
Residual stress
Compressive Tensile
Base
metal FIGURE 12.24 Residual stresses developed in a
straight butt joint. Source: Courtesy of the
American Welding Society.
Weld
(a) (b)
Internal
Melt
(residual)
(pushed
tensile
out)
stress
No shape Distortion
change
FIGURE 12.25 Distortion of a welded structure. (a) Before welding; (b) during welding, with
weld bead placed in joint; (c) after welding, showing distortion in the structure. Source: After
J.A. Schey.
Root bend
Longitudinal
tension-shear
Clamp
Roller Face bend
Weld
FIGURE 12.26 (a) Types of specimens for tension-shear testing of welds. (b) Wraparound bend test method.
(c) Three-point bending of welded specimens. (See also Fig. 2.21.)
(a)
1.
Raised nugget
(b) 2.
Button diameter
indicates quality
3.
(c) (d)
FIGURE 12.27 (a) Tension-shear test for spot welds; (b) cross-tension test; (c) twist
test; (d) peel test.
Mass
Cladding metal Transducer
Toolholder
Transducer DC
Base metal polarization Roller
Coupling
supply
system
Rolls Workpiece
Tip AC
Direction of power
Workpiece vibration supply
Anvil
process.
3.
a specified upset length or distance is achieved,
Flash
the weld is completed. The upset length is the
distance the two pieces move inward during
Force 4. welding after their initial contact; thus, the total
length after welding is less than the sum of the
Total upset length lengths of the two pieces. If necessary, the flash
gth
Upset len can be removed by secondary operations, such
Time
as machining or grinding.
Shouldered
non-consumable
tool
Probe
Weld
FIGURE 12.32 The principle of the friction stir welding process. Aluminum-alloy plates
up to 75 mm (3 in.) thick have been welded by this process. Source: TWI, Cambridge,
United Kingdom.
Weld nugget
Lap joint
Electrodes
Electrode
Electrode tip
Indentation
Sheet
Weld nugget separation
Workpiece Workpiece
(a) (b)
Heat-affected zone
Electrode
(b)
FIGURE 12.34 Two types of electrode designs
for easy access in spot welding operations for
complex shapes.
FIGURE 12.33 (a) Sequence in the resistance
spot welding operation. (b) Cross-section of a
spot weld, showing weld nugget and light
indentation by the electrode on sheet surfaces.
(a) (b)
Detonator Explosive
Detonator Explosive Clad metal Buffer
(flyer) Clad metal FIGURE 12.39 Schematic
Constant- Angular-interface illustration of the explosion
interface A
clearance
clearance gap welding process: (a) constant
gap interface clearance gap and (b)
Base plate Base plate angular interface clearance gap.
(a) (b)
Gas
Die
pressure
for forming
Die
Te
n
Torch Brass filler metal
Joint strength
sile
Base Base metal
metal
str
Sh
en
Flux ear gth
stren
gth
Filler
metal
(a) (b) Joint clearance
(a) (b)
(a) Flanged T (b) Flush lap (c) Flanged corner (d) Line contact
Bolt
or rivet
FIGURE 12.46 Joint designs commonly used for
soldering.
(e) Flat lock seam (f) Flanged bottom (g) Gull wing
Crimp
PC board Wire
Squeegee
Copper land
Turbulent zone
(dross formed
in air)
(a) (b)
FIGURE 12.49 Various configurations for adhesively bonded joints: (a) single lap, (b)
double lap, (c) scarf, and (d) strap.
Peeling
force
Nonmetal
Metal channel
(c) (d)
(a) (b)
Nut
Deflected Rigid
Sheet-metal cover Sheet-metal cover Integrated snap fasteners
(d) (e) (f) (g)
Load
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Surface to be machined
(e) (f)
FIGURE 12.56 Design guidelines for welding. Source: Bralla, J.G. (ed.)
Handbook of Product Design for Manufacturing, 2d ed. McGraw-Hill, 1999.
Moment, M 3M
Continuous Intermittent
weld welds
Welds
(a) (b)
Improved design
when fatigue
loading is a factor
to be considered
Insufficient
bonding
Poor
Good
FIGURE 12.61 Design guidelines for riveting. Source: Bralla, J.G. (ed.)
Handbook of Product Design for Manufacturing, 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill, 1999.
Oil gallery
Friction
welds
(a) (b)
FIGURE 12.62 The Monosteel piston. (a) Cutaway view of the piston, showing the oil gallery
and friction welded sections; (b) detail of the friction welds before the external flash is removed
by machining; note that this photo is a reverse of the one on the left.