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 Geomorphology 31 1999. 111
Introduction
Engineering geomorphology: an overview of changing the face of
earth
Since the beginning of human history, people and
their activities have changed the face of the earth. In
establishing societies, people have built settlements
along flowing rivers, on highlands with strategic
views of valleys below, and on beaches adjacent to
oceans, seas and lakes. As human society expanded
and required more and more natural resources, the
impacts of their changes increased dramatically. They
developed techniques and technology to extract min-
eral resources, capture and store water, harness the
power of flowing rivers, control the flooding of
rivers, develop and expand ports and rivers for ma-
rine commerce, and develop ways to stabilize dy-
namic slopes to expand the locations of their settle-
ments.
Many of these endeavors, even those in recent
times, developed without an understanding of the
dynamic nature of the surface of earth and became
human adventures that resulted in loss of life and
property. Much of this could have been avoided if
the developers had had an appreciation of how they
were changing the face of the earth in other
words, an appreciation of geomorphology. What no-
bler a role than service for humankind can geomor-
phologists play?
Place and role of engineering geomorphology
The pragmatic role of geomorphology is referred
to by a variety of descriptors, such as applied geo-
morphology, practical geomorphology, environmen-
tal geomorphology, urban geomorphology, and engi-
neering geomorphology. Although all of these terms
0169-555Xr99r$ - see front matter q 1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 1 6 9 - 5 5 5 X 9 9 . 0 0 0 6 9 - 0
describe ways in which geomorphology serves hu-
mankind, we believe the term engineering geomor-
phology is best because it encompasses all of the
other descriptors.
In addition, because a knowledge of geomorphol-
ogy is fundamental to engineering works, engineer-
ing geomorphology best describes the application of
geomorphic theory and techniques to solve earth-re-
lated engineering problems. Engineering geomor-
phology has been a recognized sub-discipline for
more than 20 years and it continues to expand today.
It is important to note that a significant number of
geomorphologists are actually in the primary practice
of engineering geomorphology.
Although geologists do not always seem to appre-
ciate the fundamental differences between physical
geology and geomorphology, geomorphology is
much more than just advanced physical geology.
To differentiate, geomorphology engineering ge-
omorphology in particular concerns the processes
and rates of change in the earth rather than simply
identifying landforms or describing the look of the
landscape. The importance of engineering geomor-
phology has been established over the last 20 years
by the continual, though subtle, focus of the Bing-
hamton Geomorphology Symposium.
Binghamton Geomorphology Symposium contri-
bution to engineering geomorphology
Throughout its history, the Binghamton Geomor-
phology Symposium has been dedicated to address-
2 Introduction
ing real-world problems; so, geomorphology and
its role in service to society have been the focus of
several Binghamton Geomorphology Symposia. The
first of these was the 1970 Binghamton Symposium,
which addressed the role of environmental geomor-
phology. Subsequently, the 7th Annual Symposium
in 1976 was organized around the theme of geomor-
phology and engineering; the 11th Annual Sympo-
sium in 1980 focused on applied geomorphology;
and the 25th Annual Symposium in 1984 focused on
geomorphology and natural hazards.
The 1990s have been declared the International
Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction. The 25th
Binghamton Geomorphology Symposium aptly ad-
dressed this frontier by focusing attention to the role
of geomorphology in identifying and studying natu-
ral hazards. This volume takes the next step: geo-
morphology as the solution to mitigating identified
hazards. The 28th Binghamton Geomorphology
Symposium continues the strong contribution of the
past symposia by focusing on the role of geomor-
phology in the interface between engineering and
geomorphology. The Symposium focused on the pre-
sent and future state of our disciplines contributions
and role in managing the surface of earth.
Today, humans are changing the face of earth
faster than other geomorphic processes. Understand-
ing how these processes work and the consequences
that may result is the fundamental tenant of engineer-
ing geomorphology. Providing an understanding of
potential consequences and how to avoid them is the
of engineering geomorphology. The
raison detre
papers in this volume provide a broad perspective of
the application of engineering geomorphology in the
service to humankind. The perspective is global. We
have attempted to address the interactions between
geomorphic processes and people by bringing to-
gether internationally known and respected scholars
and practitioners.
The present volume is organized around many of
the geomorphic processes. Understanding of the role
of stress in rocks is fundamental to understanding the
stability of a landscape and the implications for
engineering geomorphology. The papers by Romani
and Twidale and by Ehlen and by Hall introduce the
importance of various types of stress from an engi-
neering geomorphology view.
Stress as factor in engineering geomorphology
Romani and Twidale begin by identifying some of
the engineering implications of a variety of stress
forms. Field evidence shows that sheet fractures and
other stress forms result from compressive stress.
Minor forms, such as A-tents or pop-ups, and other
forms of similar origin, pose formidable engineering
challenges. Stress-related interpretations therefore
carry a range of implications for civil engineering
and quarrying projects. The minor forms are also
indicators of seismicity and should be studied within
the framework of the larger regional geologic pic-
ture.
Fracture characteristics in weathered granites is
covered next by Ehlen. The variability of weathered
materials is an important factor in the geotechnical
characterization of rock for engineering purposes.
Most engineering rock mass classifications include
weathering schemes that separate the weathering
profile into zones or grades that depend upon the
engineering and geological properties of the rock.
Many geotechnical characteristics, including weath-
ering, are controlled by the density and arrangement
of fractures within the rock, but the relationships
between fracture patterns and weathering grades are
typically not addressed.
Exposures of weathered granites in eastern Asia
represent all grades of weathering, but no single
exposure exhibits the complete range of weathering.
Separate analyses of visual and tabulated classifica-
tions of joint spacing data were required to provide
representative estimates of joint spacing in the gran-
ite. Mean joint spacing is usually 25% or more close
in weathered granite than it is in fresh granite, and
the difference between the mean spacings for weath-
ered granite and fresh granite tend to be statistically
significant. Although joint spacing distributions for
weathered granite and fresh granite are not statisti-
cally significantly different, there are no significant
differences among the joint spacing frequency distri-
butions for the different grades of weathered granite.
Fractal analysis of joint spacings suggests spacing
characteristics of fresh and slightly weathered granite
are very different from those in moderately, highly,
and completely weathered granite. Sampling of
three-dimensional models for weathered and fresh
 Introduction
granite supports this assertion. In an engineering
context, this suggests that joint spacing relationships
in the various grades of weathered granite can be
treated as the same regardless of weathering grade
and that joint patterns in fresh granite must be
evaluated separately. This knowledge could result in
significant time and cost savings in the geotechnical
characterization of these materials.
Hall discusses the role of thermal stress fatigue in
the breakdown of rock in cold regions. Many geo-
morphological studies ignore the role of thermal
stress fatigue even though engineers have long main-
tained that thermal stress is an effective process.
Physicists and the ceramics industry have provided a
theoretical foundation to explain the nature and mode
of operation of thermal breakdown. Recent geomor-
phological studies have since shown the importance
of thermal stress in cold regions by means of high-
frequency rock temperature data which can identify
rates of temperature change in excess of 28C miny1 .
Such studies show that the occurrence of weathered
material in cold but dry regions can be explained by
thermal stressrshock that is strongly influenced by
differences in radiation received on slopes of varying
orientation and gradient.
Engineering geomorphology in arctic, mountain
and tropical environments
The important role geomorphology plays in vari-
ous environments is addressed by a series of papers.
begins this section by examining the role
M. Seppala
of engineering geomorphology in road construction
in an arctic environment. Burger, Degenhardt and
Giardino present a study that examines the engineer-
ing geomorphology of rock glaciers in alpine envi-
ronments. Gupta and Ahmad change the focus from
arctic and alpine environments to a tropical environ-
ment in their paper that addresses engineering geo-
morphology in the urban tropics.
Geomorphological principles are especially useful
for road construction in cold environments. By look-
ing at the road construction practices used in Finland
and at the geomorphological aspects involved,
reveals that road contractors could save
Seppala
money in building and maintenance costs by consid-
ering the geomorphic facts. Examples from Finland
document why road construction is very expensive in
3
areas with severe winters. In Finland, more paved
roads cross the Arctic Circle than in the whole of
North America. Geomorphic elements such as es-
kers, drumlins, mires, steep rock cliffs, river chan-
nels and ice-dams, fluvial erosion, and palsas ad-
versely affect road construction in cold environ-
ments. Solutions to these problems include removal
of frost-sensible materials and replacement by more
favorable sediments.
When road surfaces are kept snow-free in severe
winter weather, they are subjected to deep freezing.
However, these roads can be maintained in ways that
address snowdrift and icing problems, avoid geomor-
phic factors that cause problems, and use natural
processes to help people. Two examples of how road
construction affects geomorphic processes are:
bridges that block moving river ice and ice that
forms along roadbanks.
Rock glaciers, which are common in the alpine
environment, are landforms that require engineering
consideration during construction projects. Burger et
al. review the engineering geomorphology of rock
glaciers and explain guidelines for how they should
be used. As the reader will note, the partnership
between geomorphology and engineering facilitates
the development of human settlements in harsh alpine
environments. Rock glaciers provide locations for
urban water sources, drill sites, shaft and tunnel
portals, ski tower supports, and dam abutments. As
dynamic landforms, rock glaciers must be properly
identified in the field. Placing structures on, in, or
adjacent to rock glaciers requires an appreciation and
understanding of their temporal stability.
Rock glaciers play a significant role in the natural
transport of alpine debris. Two obvious geologic
hazards of rock glaciers are active movement and
mass wasting. However, the structure of the rock
glacier is conducive to the production of a steady,
continuous supply of melt water during summer
months. Thus, rock glaciers can and do serve as
alpine aquifers. Water quality studies done on some
alpine rock glaciers seem to indicate that they can
provide quality potable water. However, caution
should be exercised before tapping into the potential
aquifer because of the long-term impact of climate
change on the temporal nature of the landform.
Human development of the alpine environment
has provided a foundation for the appreciation and
4 Introduction
understanding of rock glaciers from an engineering
geomorphologic point of view. Important informa-
tion gleaned from recent geomorphological studies
has aided both engineers and engineering geologists
in prudently evaluating rock glaciers as potential
sites for human development.
Gupta and Ahmad examine geomorphology in the
urban tropics in terms of a developing interface
between research and practical application. Rapid
urbanization in developing countries provides abun-
dant opportunity to interface geomorphological re-
search and usage in the urban tropics. Many cities in
tropical developing countries were established one or
two hundred years ago to function as regional trad-
ing posts or administrative centers by either colonial
or regional powers. It is doubtful that the site condi-
tions were taken into consideration, and conse-
quently, many of these cities were established in
hazardous or environmentally sensitive areas. As
these cities developed over time, they spread across a
wide range of terrain conditions, including unsuitable
areas such as floodplains, coastal swamps, steep
slopes, or sand dunes. For a number of these cities,
which are located near active plate margins and
tropical cyclone belts, such problems are magnified.
Increased demand for water has required subsurface
extraction, leading to problems of subsidence and
quality.
City management requires interfacing geomor-
phology with engineering practices and urban plan-
ning. This can be especially challenging, for precise
geomorphological and geological information and
long-term data sets are not available for most cities.
Furthermore, it is necessary to present such informa-
tion in formats appreciated by the engineering and
planning communities. Often a set of specialized
maps is extremely useful. Collection of geomorpho-
logical information and inventory preparation for
communicating geomorphological data to city engi-
neers and planners is therefore paramount and must
be done in the most effective manner possible.
Engineering geomorphology in karst environ-
ments
Groundwater and its effects is a topic that until
fairly recently has received limited attention in the
engineering geomorphology literature. This impor-
tant geomorphological process has been more or less
relegated to the domain of the hydrogeologists. The
paper by Veni demonstrates the important role geo-
morphologists can play in environmental impact as-
sessments of karst regions.
In their efforts to protect regional groundwater
supplies, governmental agencies are increasingly re-
quiring studies of karst areas and their features. Veni
presents a geomorphological strategy for conducting
environmental impact assessments in such areas. In
areas where tracer tests or geophysics are not re-
quired, funded, or otherwise feasible, geomorpholog-
ical methods remain as the primary tool for assessing
karst. The methods are flexible and can be general-
ized or fine-tuned to accommodate regional varia-
tions. Biological and other resource issues can also
be assessed with this strategy.
In karst areas with relatively small features, exca-
vation is a key tool for accurate assessment. How-
ever, the assessment will help city planners and
engineers to better manage karst areas; proper man-
agement must also occur on a regional scale. The
highly permeable nature of karst precludes adequate
management solely on a feature-by-feature basis.
Studies of the relationship of water quality to imper-
vious cover show that adverse environmental im-
pacts increase significantly when impervious cover
exceeds 15% of the surface of a watershed. Similar
impacts in a number of groundwater drainage basins
support the argument that a 15% impervious cover is
a regionally effective means of protecting karst
aquifers when coupled with protection of critical
areas identified by field surveys.
Mass movement and engineering geomorphology
Humans enjoy viewing broad vistas. The quest for
a view has caused humans to settle on higher and
steeper lands. Thus, mass movement plays an impor-
tant role in engineering geomorphology. The paper
by Guzzetti, Carrara, Cardinali, and Reichenbach
and the paper by Rosenfeld provide an excellent
overview of the importance of understanding mass
movement processes. In many mountain regions, the
growing demand for forest products and food has
 Introduction
forced intensive land use on steep terrain, many
times triggering mass movement.
Guzzetti et al. present a review of current tech-
niques for evaluating landslide hazards in a multi-
scale study in central Italy. In recent years, growing
population and expansion of settlements and life-lines
over hazardous areas have greatly increased the im-
pact of natural disasters in both industrialized and
developing countries. Third-world countries have
difficulty meeting the high costs of controlling natu-
ral hazards through major engineering works and
rational land-use planning. However, even industrial-
ized societies are becoming reluctant to invest money
in structural measures that can reduce natural risks.
Hence, the new trend is to implement warning sys-
tems and land utilization regulations aimed at mini-
mizing the loss of lives and property without invest-
ing in long-term, costly projects of ground stabiliza-
tion.
Several methods for assessing landslide hazard
have been proposed or implemented. The reliability
of maps and the criteria behind most hazard evalua-
tions are often poorly prepared or poorly docu-
mented. In addition, geomorphological information
remains largely descriptive and subjective. There-
fore, it is somewhat unsuitable for use by engineers,
policy makers or developers when planning land
resources and mitigating the effects of geological
hazards.
In the Umbria and Marche Regions of Central
Italy, attempts are being made to test the proficiency
and limitations of multivariate statistical techniques
as well as different methodologies for dividing the
territory into suitable areas for landslide hazard as-
sessment at various scales. The results of these ex-
periments show that, despite the operational and
conceptual limitations, landslide hazard assessment
may indeed constitute a suitable, cost-effective aid to
land-use planning. Within this framework, engineer-
ing geomorphology may play a renewed role in
assessing areas at high landslide hazard, and helping
mitigate the associated risk.
Aerial videography, another relatively new tech-
nology, is being used for storm damage assessment
in commercial forestry. Rosenfield covers the impli-
cations to forest engineering brought on by storm-in-
duced mass-wasting in the Oregon Coast Range,
USA. Severe winter storms, under conditions of high
5
antecedent moisture and a substantial snow pack at
higher elevations, pose a threat for rapid flooding
and a large number of precipitation induced land-
slides. In 1996, the Oregon Coast Range experienced
a severe winter storm 50-year return interval magni-
tude. that resulted in a large number of mass-wasting
events. Many land managers underestimated the
number of events based on the magnitude of the
storm event 50-year return interval.. Both ground
and aerial surveys were used to characterize the
nature of these events and relate the occurrence of
mass wasting activity to the topography, geology,
and land management activities of the region.
Given the efforts to enhance and protect anadro-
mous fish rearing habitat in the regions perennial
streams, aerial videography has helped forest engi-
neers to explore the implications of current and past
forest engineering practices, and suggests that engi-
neering efforts to deconstruct the legacy of old
roads and culvert systems may be appropriate in the
drainage basins with the highest potential habitat
values.
The role of engineering geomorphology in fluvial
and wetland systems
Streams are present in all environments, and wa-
ter is fundamental to human survival. Thus, the focus
on fluvial geomorphology is a major focus of this
present volume. The various papers by Gilvear; by
Harbor; by James; by Bravard, Landon, Peiry and
Piegay; by Marston and Dolan; by Schick, Grodek,
and Wolman; by Anthony and Julian; by Whittecar
and Daniels; and by Hooke provide an excellent
overview of rivers in various environments. The two
papers by Whittecar and Daniels and by Hooke
underpin the important idea that streams connect
environments. These two papers also serve as a
transition to the papers dealing with geomorphic
processes in coastal environments.
A relationship between fluvial geomorphology and
river engineering is emerging, brought about by in-
creasing public scrutiny after the failure of river
engineering to prevent flood hazards and the associ-
ated economic and environmental concerns. In this
light, Gilvear discusses future roles utilizing a fluvial
hydrosystems framework. Fluvial geomorphology
needs to be an integral part in engineering projects,
6 Introduction
that is, to be integral to the planning, implementa-
tion, and post-project appraisal stages of engineering
projects. Its use should be proactive rather than
reactive. Geomorphologists can assist engineers in
several areas of river management, including risk
and environmental impact assessment, floodplain
planning, river audits, determination of instream flow
needs, river restoration, and design of ecologically
acceptable channels and structures.
Fluvial geomorphology can contribute substan-
tially to the engineering involved in floodplain man-
agement. First the lateral, vertical and downstream
connectivity in fluvial systems must be recognized as
should the interrelationships between the river plan-
form, profile, and cross section. It is also important
to understand fluvial history and chronology over a
range of time scales, and to recognize the signifi-
cance of both palaeo and active landforms as well as
deposits as indicators of levels of landscape stability.
The sensitivity of geomorphic systems to environ-
mental disturbances must also be highlighted, espe-
cially for systems close to geomorphic thresholds.
Ecologically acceptable engineering practices ulti-
mately must be promoted with biotope and landform
processes considered.
Major challenges facing fluvial geomorphology
involve gaining full acceptance by the engineering
profession and adapting to the widespread utilization
of new technologies such as Global Positioning Sys-
tems GPS., Geographic Information Systems GIS.,
image analysis of satellite and airborne remote sens-
ing data, computer-based hydraulic modeling, and
geophysical techniques. These technologies must
dovetail with engineering approaches to the study of
river channels which emphasize reach-scale flow
resistance, shear stresses, material strength with
catchment scale geomorphic approaches, empirical
predictions, bed and bank processes, landform evolu-
tion, and magnitudefrequency concepts. In a funda-
mental sense, joint effort must be made between
disciplines to produce accepted river channel typolo-
gies and to conduct research aimed at generating
more reliable deterministic equations for prediction
of bed and bank stability and bedload transport.
Geomorphologists should also collaborate with
aquatic biologists to determine the role and impor-
tance of geomorphologically and hydraulically de-
fined habitats.
Harbor discusses the application of engineering
geomorphology to erosion and sediment control on
construction sites. Construction site management,
traditionally dominated by professional engineers,
provides an important opportunity for engineers and
geomorphologists to work together in minimizing the
environmental impacts of land disturbance. Areas
disturbed for construction are an important compo-
nent of nonpoint source pollution that degrades sur-
face water quality. Increased regulatory require-
ments, combined with efforts to identify and publi-
cize the benefits of erosion control, are increasing
the number of construction sites on which erosion
control efforts are being implemented.
Geomorphologists have the opportunity to play an
active role in erosion and sediment control by imple-
menting knowledge of erosion and sedimentation
processes and of the variables that effect these pro-
cesses. Pre-project geomorphological site assess-
ments allow project designers to work around areas
with high erosion potential, and to stage and sched-
ule land disturbing activities to minimize erosion
potential. Design and implementation of engineering
control measures, however, requires an understand-
ing of erosion and sedimentation processes, and in
many cases incorrect installation and maintenance
limits their effectiveness. Regular on-site inspections
and training by geomorphologists specializing in ero-
sion control can ensure that measures are being
installed and maintained correctly, and allow the
inspector to modify the erosion control plan to deal
with changing conditions and unanticipated prob-
lems. In addition, geomorphologists and engineers
can use their combined understanding of erosion
processes and construction site realities to develop
innovative, practical measures to improve erosion
control.
On a larger scale, James considers the relationship
of river engineering and fluvial geomorphology in
terms of time and the persistence of alluvium. Many
river systems are presently in a state of flux as a
result of substantial anthropogenic changes to water
and sediment regimes and channel hydraulics. Yet,
historical approaches to understanding river systems
rarely receive adequate attention because historical
methodologies are less conducive to the application
of quantitative analysis. Geomorphology provides a
perspective on river systems in which time at
 Introduction
various scales is interwoven into practical and
theoretical aspects of scientific inquiry. Thus, geo-
morphology is important to our understanding of not
only physical systems but also fundamental concepts
of time.
A historical approach was used effectively to
study changes in channel morphology resulting from
sedimentation from hydraulic gold mining during the
mid- to late-1800s in the Northern Sierra Nevada.
Engineers as well as geomorphologists attributed the
changes to ephemeral morphologic responses. Al-
though it was believed that sediment loads returned
to previous levels, and that deposits were stabilized,
it was shown that morphological responses occurred
in phase with mining operations during this period.
Thus, systematic changes in stage-discharge relation-
ships reflect channel morphological changes that are
relevant to flood risk assessments, stability of engi-
neering structures on floodplains, and geomorphic
interpretations.
Over the centuries, French rivers have been trans-
formed by social development projects that include
hydro-electric power generation, flood control, navi-
gation, and erosion abatement. These modifications
have had detrimental effects on the ecology and
natural resources of the region, and are therefore
related directly or indirectly to geomorphological
changes in the fluvial system. Increased public and
management awareness of these problems have fos-
tered a new appreciation, giving rise to the formula-
tion of specific objectives to support long-term man-
agement strategies in the field of river engineering
and fluvial geomorphology. The contribution by
Bravard et al. deals with the principles of engineer-
ing geomorphology that are being used to manage
channel erosion and bedload transport in rivers that
drain the French Alps and their piedmont. Their
engineering geomorphology approach, as applied
to gravel-bed rivers in Southeastern France, ad-
dresses the future of changing landscapes and
ecosystems.
Marston and Dolan examine the effectiveness of
sediment control measures relative to spatial patterns
of upland soil loss in an arid watershed. Arid water-
sheds, such as those located in the state of Wyoming,
have been the subject of sediment control measures
designed to mitigate upland soil loss. Rainfall simu-
lation experiments show that gross soil erosion is
7
closely related to slope gradient, vegetation density,
and soil texture. Digitized drainage maps, combined
with a geographic information system, can be used
effectively to depict the spatial pattern of soil mobi-
lization in upland regions. Using this technique,
gross soil erosion in badland areas of Wyoming was
found to be extreme when compared to the remain-
der of the drainage. Evaluation of the structural and
non-structural sediment control strategies employed
in the basin were found to be ill-suited to these
badland areas.
Schick et al. address the hydrologic processes and
geomorphic constraints on urbanization of alluvial
fan slopes. Increased urbanization of alluvial fan
slopes is drawing attention to the hydrologic pro-
cesses that act on slopes and the resulting geomor-
phic constraints. The natural array of processes con-
veying water and sediment from arid mountain
catchments, through alluvial fans, into the base level
below is affected by human intervention to an extent
unknown until a few years ago. Previously, perme-
able fan terrain is being replaced more and more by
paved impermeable surfaces, making drainage prob-
lematic. In addition, high sediment yields, supplied
by steep catchments, create situations difficult to
manage in terms of effective economical and envi-
ronmentally sensitive criteria.
The general inadequacy of structural attempts to
fully control floods emanating onto alluvial fans,
warrants consideration of local, low-key engineering
intervention strategies to protect fan settlements.
Several aspects of the considerations involved are
illustrated by examples from the town of Eilat,
Southern Negev Desert, Israel, a dynamically devel-
oping international tourist resort.
Steep coastal margins are potentially subject to
mass wasting processes involving notable landslide
activity and sediment evacuation downstream by
steep-gradient streams. Anthony and Julian bring our
attention to problems associated with environmental
engineering and hazard mitigation issues associated
with source-to-sink sediment transfers in the steep
Var River catchment, French Riviera, southeastern
France. Sediment transfer from short source-to-sink
segments, coupled with mountain hydrological
regimes, regulate patterns of river channel aggrada-
tion and coastal sediment supply in such geomorphic
settings. Mass movements and channel sediment
8 Introduction
storage pose serious hazards to downvalley settle-
ments and infrastructure.
A consideration of channel sediment storage pat-
terns highlights two important shortcomings relative
to environmental engineering and hazard mitigation
practices. First, the appreciation of geomorphic pro-
cesses is rather poor. This is illustrated by the under-
sized nature of engineering works constructed to
mitigate hazards in the upstream bedload-dominated
channels, and by the unforeseen effects that 10 rock
dams, constructed in the early 1970s, have had on
downstream and coastal sediment storage and on
sediment dispersal patterns and, consequently, valley
flooding. Secondly, planners and environmental en-
gineers have lacked foresight in valley and coastal
management issues on this steep setting, notably as
regards the reclaimed areas that are liable to flood-
ing. Meanwhile, the problems raised by these changes
have not been adequately addressed in terms of
scientific research.
A necessary future step in bettering the engineer-
ing solutions implemented to contain natural hazards
or to harness water and sediment resources is that of
fine-scale analysis of source-to-sink sediment trans-
fer processes, of sediment budgets, of time-scales of
storage in stream channels, and, finally, of high-
magnitude hydro-meteorological forcing events in
this area. The way all these aspects have been modu-
lated by engineering practices and socioeconomic
development should also be an important part of
such an analysis.
Hydrogeomorphic HGM. concepts have proven
instrumental in the design of created wetlands. Whit-
tecar and Daniels explain the use of hydrogeomor-
phic concepts to design created wetlands in south-
eastern Virginia. Mitigation wetlands constructed in
southeastern Virginia during the past decade have
experienced problems with inappropriate water lev-
els, excessive erosion and sedimentation, low levels
of soil organic matter, overly compacted substrates,
and sulfidic soils. Most of these problems can be
recognized in the future with adequate planning that
permits sufficient study of the geomorphic and hy-
drologic processes active at the mitigation site, and if
greater attention is given to the history of geomor-
phic processes that created natural wetlands in that
area.
New procedures of assessing wetland functions
that use the HGM classification of wetlands require
examination of both surface and subsurface pro-
cesses. If these HGM concepts are expanded to
include geomorphic evolution, they will greatly im-
prove recent practices in the design and construction
of mitigation wetlands.
Hooke recaps the changes that have occurred in
fluvial engineering and coastal management resulting
from the application of geomorphology over the last
decade. Considerable achievements have been gained
in raising awareness of the nature of geomorphic
processes and their dynamics, and of how the under-
standing of geomorphology can aid effective man-
agement and decision making on engineering strate-
gies. Over the past 10 years in the United Kingdom,
major developments have been made in the arenas of
coastal and fluvial geomorphology. Specifically, this
has meant an improved understanding of intercon-
nectedness in geomorphic systems and the long-term
variability of processes and landforms. Radical
changes in both policies and decision-making frame-
works have taken place such that the approach to
coastal and river management adopted by the British
Government is now to work with nature. Like-
wise, management structures have been implemented
to facilitate and encourage integrated planning.
Engineering geomorphology is now in a second
phase of answering geomorphological questions, pro-
viding geomorphological information, and imple-
menting management in accordance with the princi-
ples advocated. Future developments will involve
major changes in geomorphology which will stem
from radical alterations of scientific theories, philos-
ophy, and methods. Modelling and response predic-
tions must be done in ways that adequately deal with
complexity, positive feedback, non-linearity, and
holism. Questions also remain with regard to the
links between geomorphology and engineering, and
about the extent to which geomorphology will pro-
vide application-oriented solutions, both nationally
and internationally. Provided the requisite spatial and
temporal data are available, the opportunity exists for
further advancements in geomorphology, fueled by
theoretical and technological developments which
can be directly transferred to the realm of environ-
mental engineering.
 Introduction
Engineering geomorphology in coastal and deep
water environments
The coastal environment is another environment
that has been conquered by humans. The paper
by Brunsden and Moore provides a view and lessons
from Great Britain that have a global view. The final
paper by Prior and Hooper illustrates another envi-
ronment that has been ignored by geomorphologists
and relegated to the domain of the geological
oceanographer. They convincingly demonstrate that
the blue water environment is an area of present
engineering geomorphology as well in the future.
Brunsden and Moore also examine the lessons
learned in coastal engineering geomorphology as it is
practiced in Great Britain. Coastal management usu-
ally deals directly with the cause, effect and influ-
ence of natural processes on housing developments,
industrial districts, and other human constructs. When
geomorphological investigation is applied to coastal
management, decisions pertaining to specific projects
may be affected by historical legacies and public or
administrative attitudes. Modern attitudes to the coast
in Great Britain are exemplified in areas such as the
Dorset coast of southwest England in light of recent
studies by the Department of the Environment and
the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food. The
case of the Dorset coast illustrates the historical
legacy of use and brings to light the problems of
contemporary coastal management. It also offers an
environment where the natural geomorphological
principles of landscape design might be employed as
part of the guiding concepts.
Prior and Hooper discuss recent achievements and
future directions in seafloor engineering geomor-
phology. New mapping technologies are providing
perspectives of the sea unencumbered by the im-
mense ocean cover. Ocean floors are beginning to
reveal a wide variety of relief, sediment properties,
and active geologic processes such as erosion, fault-
ing, fluid expulsion, and landslides. The develop-
ment of coastal and offshore resources, such as oil
and gas and minerals, involves sea floor engineering
in remote, complex, and sometimes hazardous envi-
ronments. Optimum engineering design and con-
struction practice require detailed surveys of sea
floor geomorphology, geologic conditions on the sea
bed and to various depths beneath it.
9
Integrated site survey models attempt to predict
conditions and process frequencies and magnitudes
relevant to the engineering design lifetimes of sea
floor installations, such as cables, pipelines, produc-
tion platforms, as well as supporting coastal infras-
tructure such as jetties, wharves, bridges and har-
bors. Recent use of deep water areas for oil and gas
production, pipelines, and cable routes is also show-
ing that the immense slopes beyond the continental
shelves contain exciting, exotic, and enigmatic geo-
morphological features and processes. Exciting tech-
nical and conceptual advances in seafloor geomor-
phology are now aimed at safe and effective engi-
neering in these environments.
Future of engineering geomorphology
The future for engineering geomorphology is
bright. However, we cannot pass up this opportunity
to underscore the importance that geomorphologists
around the world do not neglect a fundamental area
as well as pursue and embrace new technologies.
Education is fundamental to minimizing disastrous
consequences resulting from a lack of understanding
or appreciation of the interaction between humans
and geomorphology. Geomorphologists must accept
the responsibility to minimize the disastrous conse-
quences through participation in both formal and
informal education of the citizens of the world. With
education human-caused disasters can be minimized;
without knowledge we are doomed to repeat our
mistakes and suffer the consequences of increased
loss of property and life.
The world wide web provides an unprecedented
opportunity to bring understanding of geomorphol-
ogy from primary through university to the general
populace. Web sites dedicated to various aspects of
geomorphology and engineering geomorphology are
increasing daily. Virtual reality is the opportunity to
appreciate and understand through interactive view-
ing. Virtual reality provides real-time visualization of
dynamic processes if a picture is worth a thou-
sand words then a three-dimensional visualization is
conservatively worth 10 6 .
GIS and GPS are two technologies that are having
and will continue to have a dramatic impact on the
practice of engineering geomorphology. GPS is be-
10 Introduction
ginning to provide an accurate method to cost-effec-
tively collect large amounts of spatially-referenced
data in the field. Point, line and polygon data can be
acquired with a standard GPS unit. Spatially-refer-
enced field data can be exported as input to a typical
GIS software package.
GIS is providing engineering geomorphologists
with a system to efficiently map, measure, monitor,
and model engineering geomorphological data. The
GIS has the ability to handle both raster and vector
data. Both temporal and spatial data can be accom-
modated. The analysis and modeling strengths of the
GIS are just beginning to be acknowledged by engi-
neering geomorphologists. The GIS and GPS will be
major components of the engineering geomorpholo-
gists toolbox in the 21st century.
Becoming involved in policy formulation will be
a major new arena for engineering geomorphologists
in the next millennium. Geomorphologists have for
too long not appreciated the importance of being a
contributing part of the policy developing and writ-
ing machine at the local, state and federal level. We
have abdicated our responsibilities, as scientists, to
legislative staffs under the rubric of science is not
partisan. It is our job and our responsibility to do
quality science and to make sure that the policies
that are enacted to protect the general populace from
the vagaries of nature are based on good science. It
is further our duty to ensure that the relevant science
makes its way to the legislatures responsible for
writing the legislative policies. Geomorphologists for
too long have shied away from policy, believing that
science and policy do not go well together. The truth
is science should and must be the foundation and
guardrails for good policy.
A final note
Our goal with this volume was to have authors
address the contributions and challenges of engineer-
ing geomorphology through a focus on accomplish-
ments, opportunities and directions for the future of
engineering geomorphology. A diverse group of sci-
entists have provided an international perspective on
concepts and techniques in engineering geomorphol-
ogy.
The overall messages the symposium delivered
were that a. work done in all types of geomorphic
environments illustrates how a science-based under-
standing of geomorphic processes and boundary con-
ditions provides a critical part of the information
required to arrive at an appropriate, cost-effective
approach to engineering geomorphology; b. there
are many important and exciting new research direc-
tions that geomorphologists could be pursuing to
provide the information necessary for wise manage-
ment of the earth; c. geomorphologists and engi-
neers often approach problems differently, each with
preconceived notions and standard approaches that
may or may not be appropriate in a specific case; d.
collaborative, interdisciplinary work requires a broad
perspective and dedication to complete understand-
ing that often yields solutions and insights that nei-
ther side would have come up with individually; e.
geomorphologists main contributions include a good
understanding of processes, spatial and temporal scale
and variability, and interactions between humans and
processes; f. a common failing of geomorphologists
worldwide is their lack of understanding of regula-
tory and decision making processes, and a tendency
to suggest solutions that are great in theory but
unworkable in practice. This symposium demon-
strated that there are good examples of geomorphol-
ogists taking active roles in the development of new
regulatory approaches. We hope that this symposium
and this volume will serve to focus attention on both
research and application in the critical area of engi-
neering geomorphology. Through this awareness ge-
omorphologists will step forward and claim their
heritage and future-engineering geomorphology.
All the papers in this volume were subjected to
critical peer review. We thank the following individ-
uals for their help in reviewing the papers for this
volume: David Alexander University of Mas-
sachusetts.; Ken Barrick University of Alaska at
Fairbanks.; Bernie Bauer University of Southern
California and National Science Foundation.; Terry
Brock U.S. Forest Service, Juneau, AK.; George A.
Brook University of Georgia.; David Butler South-
west Texas State University.; Fred Chambers Uni-
versity of Colorado at Denver.; Cathy Connor Uni-
versity of Alaska Southeast.; Derrick C. Ford Mc-
Master University.; Will Graf Arizona State Univer-
sity.; Wilford Haerberli University of Zurich.; Carol
 Introduction
Harden University of Tennessee.; Paul Lapoint
Golder Associates, Redmond, WA.; M.C. Larson
U.S. Geological Survey, Puerto Rico.; Andrew
Marcus Montana State University.; Jim McCloy
Texas A & M University.; Andrew Miller Univer-
sity of Maryland at Baltimore County.; Roman Mo-
tyka University of Alaska Southeast.; Fritz Nelson
University of Delaware.; Mike ONeill Utah State
University and U.S. Department of Agriculture.; Rick
Noll Alaska Department of Natural Resources.;
Patrick P. Peases East Carolina University.; Noel
Potter, Jr. Dickinson College.; Chuck Rosenfeld
Oregon State University.; Doug Sherman Univer-
sity of Southern California.; George Veni Veni and
Associates, San Antonio, TX.; Jack Vitek Oklahoma
State University.; and H. Jesse Walker Louisiana
State University.. We are also indebted to Jana
Corley, Sherry Boyd, John Degenhardt, and Nancy
Sawtelle for help in organizing the manuscripts and
figures for the papers. We also thank Carolyn Cobb
and David Jennings for the design of the cover.
We began the organization of the 28th Bingham-
ton Geomorphology Symposium Engineering Ge-
omorphology: Changing the Face of Earth at the
joint meeting of the Third International Geomorphol-
ogy Association and the 24th Binghamton Geomor-
phology Symposium held at McMaster University in
Hamilton, Canada in 1995. We were the three orga-
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11
nizers: Giardino, Marston and Morisawa. Marie as a
co-founder of the Binghamton Geomorphology Sym-
posium was very enthusiastic and excited about tak-
ing the Binghamton Symposium to its farthest east-
ern location Bologna, Italy. It is sad that Maries
untimely death cheated her of the opportunity to
partake of the excellent scholarship at the meeting
and the culture of the setting. It is fitting that the
University of Bologna, the oldest university in the
western world, served as the venue for this meeting.
We dedicated the 28th Binghamton Geomorphol-
ogy Symposium to our colleague, Marie Morisawa.
John R. Giardino
Office of the Vice President for
Research and Associate Proost for
Graduate Studies and Departments of
Geology and Geophysics and Geography,
Texas A & M Uniersity,
College Station, TX 77843-1113, USA
E-mail address: rickg@tamu.edu
Richard A. Marston
School of Geology,
Oklahoma State Uniersity,
Stillwater, OK 74078-4073, USA
E-mail address: marston@okstate.edu