Flight Vehicle Design

Flight vehicle design
Department of Aeronautical Engineering 1

Table of contents
1. Aircraft Design
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Purpose and scope of aircraft design
1.3 Phases of design
2. Design procedure for Aircraft
2.1 Specification
2.2 Preliminary weight estimation
2.3 Performance calculation
2.4 Mock up
2.5 Second weight estimation
2.6 Arrangement
2.7 Software Required
3 Experiments
3.1 Part1-Aircraft design and weight estimation nomenclature
3.1.1 Experiment1: Aircraft conceptual sketch and its gross weight
estimation algorithm
3.1.2 Experiment2: Preliminary weight estimation (Rubber sizing)
3.1.3 Experiment3: Trade off study on initial (Rubber sizing)
3.1.4 Experiment4: Fixed sizing
3.1.5 Experiment5: Load or Induced Drag Estimation
3.1.6 Experiment6: Estimate the Critical Mach number for an Airfoil
3.2 Part II Aircraft Performance
3.2.1 Experiment: 7 Static Performance: Thrust required curve
3.2.2 Experiment: 8 Static Performance: Power required curve
3.3 Part III Airfoil and geometry selection, determination of thrust to weight ratio, wing loading.
3.4 Part IV Space Flight Vehicle Design

1.AIRCRAFT DESIGN
1.1 Introduction;
Aircraft design is both arts and science and is a separate discipline of aeronautical
engineering different from the analytical discipline such as aerodynamics, structure, control and
propulsion. It is the intellectual engineering process of creating on paper a flying machine to
1) Meet certain specification
2) Certain pioneer innovative, new ideas and technology
Aircraft design is by its nature an iterative process. This means that estimates
and assumptions have sometimes to be made with inadequate data. Such guesstimates must be
checked when more accurate data on the aircraft is available. Requirements are set by prior design trade
studies. Concepts are developed to meet requirement, design analysis frequently points towards new
concepts and technologies, which can initiate a whole new design effort. All of these activities are equally
important in producing a good aircraft concept.
The start of the design process requires the recognition of a need. This normally comes from a
project brief or a request for proposals (RFP).
1.2 Purpose and scope of aircraft design:
An airplane is designed to meet the functional and safety requirements. The actual process of
design is a task involving
a) Selection of airplane type and data
b) Determination of the geometric parameter
c) Selection of power plant
d) Structural design and the analysis of various component
e) Determination of airplane flight and operational characteristics
1.3 Phases of design

1.3.1 Preliminary design:

It briefly describes the overall process by which an aircraft is designed. The preliminary phase
(sometimes called the conceptual design stage) starts with the project brief and ends when the designers
have found and refined a feasible baseline design layout. It provides a route map from the initial project
brief to the validated baseline aircraft layout. This includes sections that deal with
1.Defining and understanding the problem
2.Collecting useful information
3.Setting the aircraft requirements.
4.Initial aircraft configuration is produced.
Finally the initial aircraft layout can be refined using constraint analysis and trade-off studies. At
the end of the preliminary design phase, a document is produced which contains a summary of the
technical and geometric details known about the baseline design. This forms the initial draft of a
document that will be subsequently revised to contain a thorough description of the aircraft. This is known
as the aircraft Type Specification.
The Preliminary Design Phase Tasks Includes:
a) Layout of the main component
b) Arrangement of airplane equipment and control system.
c) Selection of power plant
d) Aerodynamic and stability calculation
e) Preliminary structural design of components
f) Weight estimation and C.G travel
g) Preliminary wind tunnel and structural design
h) Drafting the preliminary 3D view drawing and preparation of virtue,
1.3.2 Project design:
It takes the aircraft configuration defined towards the end of the preliminary design phase and
involves conducting detailed analysis to improve the technical confidence in the design.
1. Wind tunnel tests and computational fluid dynamic analysis are used to refine the aerodynamic
shape of the aircraft.
2. Finite element analysis is used to understand the structural integrity. Stability and control
analysis and simulations will be used to appreciate the flying characteristics.
3. Mass and balance estimations will be performed in increasingly fine detail.
4. Operational factors (cost, maintenance and marketing) and manufacturing processes will be
investigated to determine what effects these may have on the final design layout. All these investigations
will be done so that we will be able to take a decision to proceed to manufacture

1.3.3 Detailed design:

The third phase of the design process (detail design) starts when a decision to build the aircraft
has been taken. In this phase, all the details of the aircraft are translated into drawings, manufacturing
instructions and supply requests (subcontractor agreements and purchase orders). Progressively,
throughout this phase, these instructions are released to the manufacturers.
1.3.4Tasks of design phases;
Preliminary design Freeze the configuration,
Develop lofting,
Develop test and analytical test,
Design major items,
Develop actual cost estimate,
Project design Development of wind tunnel model and detailed model

study,
Stress analysis of individual component includes static,
dynamic, fatigue, and aero elasticity,
Aerodynamic analysis by wind tunnel and CFD,
Detailed design: Design the actual pieces to be built,

Design the tooling and fabrication process,
Test major items-structure landing gear,
Finalize weight and performances estimates,
Flight test analysis,

2. DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR AIRCRAFTS

First think in aircraft design is to know what type of aircraft to be designed and size, purpose. Hence
designer must familiarize with specification and command on existing aircraft.
2.1 Specification
2.1.1 General specifications for general Aircraft.
These specifications made by the customers based on their requirement, or based on the market
survey and it potential to establish superiority.
Larger, more comfortable seats with more leg room. (Better, comfort and service
Levels)
Premium in-flight service (better meals, free drinks, more selection of movies and a wider choice
of entertainment options).
Separation from tourist-class passengers in airport lounges during boarding, and on board of the
aircraft (for mixed-class operations).
Faster flight check-in and post-flight luggage retrieval.
Direct flights without delays at airports, especially on longer journeys
Advanced technologies to reduce operating costs
Operate from regional airports
Alternative roles for the aircraft
2.1.2 Design specification (general)

Designer prior to design establishes these specifications, based on customer requirement, economy,
type, size and purpose.
No of Engine
Wing type
Material used
Landing gear type
In general for passenger aircraft
Engine two or more
Cantilever wing
Metal/composite
Retractable landing gear

Performance requirement
1) Range
2) Take-off distance
3) Stalling velocity
4) Endurance
5) Maximum velocity
6) Rate of climb
7) Maximum turn radius and minimum turn radius
8) Maximum load factor
9) Service ceiling
10) Cost
11) Reliability and maintainability
12) Maximum size
2.1.3 Station specification (general)
First station (compartment)
Accommodate pilot, co pilot and forward portion,
It should be isolated from passenger compartment by bulkhead with doors.
Passenger compartment
Located next to cockpit
Passenger compartment provides comfortable seats
It contains Windows in fuselage for each passenger or seat position.
Mail and baggage
Located at nose, under cockpit and cabin floor.
Should accessible from left or port side.
Lavatory
Located after of passenger compartment,

2.2 Preliminary weight estimation

2.2.1 Introduction
No airplane can get of the ground unless it can produce a lift greater than its weight. And no
airplane design process can get off the ground without the first estimate of the gross take-off weight.. In
Preliminary design of an airplane we cannot go any further until we have a first estimate of the take-off
gross weight, however the weight estimated in this stage is crude and can be refined further,
Primary design take off weight is the total weight of the aircraft as it begins the mission for which
it was designed. Weight is the main consideration as for as the structural aspect of design or as a matter
any airplane design of any configuration, Engineers always strive hard to reduce the structural weight
without compromising on the strength factor. Because less weight means less take off time thus helping
in fuel economy and also for given amount of fuel more payload or passenger can be accommodated.
The weight of the aircraft is determined in two stages. The first estimation of weight is only an
approximate one and the value obtained gives a rough idea of the weight but it is enough to design
whether the design is heading in the right direction or not.
Design take off cross weight can be broken down into
1) Structural weight (Ws)
2) Payload weight (Wpl)
3) Power plant weight (Wpp)
4) Fuel weight (Wf)
5) Crew weight (Wc)
6) Fixed equipment weight (Wfe)
2.2.2 Passenger aircraft weight fraction

Based on the study of existing passenger aircraft, the weight fraction has approximated for first
estimation. We can somewhat rely with this data for initial estimation. With the use of this fraction we can
approximately define our aircraft gross weight.
The weights are listed in percentage of gross weight,
Wing 13.0-17.0 %
Tail 1.5-2.5 %
Fuselage 8.0-13.0%
Main landing gear 5.0-8.0%
Tail wheel 0.5-0.8%
For tricycle
Main 4.0-7.0%
Nose 1.5-2.5%

Power plant 15.0-25.0%

Engine accessories 1.0-2.0%
Power plant control 0.1-0.4%
Propeller 2.0-4.0%
Starting system 0.3-0.9%
Lubricating system 0.3-0.6%
Fuel system 1.5-2.5%
Instruments 0.5-1.2%
Surface control 1.0-2.0%
Furnishing 4.0-10%
Weight/passenger 90-215lb
Communication equipment 2.0-3.0%

Possible useful load (food, water) 3.5-9.0lb
De-ice installation 0.06%
Residual fuel and oil 30lb/engine
For economy of operation, the useful load must be about 25% to 40% of airplane cross weight.
With this above detail it is possible to made
` 1.Wing and tail surface area,
2. P lay out,
3. Location of passenger, cargo and fuselage equipment,
4. Position of nacelle, fuel and oil tank, engine.
5. Shape and position of wing tail surface
2.3 Performance calculation

Performance requirement are set forth-in specification should met or approached.
Preliminary calculations;
1) Maximum lift coefficient
2) Lift to drag ratio (L / D)
3) Wing loading (W / S)
4) Thrust to weight ratio (T / W)
5) Take-off distance
6) Service ceiling

7) Maximum Endurance and range

8) Landing speed etc
As design progress more accurate data can be get from wind tunnel data, the performance characters
are belonging to aerodynamics because performance character are depends on external load.
Two ways we can obtain accurate data.
1. Theoretical calculation and it should be ensured that the result of our calculations are correct and
no error.
2. Wind tunnel tests by scale models. This is more satisfactory than calculation. but most wind tunnel
tests are carried on power off condition hence it is necessary to carry out correction for power
effect.
From wind tunnel test we can get
1. Lift
2. Drag
3. Propulsive property
4. Flow visualization
5. Aerodynamic moments
This enable designer to calculate
All flight speed
Rate of climb
Ceiling
Landing and Take off distance etc.
2.4 Mock up
The construction of mock up, which is essentially a full scale reproduction of certain section of
proposed design and is started immediately after preliminary three view diagrams made , the mock up
model is actually a flexible quantity by means it can be modified as design progress. Normally this is
made by fly wood or by sheet metal.
It facilitate designer to
1. Installation
2. Accommodation
3. Accessibility problem
4. Arrangement of controls and cable.
5. Ducts
6. Seating, space, accessibility, control

2.5 Second weight estimation

The second weight estimation will made by detailed consideration of each component or group of
aircraft parts.
a). Wing group:
Components to be considered:
1. Wing panels,
2. Ailerons,
3. Flaps,
4. Struts,
5. Wires,
6. Fairings,
7. Attaching boltsetc.
Important factors:
1. Wing area
2. Aspect ratio
3. Lift/Drag
4. Thickness/Chord
5. Taper ratio (cr/ ct)
6. Span
7. Thickness ratio (root/tip)
Load Considerations:
1. Effect of aerodynamic load - Pressure load and shear load
2. Effect of dead load - Structure (spar, rib etc) and unstructured (engine, fuel
etc)
Determination
1. Material that resist bending of wing
2. Shear material
3. Ribs and other members resist direct pressure
Bending consideration:
1. Spar resist bending load
2. Cantilever wing no end loads and stress are by bending
3. Total lift in normal flight is equal to gross weight
Shear consideration:
1. Rib- receives shear load from skin through stiffener
2. Rib redistribute among stringers
3. Stiffened panel resist shear by reducing effective length.

Direct pressure:
These stresses are with stand by Ribs.
b. Tail group:
Tail surface weight greatly influenced by wing and it position in turns
aerodynamic, static and dynamic balance and stability requirement.
c) Fuselage group:
Fuselage weight is based on gross weight and is given in terms of weight /
square feed of side projected area. For this purpose fuselage is considered three parts include
1. Front nose cone of 10% of total length (frustum of cone),
2. Center cylinder portion
3. After 25% cone
Components to be considered:
1. Skin
2. Bulk head
3. Stringers
4. Frames
5. Longerons
6. Flooring and its support
7. Windows and their frames
8. Nose wheel provision
9. Nose installation
10. Pilot enclosure
11. Tail cone and it struts
12. Cabin sealing and pressure installation.
Load consideration;
1. Circumferential stress
2. Longitudinal loads
3. Pressurization load
4. Other external attachment (wing, landing gear) and localized strength
consideration
d. Landing gear:
Landing gear weight is considered in two parts,
Primary part chassis directly carry primary stress (gross weight and landing
load)
Second part - Wheel, tires, tubes, and retracting mechanism.
e. Nacelle:
Weight of nacelle depends upon size of engine in turns weight of engines.

And it varies with

1. Position on wing,
2. Landing gear housed by nacelle or not,
3. Nacelle or part of wing structure or not,
f. power plant with out fuselage:
The weight of power plant will be depends on thrust requirement and can be taken from power
plant Manual of engine that has previously selected.
g. Fuel system:
Weight depends on fuel capacity in turns range,
Tank weight depends on integral or separate tank.
Integral tanks eliminate separate tank weight but some structure weight must be there to
sealing and leak proof.
Integral tanks are 50% less weight than separate tanks.
h. Instruments:
Weight depends on number of instruments and duplicate instrument necessarily involved.
And this weight includes tubing, wiring and supports.
Instruments are divided into three groups:
1. Auto pilot (navigation),
2. Flight instruments,
3. Engine instruments,
Adding up the individual weight can do weight calculation for this group.
i. Surface controls:
Weight consists of aileron rudder, elevator, flap and tab controls,
Weight of tabs and booster control entirely depends on loads in turns area of surfaces.
These weights are normally assumed as a function of wings span.
j. Furnishing
These weights are highly variable and depend normally upon customers need either
actual or imagined.
Furnishing group estimate this by sketching internal arrangement and individual weight
will be considered.
k. Communication equipment:
weight depends on amount and type of equipment interns depends on civil aviation
authority or service requirement and purpose.
l. electrical equipment:
Weight consists of weight of generator, batteries, wiring and conduits etc.
If instead of dc 12v or 20v, AC 110 V is used, the total weight for large aircraft may be
appreciably reduced because of a great saving in transmission wire weights.

j. De-Icer installation:
Weight of de-icer equipment is equal to approximately 0.06% of design gross weights.
n. Possible useful load:

This group consists of food stores and water.
The above weights are fixed for given aircraft. And can be used for empty or gross weight calculation and
balance considerations.
2.6 Arrangement:
Considering arrangement it should be noted that external dimension depends on or
external dimension must be at least be as large as the inside dimension.
Three things considered for arrangement:
1. Weights
2. Location
3. Relationship with other items of equipment, personnel or structure.
For some safety consideration and equipment civil aviation authority also made their restriction and
should followed while designing arrangement. Some preliminary considerations are given below.
2.6.1 Balance consideration:
Location of C.G with respect to center of lift is very important for aero dynamic and stability
consideration .so calculating the position of C.G is a with respect of arrangement will play major role in
balance.
Major weight items may broken down into two main groups:
1. Empty weight
a. Wing, tail, fuselage, power plant, landing gear.
b. Furnishing, instruments, surface controls, electrical equipment, communication
equipment.
2. Useful load:
a. Fuel, oil,
b. Passenger, crew, and cargo
In general passenger load and its position are variable. And fuel and oil load are diminishes over
a flight mission and these should be considering while balance consideration.
2.6.2 Comfort consideration
Comfort of passenger depends on length of non-stop flight, means we need more comfort for long
rage flight than shorter one.
Major items include:
1. Noise level

Chief noise sources Power-plant, propeller ventilation fans.

Noise reduction, Avoid to enter inside cabin by shielding, eliminating the openings
Absorb the noise as enters rabidly by absorption materials.
Prevent noise source
2. Propeller location and clearance
Maximum propeller noise levels lies in the plane of propeller
rotation and drops on either direction from plane of rotation.
3. Vibration
Source Propeller and engine- these are fixed quantity,
Aerodynamic sources such as tail buffeting,
Fuselage large plate area resonance with some fluctuating
energy, there is always a possibility that few panels in the aircraft
may go into resonance at some speed and some engine rpm.
Prevention Aerodynamic noise can be prevented by changes in

aerodynamic shapes,
Dynamic mount will reduce the powerplant vibration transmitted
to other parts, vibration damping material placed in wing
attachment and other parts.
Resonance can be avoided by coating the high damp coefficient
material inside the panel surface. But this may lead some
additional weight. Hence divide the panels into unequal odd
shaped panels by stiffener, which will not go into resonance at
some higher harmonic of panel frequency.
4.Vision
Vision is major important for military aircraft.
For passenger aircraft - passenger visibility is secondary, high
wing monoplane leads good passenger visibility, but increased
landing gear height and associated weight, over shadowing
problem result seldom used.
5.Heating and ventilation
It provides uncontaminated air.
Sources of uncontaminated air must be located at a place where
fumes from engine should not be entered into flow.
Heat source - by engine exhaust, electrical heating.
Electrical heating over loads generator, hence mostly exhaust
heating utilized with some additional weight.
Two possible locations nose of fuselage- the duct must run through the area where large
number of controls and nose landing arrangement are present
and heat source is located engine result need of additional and
complicated ducting.
Wing leading edge -simpler and easier ducting. Only the
disadvantage is, if not made carefully then severs aerodynamic
problems.
2.6.3.Operating consideration
Easier provision for loading and unloading,
For airplane with tri-cycle landing gear, it is possible for enough
passengers to congregate near a rear door to put the C.G behind
rear wheel and hence airplane to drop by tail this must be
prevented. Space for beggaging should near doors ease of
loading and unloading result avoiding delays.
Internal arrangement should such that supply if foot and service
will be with minimum effort.

Maintenance is an important factor in operation; all-important

items should be inspectable, removable and replaceable easily.
Safety features includes fire extinguishers, emergency exist,
safety locks on all doors, warning signals for flabs, tabs, landing
gear position, should be placed in proper locations.
2.6.4.Manufacturing considerations
Manufacturing should be economical-avoid complexity in
arrangements.
Limitation of shop floor, tools, and machine should be
considered.
2.6.5 Fixed equipment

All the items of equipment must be considered for providing
space, general location.
2.7 Software Required: Microsoft Excel
2.7.1Microsoft Excel
i) Introduction:
Microsoft Excel is a spread sheet application written and distributed by Microsoft. It features
calculations, graphics, charts, tools, pivot tables and macro programming language called VBA. It has
been the mostly widely used spread sheet application available. It has many useful capabilities for
engineering calculations. In particular it can be used to solve equations and optimization problems.
When the program is invoked, it opens what is called the work-book. A workbook contains
several pages called worksheets. These worksheets may be used to store related data and information.
Each worksheet is divided into cells that are referenced by their location, the column-row number. All the
information, data, and its manipulation must be organized in terms of cells. Cells may contain raw data,
formulas, and references to other cells.
ii) Basics of a spread sheet:
a) Spread sheet details:

Spread sheets are made up of:
Columns
Rows
Cells Intersection of rows and columns
In each cell there may be the following types of data
Text or Labels
Number data or constants
Formulas (mathematical equations that do all the work)
Each cell is assigned a name according to its column letter and row number.
Labels in Excel (text data):
Labels are text entries. They do not have a value associated with them. We typically use
labels to identify what we are talking about.
Constants in Excel (numeric data):
Constants are entries that have a specific fixed value.

b) Formulas in Excel:
Formulas are entries have an equation that calculates the value to display. We do not
type in the number we are looking for. We type in the equation. This equation will be
updated upon the change or entry of any data that is referred in the equation. Formulas
must begin with equation sign (=). We can add, subtract, multiply and divide using these
formulas.
c) Solver:
Solver is the tool available in Excel to solve a nonlinear equation, a system of
linear/nonlinear equations, and optimization problems. We shall use Solver to find the roots of
the nonlinear equation like x - sin x = 0. Solver is invoked through the Tools menu. If it is not
visible under Tools, it is not installed yet. To install it, use the Add-in command under Tools
menu. We need to prepare a worksheet that defines the problem. The worksheet can be
prepared in many different ways, and Fig1 shows one such way. We define cell C3 as x, the
solution variable. To name a cell, use the Insert/Name/Define command and click the Add
button to define names for cells. Defining meaningful names for cells is useful because they can
be referred to by their names rather than their cell numbers.
Fig1 Excel worksheet

3 Experiments
3.1 Part1-Mission Profile -C and weight estimation nomenclature
Weight components of airplane explained as follows:

1) Crew weight ( Wc ):
The crew comprises the people necessary to operate the airplane in flight
e.g., Pilot, Co-pilot, Airhostess etc.
2) Payload weight ( Wp ):
The payload is what the airplane is mentioned to transport passengers, baggage, freight
etc. (Military use the payload includes bombs, rockets and other disposable ordnance).
3) Fuel weight ( Wf ):
This is the weight of the fuel in the fuel tanks. Since fuel is consumed during the course
of flight. Wf is a variable, decreasing with time during the flight.
4) Empty weight ( We ):
This is weight of everything else-the structure engines (with all accessory equipment),
electronic equipment landing gear, fixed equipment and anything else that is not crew, payload
or fuel.
5) Gross weight ( W0 ):
The sum of these weights is the total weight of the airplane W0 . Gross weight or total
weight W0 varies through the flight because fuel is being consumed. The design take off gross
weight W0 is the weight of the airplane at the instant it begins its mission. It includes the weight
of the fuel.
W0 Wc Wp Wf We
Wf We
W0 Wc Wp W0 W
W0 W0
(Wc W p )
W0 (1)
W f We
1
W0 W0
Estimation of empty weight fraction ( We W0 ):
The empty weight fraction ( We W0 ) can be estimated from data based on
a) Historical data and tables
b) Refined sizing data and tables
Estimation of fuel fraction ( W f W0 ):

The aircrafts fuel supply is available for performing the mission. The other fuel includes
reserve fuel, trapped fuel (which is the fuel which cannot be pumped out of the tanks).

Fuel fraction ( W f W0 ) is approximately independently of aircraft weight. Fuel fraction will

be estimated based on the mission to be flown.
Mission profiles:
Typical mission profiles for various types of aircraft are shown in Fig1. The simple cruise
mission is used for many transport and general aviation designs, including home built. Following
are the briefly explained the terms that are used in mission profiles:
Warm Up and Take-Off:

Warm Up is the engine start up for the airplane kept idling for some time to warm up.
Take Off is the point where aircraft is made lift off from ground. It is the motion after
warm up i.e., moving of airplane after starting and till it lifts off from the ground.
Climb:
It is between take-off (TO) and cruise (stead level flight with constant speed) Increase in
height until airplane achieves steady level flight.
Cruise:
It is the steady level flight to cover the mission distance. The mission distance is called
Range.
Loiter:
Represent the airplane spending in air for some fixed number of minutes near airport
before getting the clearance from airport signal or simple spending some time to collect
data of some mission (Terrain data).
Dash:
It is the mission that must be flown at just a few hundred numbers of feet of the ground
for low level strike.
Landing:
It is the aircraft landing on the runway till stopping of engine.

Estimation of mission segment weight fractions:

The various mission segments (legs) are numbered starting from zero denoting, the start
of the mission. Mission leg one is usually engine warm up and take-off. The remaining legs are
sequentially numbered. For example in the simple cruise mission the legs could be numbered
as (0) warm-up and take-off, (1) climb (2) cruise (3) loiter and (4) landing.
Similarly, the aircraft weight at end of each mission is denoted by Wi . Denoting i-th segment as
mission segment weight
W0 =Beginning airplane weight (Take off gross weight)
W1 =Weight of the airplane at end of warm-up and take-off
W2 =Weight of the airplane at end of climb.
W3 =Weight of the airplane at end of cruise
W4 =Weight of the airplane at end of loiter.
W5 =Weight of the airplane at end of landing.
W5 W1 W2 W3 W4 W5
Wx W0 ...
W0 W0 W1 W2 W3 W4
So in general it can be written as
Wi W1 W2 W3 W4 Wi
Wx W0 ...
W0 W0 W1 W2 W3 Wi 1
Warm-up/take-off, climb and landing weight fractions:
The warm-up, take-off and landing weight fractions can be estimated historically from
Specific fuel consumption (C):

It is the rate of fuel consumption divided by the resulting thrust. Typical values are
depicted in Table3 and Table4 for jet and propeller aircrafts respectively. If the aircraft is
propeller, then C should be replaced by C CbhpV (550 p )

Cruise segment weight fraction:

Weight fraction for cruise segment is found using Breguet range formula.
V L W
R ln i 1 R = range, C = specific fuel consumption
CD Wi
Wi RC
exp V = velocity, L/D = lift to drag ratio
Wi 1 V L
D
Loiter segment weight fraction:

Weight fraction for loiter segment is found using Endurance formula.
L D Wi 1
E ln E = endurance or loiter time, C = specific fuel consumption
C Wi
Wi EC
exp V = velocity, L/D = lift to drag ratio
Wi 1 L D
The most efficient cruise is velocity for propeller aircraft occurs at velocity yielding max L/D,
where as for the most efficient cruise for a jet aircraft occurs at slightly at a higher velocity
yielding an L/D of 86.6% of the maximum L/D
Type of aircraft Cruise Loiter

jet 0.866 (L/D)max L/D max
propeller L/D max 0.866 (L/D) max
For any mission segment i the mission segment weight fraction is expressed as
Wi Wi 1 . Wx (Assuming x segments are present for total mission profile) is the aircraft weight
at end of the mission. Wx W0 ratio can be used to calculate fuel fraction.
Wf W0 1 (Wx W0 )
At the end of the mission, the fuel tanks are not completed empty, typically a 6% allowance is
made for reserve and trapped fuel
W f W0 1.06 1 (Wx / W0 )

Estimate of gross weight at take-off ( W0 ):

We W0 is function of W0 , W f W0 is also a function of W0 . W0 is calculated from
equation(1) through process of iteration. W0 is taken a guess value and, then RHS value of
equation(1) is calculated which should match the value of assumed, if it doesnt, increment the
assume by some value and iterate it. This process is continued till the absolute difference of
RHS value and assumed value is the least and that iteration step will be your nearest solution.

3.1.1 Experiment1: Aircraft conceptual sketch and its gross weight estimation algorithm
Aim: Write the request for proposal for the particular aircraft, draw the conceptual sketch of
the aircraft for given type of aircraft, draw the mission profile and write generic algorithm for
gross take-off weight estimation
Theory:
Conceptual design:
Conceptual design begins with a specific set of design requirements established from
customer or a company-generated guess what future customers may need.
Design requirements include:
a) Aircraft range
b) Payload
c) Take-off distance
d) Landing distance
e) Maneuverability and speed requirements
Design begins with innovative idea rather than as a response to a given requirement. Before
design a decision is made to what technologies to incorporate, it must use only currently
available technologies as well as existing engines and avionics. If designed to build in more
distant future, then an estimate technological state of the art must be made to determine which
emerging technologies will be ready for use at that time.
Design begins drawing with a conceptual sketch like shown in Fig1. Good conceptual
sketches start with approximate sketch of following:
1) Wing
2) Tail geometries
3) The fuselage shape
4) The internal locations of the major components such as the:
a) Engine b) Cockpit
c) Payload/passenger compartment d) Landing gear
e) Fuel tanks.

Sizing: The conceptual sketch is used to estimate aerodynamics and weight fractions by
comparisons to previous designs. These estimates are used to make a first estimate of the
required total weight and fuel weight to perform the design mission.
First order sizing provides the information to needed to develop an initial design layout in three
view format. This three view drawing is completed with the internal arrangement in detail. The
initial layout is analyzed to determine if it will perform the mission as indicated by the first-order
sizing.
Algorithm for gross take-off weight estimation:
Following steps are involved in gross take-off weight estimation:
1) Study the design objectives.
2) Sizing mission starts here.
3) Aspect ratio selection is done here.
4) Sketch the layout in three view.
5) Select L/D ratio and engine specific fuel consumption.
6) Estimate fuel weight fraction.
7) Select empty weight fraction (Historical trends).
8) Guess initial gross weight.
9) Calculate gross weight from equation.
10) Iterate for gross weight by going to step8, until guess and calculated are matched.
The following flow chart explains the same algorithm as explained previous
Procedure:
1. Write the request for proposal for the given aircraft. It should be in the form of
parameters and requirements for the aircraft.
2. Draw the conceptual sketch of the aircraft as explained in theory.
3. Draw the mission profile for the aircraft.
4. What do you understand by flight vehicle design? Explain it with various examples.
5. What do you understand by weight estimation and write the algorithm for gross take-off
weight estimation.

3.1.2 Experiment2: Preliminary weight estimation (Rubber sizing)
Aim: To estimate take-off gross weight for the given aircraft and its mission profile using weight
estimation algorithm.
Theory:
Study the theory Part1: Aircraft design and weight estimation nomenclature on page1
for basics that is needed for the experiment.
Given empty weight fractions from historical trends (preliminary design): The empty weight
fraction can be estimated from Table1 based on the aircraft type and wing sweep.
Given warm-up/take-off, climb and landing weight fractions from historical trends: The warm-up,
take-off and landing weight fractions can be estimated historically from Table2.
Requirements:
Aircraft type, engine type, wing sweep type, mission profile, crew weight, payload
weight, specific fuel consumption, L/D ratio.
Procedure:
Estimation of gross weight, calculated using following steps:
1) Calculate the mission weight fraction of individual segment:
Mission weight fractions of following individual segments:
1) Take-off ( W1 W0 ): This is taken from Table2.
2) Climb ( W2 W1 ): This is taken from Table2.

3) Landing ( W5 W4 ): This is taken from Table2.

4) Cruise:
V L W
R ln i 1
CD Wi
Wi RC
exp Where R = range, C = specific fuel consumption
Wi 1 V L
D
V = velocity, L/D = lift to drag ratio
5) Loiter
L D Wi 1
E ln
C Wi
Wi EC
exp Where E = endurance or loiter time, C = specific fuel
Wi 1 L D
consumption, V = velocity, L/D = lift to drag ratio
6) Empty Weight fraction: The empty weight fraction can be estimated from Table1
based on the aircraft type and wing sweep.
2) Calculate gross weight of the aircraft from following equation which is function of W0 .
(Wc Wp )
W0 (1)
W f We
1
W0 W0
We W0 is function of W0 , W f W0 is also a function of W0 . W0 is calculated from equation(1)
through process of iteration. W0 has to be assumed, then RHS value of equation(1) is
calculated which should match the value of assumed, if it doesnt, increment the assume by
some value and iterate it. This process is continued till the absolute difference of RHS value and
assumed value is the least and that iteration step will be your nearest solution. This is done
using following iteration table.
Guess Difference=
Iteration. No Empty Calculated
weight Fuel weight guess-cal
weight weight
3) Plot graph for calculated weight, guess weight versus iteration number from above table
results and compare them in a single graph.

3.1.3 Experiment3: Trade off study on initial (Rubber sizing)
Aim: To study trade off on initial sizing (weight estimation) by taking following parameters.
a) Range trade off,
b) Payload trade off.
Theory:
Study the theory Part1: Aircraft design and weight estimation on page1 for basics, needed for
the experiment.
Given Empty weight fractions from historical trends (preliminary design): The empty weight
fraction can be estimated from Table1 based on the aircraft type and wing sweep type.
Requirements:
Aircraft type, engine type, wing sweep type, mission profile, crew weight, specific fuel
consumption, L/D ratio, different range values, different payload weight values.
Procedure:
I) Estimation of gross weight for selected range value through calculations using following steps:


4) Cruise:
V L W
R ln i 1
CD Wi
Wi RC
Wi 1 V L
D
5) Loiter
L D Wi 1
E ln
C Wi
Wi EC
Wi 1 L D
2) Calculate gross weight of the aircraft from following equation which is function of W0
(Wc W p )
W0 (1)
W f We
1
W0 W0
assumed value is the least and that iteration step will be your nearest solution.This is done
Guess Empty Difference=
Iteration. No Fuel weight Calculated
weight weight guess-cal
fraction weight
fraction
3) Plot graph between guess gross weight, calculated gross weight versus iteration number.
4) Steps 1 to 3 is repeated for second range, third range
5) Plot a graph between calculated gross weight versus range selected.
II) Calculate gross weight for different selected payload weight values using step1 to 3 and plot
a graph between calculated gross weight and payload weight values.

3.1.4 Experiment4: Fixed sizing
Aim: To estimate take-off gross weight for the given aircraft and its mission profile using weight
estimation algorithm and calculate the effect of fixed sizing on range.
Theory:
Study the theory Part1: Aircraft design and weight estimation nomenclature on page1
for basics, needed for the experiment.
Given empty weight fractions from historical trends (preliminary design): The empty weight
fraction can be estimated from Table1 based on the aircraft type and wing sweep.
Requirements:
Aircraft type, engine type, wing sweep type, mission profile, crew weight, payload
weight, specific fuel consumption, L/D ratio.

Procedure:
Estimation of gross weight, calculated using following steps:

4) Cruise:
V L W
R ln i 1
CD Wi
Wi RC
Wi 1 V L
D
5) Loiter
L D Wi 1
E ln
C Wi
Wi EC
Wi 1 L D
2) Calculate gross weight of the aircraft from following equation which is function of W0
(Wc W p )
W0 (1)
W f We
1
W0 W0
assumed value is the least and that iteration step will be your nearest solution. This is done

Guess Empty Difference=

Iteration. No Fuel weight Calculated
weight weight guess-cal
fraction weight
fraction
3) Once the gross weight is obtained, fixed sizing is done by keeping guess gross weight, empty
weight fraction as constant values, and vary(increment or decrement) fuel weight fraction.
Empty
Guess Fuel weight Difference=
Iteration. No weight Calculated
weight fraction(vary guess-cal
fraction weight
(constant) this)
(constant)

3.1.5 Experiment5: Load or Induced Drag Estimation
Aim: To find drag due to lift or Induced drag for the following aircrafts using Oswalds span
efficiency method and Leading edge suction method.
1) Straight wing aircraft,
2) Swept wing aircraft,
3) Supersonic aircraft.
Requirements: Aspect ratio, coefficient of lift, sweep of leading edge, speed of aircraft.
Theory:
The induced drag coefficient of moderate angle of attack is proportional to square of the
lift coefficient with a proportionality factor called the drag-due-to-lift-factor or K
CD KCL2 (1)
Following are the two methods to estimate drag-due-to-lift-factor or K :
1) Oswalds span efficiency method
2) Leading edge suction method
1) Oswalds span efficiency method:
According to classical wing theory, the induced drag coefficient of 3D-Wing with an
elliptical lift distribution equals the square of lift coefficient divided by A (A = Aspect Ratio or
Effective Aspect Ratio)
1
K= (2)
Ae
A = Aspect Ratio
Aeffective = Effective Aspect Ratio
e = Oswalds span efficiency (The value of e varies from 0.7 to 0.85)
Effective Aspect Ratio for
End-plates: Aeffective A(1 1.9h / b) (3)
h = height of Endplate
Winglets: Aeffective 1.2 A (4)
Straight wing aircraft:

e 1.78(1 0.045 A0.68 ) 0.64 (5)
Swept wing aircraft:
e 4.61(1 0.045 A0.68 )(cos LE )0.15 3.1 (6)
Supersonic aircraft:
A[ M 2 1]
e cos LE (7)
4 A( M 2 1) 2
LE = Sweep angle of leading edge
Disadvantages of Oswald span efficiency method:
1) Ignores the variation of K with lift coefficient.

2) This doesnt include the effects of the change in viscous separation as lift coefficient is
changed.
Wing Details
2) Leading Edge Suction Method:

This is a semi-empirical for estimation of K allows for the variation of K with lift coefficient
and Mach number. Due to the rapid curvature at the leading edge, there creates a pressure
drop on the upper part of the leading edge. The reduced pressure exerts a suction force on the
leading edge in a forward direction. This leading edge suction force S is in the direction
perpendicular to the normal force N.
K SK0 (1 S ) K100
(8)
K = drag-due-to-lift-factor
1
K100
A

1
K0
Cl
Cl =slope of the lift curve, angle taken in radians
S = Leading edge suction factor
Procedure:
1) Select a value of aspect ratio and calculate the Ostwald efficiency factor e using any one of
the equations (5), (6) or (7) based on aircraft type.
2) Calculate drag-due-to-lift-factor or K using equation(2).
3) Calculate coefficient of drag CD (induced drag) using equation (1).
4) Select a value of coefficient of lift CL for corresponding aspect ratio.
4) Iterate step(1) through (3) for varying/incrementing aspect ratio and coefficient of lift CL .
5) Plot graph between CL verses CD and CL versus K.

3.1.6 Experiment6: Estimate the Critical Mach number for an Airfoil
Aim: 1) Estimate the Critical Mach number for given airfoil at the specified angle of attack.
Two approaches to estimate critical Mach number
a) Graphical method b) Analytic method
2) Compare the results obtained in each method.
Theory:
Critical Mach number: Free stream Mach number at which sonic flow is first obtained
somewhere on the surface of the airfoil is called the Critical Mach number of the airfoil.
2 2 ( 1) M 2 ( 1)
C p , cr 1 (1)
M2 1
C p,0
Cp (2)
1 M2
C p ,0 2 2 ( 1) M cr2 ( 1)
1 (3)
1 M cr2 M cr2 1
Procedure:
a) Graphical Method:
The Graphical method involves following steps:
1) Obtain a plot of Cp versus M from equation (1). This is illustrated by curve A in Fig1.
The curve is a fixed universal curve that is used for all.
Fig1. Determination of Critical Mach number.

2) For low-speed, incompressible flow, obtain the value of the minimum pressure
coefficient corresponds to the point of maximum velocity on the airfoil surface. This
minimum value of C p ,0 must be given to you (from experimental measurement or
theory). This C p ,0 is shown as point B in Fig1
3) From the equation (2), plot the variation of this coefficient versus M . This is illustrated
by curve C in Fig1.
4) Where curve C intersects curve A, the minimum pressure coefficient on the surface of
the airfoil is equal to the critical pressure coefficient. This intersection point is denoted by
point D in Fig1. For the conditions associated with this point, the maximum velocity on
the airfoil surface is exactly sonic. The value of M at point D is then by definition, the
Critical Mach number.
b) Analytic Method:
Equation(2) gives the variation of C p at a given point on the airfoil surface as a function
of M . At ome location on the airfoil surface C p ,0 will be a minimum value, corresponding to
the point of maximum velocity on the surface. The value of the minimum pressure coefficient will
increase in absolute magnitude as M is increased owing to the compressibility effect.
Hence equation(2) with C p ,0 being minimum value on the surface of the airfoil at
essentially incompressible flow conditions ( M < 0.3) gives the value of minimum pressure
coefficient at a higher Mach number M at some value of M the flow velocity will become
sonic at the point of minimum pressure coefficient. The value of the pressure coefficient at sonic
conditions is the critical pressure coefficient, given by equation(1). When the flow becomes
sonic at the point of minimum pressure, the pressure coefficient given by equation(2) is the
value given by equation(1). Equating these two relations we have equation (3).
The value of M that satisfies equation (3) is the value when the flow becomes sonic at
the point of maximum velocity (minimum pressure). That is the value of M obtained from
equation (3) is the critical Mach number for the airfoil.
Equation (3) must be solved implicitly for M by trial and error, guessing at a value of
M and then trying again. This must be continued until left handed side (LHS) value of
equation(3) and right handed side (RHS) value of equation(3) should yield same result.
Result: The values from Graphical method and Analytic method should be equal in two decimal
places

3.2 Part II Aircraft Performance

3.2.1 Experiment: 7 Static Performance: Thrust required curve
Aim: To conduct static performance analysis using thrust required curve. Hence calculate the
following:
1) Minimum thrust required ( Tr min),
2) Thrust available( Ta ),
3) Maximum velocity( Vmax ).
Requirements: Wing area, aspect ratio, drag polar, span efficiency factor.
Theory:
The performance of an airplane for an uncelebrated flight conditions is called static
performance.
Thrust required( Tr ) is given by
W W
Tr
CL CD L D
Thrust required curve is a plot of the variation of Tr with respect to velocity V
Procedure:
To calculate a point on the thrust require curve
1) Choose a value of V
2) For this V , calculate the lift coefficient CL from equation.
3) Calculate CD from the known drag polar for the airplane.
CL2
CD Cd 0
Ae
4) Calculate the ratio C L Cd .
5) Calculate thrust required from equation(1)
6) The value of Tr obtained from step five is that thrust required to fly at the specific velocity
taken in step1. Fig1 is the locus of all such points taken for all velocities in the flight range of the
airplane.
7) The thrust required will be minimum when zero lift drag due to lift.
CL2
Cd 0 Cdi
Ae
Maximum Thrust available: It is the maximum thrust provided by an engine-propeller/jet
Maximum Velocity: The velocity of airplane obtained when thrust available is maximum

3.2.2 Experiment: 8 Static Performance: Power required curve
Aim: To conduct static performance analysis using power required curve. Hence calculate the
following:
1) Power available ( Pr ),
2) Maximum velocity ( Vmax ).
Theory:
The performance of an airplane for a uncelebrated flight conditions is called static
performance.
Thrust required ( Tr ) is given by
W W
Tr
CL CD L D
Power required is given by
Pr TrV
Power required curve is a plot of the variation of Pr with respect to velocity V
Power available:
a) Propeller:
Shaft Break Power (P): The power delivered to the propeller by the crank shaft is defined
as the shaft break power. Not all P is available to the drive the airplane, some of it dissipated by
inefficiencies of the propeller itself. The power available to propel the aircraft Pa is given by
Pa P
b) Jet:
The power available from the jet engine is obtained from
Pa TaV
Maximum Velocity: The velocity of airplane obtained when power available is maximum

Procedure:
To calculate a point on the thrust require curve
CL2
CD Cd 0
Ae
5) Calculate thrust required from equation(1)
6) The value of Tr obtained from step five is that thrust required to fly at the specific velocity
taken in step1.
7) Calculate the power required using the equation Pr TrV
The power required curve is defined as a plot of Pr versus V as shown in Fig1

3.3 Part III Airfoil and geometry selection, determination of thrust to weight ratio, wing
loading
3.3.1 Airfoil and Geometry Selection
Aim: To select an Airfoil and Geometry Selection for Wing design of given Aircraft.
Theory: The airfoil is the heart of the airplane. It effects the cruise speed, takeoff and
landing distances, stall speed, handling qualities (especially near stall), and overall
aerodynamics efficiency during all phases of flight.
The front of the airfoil is defined by a leading edge radius which is tangent to the upper and
lower surfaces. An airfoil designed to operate in supersonic flow will have a sharp leading edge
to prevent drag due to bow shock.
The following six terms are essential in determining the shape of a typical airfoil:
(1) The leading edge

(2) The trailing edge
(3) The chord line
(4) The camber line (or mean line)
(5) The upper surface
(6) The lower surface

The step-by-step geometric construction of an airfoil section:

1. The desired length of the airfoil section is determined by placing the leading and trailing
edges their desired distance apart. The chord line is drawn connecting the two points
together,
2. The amount of curvature is determined by the camber line. This curvature greatly aids an
airfoil section's lifting abilities,
3. A thickness function is "wrapped" about the camber line, that is, one adds the same amount
of thickness above and below the camber line; this thickness determines the upper and
lower surfaces,
4. The last step shows the final result - a typical airfoil shape. It has a specific set of
aerodynamic characteristics all its own which may be determined from wind-tunnel testing.
Factors to be considered in Airfoil Design:
1. The first consideration in intial airfoil selection is the Design lift Coefficient.
It can be assumed that the wind Lift coefficient, CL, equals the airfoil lift coefficient, Cl. In
level flight the lift must equal the weight, so the required design lift coefficient can be found
as follows:
Dynamic pressure (q) is a function of velocity and altitude. By assuming a wing loading
(W/S) the design lift coefficient can be calculated for the velocity and altitude of the design
mission.
2. Stall characteristics play an important role in airfoil selection. Some airfoils exhibit a gradual
reduction in lift during a stall, while others make loss of lift, accompanied by a rapid change
in pitching moment.
a) Fat airfoils (round leading edges and t/c greater than 14%) stall from trailing edge. At
around 10 degrees the boundary layer begins to separate, starting at the trailing edge.
b) Thinner airfoils (6-14%) stall from leading edge. The flow separates near the nose at a
very small angle of attack but reattaches immediately forming bubble continues to
stretch all the way to the trailing edge, the airfoil reaches its maximum lift. Beyond this
loss of lift and large changes in pitching moment.

3. Increasing Airfoil thickness ratio increases drag due to separation. Figure shows the impact
of t/c ratio on Critical Mach number. The thickness ratio affects the maximum lift and stall
characteristics primarily by its effect on nose shape. For a wing of fairly high aspect ratio
and moderate sweep, a large nose radius provides a higher stall angle and a greater
maximum lift coefficient and reverse is true for low aspect ratio, swept wings.

4. Another important aspect of airfoil selection is the intended Reynolds number. Use of an
airfoil at a greatly different Reynolds number can produce section characteristics much
different from expected. This is especially true for laminar-flow airfoils.
Conclusion: An aircraft designer should not spend too much time trying to pick exactly the
right airfoil in conceptual design. Later trade studies and analytical design tools will
determine the desired airfoil characteristics and geometry.

3.3.2 Determination of Thrust to Weight Ratio and Wing Loading:
Aim: To determine of Thrust to Weight Ratio and Wing Loading for given Aircraft.
Theory: T/W directly affects the performance of the aircraft. An aircraft with a higher T/W
will accelerate more quickly, Climb more rapidly, reach a higher maximum speed and
sustain higher turn rates. T/W is not constant varies as fuel burns during flight and even
engine thrust varies with altitude and velocity when designer speaks T/W ratio generated
refer to sea level conditions. Table gives the T/W for various aircrafts.
.
T/W ratio for a Propeller powered aircraft is expressed with equivalent term Power
loading. But Power loading has opposite connotation from T/W because a high
power loading indicates a smaller engine. A propeller-powered aircraft produces
thrust via propeller, which has an efficiency p defined as the thrust output per
horsepower provided by the engine. An equivalent T/W for propelled aircraft can
expressed as
Note this equation includes the term hp/W, the horse power to weight ratio which is
simply inverse of power loading (W/hp).

Procedure: For aircraft designed primarily for efficiency during cruise a better initial
estimate of the required T/W can be obtained by thrust matching. This results to
the comparison of the selected engines thrust available during crusie to the
estimated aircraft drag. In a unaccelerating flight, the thrust equal drag and weight
must equal drag.

Wing loading:
The wing loading is the weight of the aircraft divided by the area of the reference
wing. It affects stall speed, climb rate, takeoff and landing distances and turn
performance. Fr

Experiment:Estimation of Thrust to weight ratio (T/W) and wing loading (W/S)
Aim: Estimation of thrust to weight ratio (T/W) in takeoff and cruise conditions by considering the
following conditions and wing loading (W/S):
a) propeller efficiency
b) horsepower ratio
c) specific fuel consumption
Theory:
Thrust to weight ratio affects the performance of an airplane. Thrust to weight ratio varies for
different missions as the weight of aircraft changes as the fuel is burnt to produce thrust.
In Cruise conditions:
In takeoff condition:
Wing loading:
Procedure:
To calculate thrust to weight ratio:
CL2
CD Cd 0
Ae
5)For calculating thrut to weight for take off condition find the estimation of weight ratio of cruise
and takeoff
6)by substituting the values in the above equation we get the values of thrust to weight ratio

7)substituting the value of stalling velocity wing loading can be estimated
Result: Thus T/W ratio and wing loading (W/S) is determined

3.4 Part IV Space Flight Vehicle Design

3.4.1 Experiment: 9 Rocket Staging
Aim: To design a multistage rocket using given rocket parameters.
Required:
Theory:
The Rocket Equation:
Motion of a rocket is a variable-mass system. Rocket vehicle producing thrust by
ejecting mass, not matter what the propulsion technology. They all obey the same performance
laws. The rocket equation is given by
Mi
Vb Ve ln (1)
Mf
Ve g 0 I sp (2)
Vb = Burnout velocity
Ve = Exhaust velocity
g 0 = acceleration due to gravity constant
I sp = specific impulse of the rocket.
M i = Initial mass of the total vehicle before Ignition
M f = Final mass at burnout
The burnout velocity of the vehicle depends on the exhaust velocity of th engine and how much
of the vehicle fuel. Equation1 accounts for the great difference between aircraft and rockets: the
former are most empty space vehicle and latter are all fuel tanks. A rocket velocity can equal its
Mi
own exhaust velocity at burnout if the mass ratio ( ) is e, and it will exceed the exhaust
Mf
velocity if the mass ratio is greater than this value. Space vehicles like rocket and satellite
launch vehicles are launched into space by multistage rockets or rocket boosters.
Multistage rockets or Rocket boosters:

Two or more distinct rockets placed on top of each other or beside each other as in
space shuttle are called Rocket boosters
The performance of a rocket depends sensitively on the structural mass of the vehicle.
Performance can be improved by dispose of useless structural mass whenever possible. The
most common method for doing this is to stage the vehicle. Empty tanks and the large engines
necessary to lift off the earths surface are shed/left out and smaller vehicle proceeds from the
point with less parasitic mass.
Comparisons of Single stage and Two stage rocket

Fig1
M L = The payload mass

M S = The mass of structure
M P = Mass of the propellants
Considering at any particular stage, the initial and final masses will be
Mi MS MP ML
Mf MS ML
Single stage calculations:

Mi M S1 M P1 ML
Mf M S1 M L
So burnout velocity from rocket equation(1)

M S1 M P1 M L
Vb g 0 I sp ln
M S1 M L
Double stage calculations:
Stage1: Initial and final masses for stage1 are:
Mi M S1 M P1 M S2 M P2 ML
Mf M S1 M P 2 MS2 ML

So burnout velocity at stage1 from rocket equation(1)

M S1 M P1 M S 2 M P 2 M L
Vb1 g 0 I sp ln
M S1 M P 2 M S 2 M L
Stage2: Initial and final masses for stage2 are:
Mi M S2 M P2 ML
Mf MS2 ML
The first stage at the instant of burnout separates from the second stage and drops out.
The rocket engine of the second stage ignites and boosts the second stage from its initial
velocity Vb1 to its final burnout velocity Vb 2 . The rocket velocity at stage2 which is already
moving with the velocity Vb1 , yields the increase in velocity (Vb 2 Vb1 ) So burnout velocity at
stage2:
M S 2 M P2 M
Vb 2 Vb1 g 0 I sp ln
M S2 M L

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Department of Aeronautical Engineering 1

1.2 Purpose and scope of aircraft design

1.3 Phases of design

2. Design procedure for Aircraft

2.2 Preliminary weight estimation

2.3 Performance calculation

2.5 Second weight estimation

2.7 Software Required

3.1 Part1-Aircraft design and weight estimation nomenclature

3.1.1 Experiment1: Aircraft conceptual sketch and its gross weight

3.1.2 Experiment2: Preliminary weight estimation (Rubber sizing)

3.1.3 Experiment3: Trade off study on initial (Rubber sizing)

3.1.4 Experiment4: Fixed sizing

3.1.5 Experiment5: Load or Induced Drag Estimation

3.1.6 Experiment6: Estimate the Critical Mach number for an Airfoil

3.2 Part II Aircraft Performance

3.2.1 Experiment: 7 Static Performance: Thrust required curve

3.2.2 Experiment: 8 Static Performance: Power required curve

3.4 Part IV Space Flight Vehicle Design

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1.3.1 Preliminary design:

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1.3.3 Detailed design:

Project design Development of wind tunnel model and detailed model

Detailed design: Design the actual pieces to be built,

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2. DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR AIRCRAFTS

2.1.2 Design specification (general)

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2.2 Preliminary weight estimation

2.2.2 Passenger aircraft weight fraction

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Power plant 15.0-25.0%

Communication equipment 2.0-3.0%

2.3 Performance calculation

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7) Maximum Endurance and range

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2.5 Second weight estimation

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And it varies with

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n. Possible useful load:

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Chief noise sources Power-plant, propeller ventilation fans.

Prevention Aerodynamic noise can be prevented by changes in

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Maintenance is an important factor in operation; all-important

2.6.5 Fixed equipment

2.7 Software Required: Microsoft Excel

ii) Basics of a spread sheet:

a) Spread sheet details:

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Fig1 Excel worksheet

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3.1 Part1-Mission Profile -C and weight estimation nomenclature

Weight components of airplane explained as follows:

Estimation of fuel fraction ( W f W0 ):

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