Department Of Mechanical Engineering

College Of Engineering
Universiti Tenaga Nasional

MEHB354 Advance Thermofluids

Lecture Notes
December 7, 2005

by:
HasriL Hasini
Contents

1 Exergy 1
1.1 Second Law Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Exergy change of a system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Exergy Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 The Decrease Of Exergy Principle & Exergy Destruction . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.5 Exergy Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2 Gas Power Cycle 4

2.1 Carnot Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2 Overview of Reciprocating Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.3 Otto Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.4 Diesel Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.5 Dual Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.6 Stirling & Ericsson Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.7 Brayton Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

3 Gas Mixtures 10
3.1 Composition of a Gas Mixture: Mass and Mole Fraction . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.2 P-v-T Behaviour of Gas Mixtures: Ideal and Real Gases . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.2.1 Daltons Law of additive Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.2.2 Amagats Law of additive Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.2.3 Kays Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.3 Properties Of Gas Mixture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

4 Gas Vapour Mixture & Air-Conditioning 14

4.1 Atmospheric Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.2 Air Humidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.3 Air Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.4 Psychrometric Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.5 Air-Conditioning Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.5.1 Simple Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.5.2 Simple Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.5.3 Heating with Humidifying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

ii
CONTENTS iii

4.5.4 Cooling with Dehumidifying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

4.5.5 Evaporative Coolig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.5.6 Adiabatic Mixing of Airstreams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.5.7 Wet Cooling Towers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

5 Chemical Reaction & Combustion 21

5.1 Combustion Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.1.1 Stiochiometric Combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.1.2 Complete Combustion with Excess air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5.1.3 Incomplete Combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5.2 Enthalpy Of Combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5.2.1 Heating Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5.3 First Law Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.3.1 Open System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.3.2 Closed System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.4 Adiabatic Flame Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

6 Compressible Flow 27
6.1 Stagnation properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
6.1.1 Stagnation enthalpy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
6.1.2 Stagnation temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
6.1.3 Stagnation pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
6.2 Speed of Sound & Mach Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6.3 Isentropic Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
6.3.1 Variation of fluid velocity with flow area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
6.3.2 Property relation for isentropic flow of ideal gases . . . . . . . . . 33
6.4 Isentropic flow through nozzles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

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List of Tables

4.1 Typical values of comfort zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

5.1 Ignition temperature of common fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

5.2 Enthalpy of combustion of some fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

iv
List of Figures

2
6.1 Temperature of ideal gas rises by 2C p
when it is brought to stop [1]. . . . 28
6.2 Control volume moving with pressure wave [1]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6.3 Variation of flow properties in subsonic and supersonic nozzles and dif-
fusers [1]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
6.4 Effect of back pressure on pressure distribution along converging nozzle [1]. 34

v
Chapter 1

Exergy

Exergy the useful work potential of a system at the specified state.

Reversible work the maximum amount of useful work that can be produced as a
system undergoes a process between specified initial and final state (work producing
device) or the minimum amount of work need to be supplied as a system undergoes
a process between specified initial and final state (work consuming device).

1.1 Second Law Efficiency

Second Law Efficiency a measure of performance of a device relative to the
performance under reversible condition.
For work-producing device e.g. heat engines, turbine etc.,
th Wu
= = (1.1)
th,rev Wrev

For work consuming device e.g. refrigerators, heat pumps, compressors etc.,
COP Wrev
= = (1.2)
COPrev Wu

1.2 Exergy change of a system

For closed system or fixed mass, or non-flow energy,

2
= (u u0 ) + P0 (v v0 ) T0 (s s0 ) + + gz (1.3)
2

For an open system or flow energy,

2
= (h h0 ) T0 (s s0 ) + + gz (1.4)
2

1
CHAPTER 1. EXERGY 2

The exergy change for a nonflow system,

= (e2 e1 ) + P0 (v2 v1 ) T0 (s2 s1 ) (1.5)

where
2
e=u+ + gz
2
The exergy change for a flow system,

2 2 1 2
= (h2 h1 ) T0 (s2 s1 ) + + gz (1.6)
2

1.3 Exergy Transfer

Modes of exergy transfer:

1. Heat,  
T0
Xheat =Q 1 (1.7)
T
2. Work,
Xwork,boundary = W Wsurr (1.8)
Xwork,other = W (1.9)

3. Mass,
Xmass = m (1.10)

1.4 The Decrease Of Exergy Principle & Exergy Destruc-

tion
The decrease of exergy principle the exergy of an isolated system during a
process always decreases or, for a reversible process, the exergy remains constant.

Xisolated = (X2 X1 ) 0 (1.11)

Exergy destroyed,
Xdestroyed = T0 Sgen (1.12)

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CHAPTER 1. EXERGY 3

1.5 Exergy Balance

Exergy balance can be applied to an open or closed system.

General Exergy balance,

Xin Xout Xdestroyed = Xsystem (1.13)

For a reversible process, Xdestroyed = 0

Exergy balance for a closed system,

X T0

1 Q [W P0 (V2 V1 )] Xdestroyed = Xsystem (1.14)
T

Exergy balance for an open system,

X T0
 X X
1 Q[W P0 (V2 V1 )]+ mi i me e Xdestroyed = Xsystem
T
(1.15)

HH Updated: December 7, 2005

Chapter 2

Gas Power Cycle

Gas power cycle power cycle during which the working fluid remains gas through-
out the cycle.

The actual gas power cycles are complex. Therefore, in order to reduce the analysis,
air-standard assumptions are used:

1. The working fluid is air and always behave as an ideal gas.

2. All processes that make up the cycle are internally reversible.
3. Combustion process is assumed to be heat addition process from external
source.
4. Exhaust process is assumed to be heat rejection process that restores the
working fluid to initial state.

2.1 Carnot Cycle

composed of four totally reversible processes:

1. isothermal heat addition

2. isentropic expansion
3. isothermal heat rejection
4. isentropic compression

the most efficient cycle that can be executed between heat source at temperature,
TH and sink at temperature, TL .

Thermal efficiency given by:

TL
th,Carnot = 1 (2.1)
TH

4
CHAPTER 2. GAS POWER CYCLE 5

2.2 Overview of Reciprocating Engine

Top dead centre (TDC) position of piston when it forms the smallest volume.

Bottom dead centre (BDC) position of the piston when it forms the largest
volume.

Stroke Distance between TDC and BDC, the largest distance the piston can
travel in one direction.

Bore Diameter of the piston.

Intake valve Valve where air or air-fuel mixture are drawn into cylinder.

Exhaust valve Valve where combustion product are expelled from cylinder.

Clearance volume Minimum volume formed in the cylinder when piston is at

TDC.

Displacement volume Volume displaced as piston moves between TDC and

BDC.

Compression ratio, r ratio of maximum volume formed in the cylinder to the

minimum volume.
Vmax VBDC
r= = (2.2)
Vmin VT DC
Mean Effective Pressure (MEP) Fictitious pressure that, if acted on the piston
during the entire power stroke, would produce the same amount of net work as
that produced during actual cycle.
Wnet
M EP = (2.3)
Vmax Vmin

2.3 Otto Cycle

Ideal cycle for spark-ignition engine (SI).

Mechanism air-fuel mixture compressed to a temperature below autoignition

temperature of fuel, and combustion is initiated by spark plug.

Four stroke or two stroke.

2-stroke engine is less efficient than 4-stroke due to:

1. incomplete expulsion of exhaust gases.

2. partial expulsion of fresh air-fuel mixture

Advantages of 2-stoke engine:

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CHAPTER 2. GAS POWER CYCLE 6

1. simple and inexpensive.

2. high power-to-weight & power-to-volume ratio, therefore suitable to small size
and light applications

Consists of four internally reversible processes:

1. Isentropic compression
2. Constant volume heat addition
3. Isentropic expansion
4. Constant-volume heat rejection

Executed in a closed system, therefore:

qin = u3 u2 = Cv,av (T3 T2 ) (2.4)

qout = u4 u1 = Cv,av (T4 T1 ) (2.5)

1
th,Otto = 1 (2.6)
rk1
where k is specific heat ratio,
Cp
k=
Cv
if u3 u2 /u4 u1 is used, then solution is exact.
if Cv,av (T3 T2 )/Cv,av (T4 T1 ) is used, then solution is approximate.

2.4 Diesel Cycle

Ideal cycle for compression-ignition engine (CI).

Mechanism Air is compressed to a temperature above autoignition temperature

of fuel, and combustion starts as fuel is injected into the hot air.

Consists of four internally reversible processes:

1. Isentropic compression
2. Constant pressure heat addition
3. Isentropic expansion
4. Constant-volume heat rejection

Advantages of Diesel engine:

1. able to operate at much higher compression ratio (1224), therefore higher

efficiency.

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CHAPTER 2. GAS POWER CYCLE 7

2. able to use cheaper fuel since less constraint on premature ignition problem.
Executed in a closed system, with constant-pressure heat addition. Therefore:
qin = h3 h2 = Cp (T3 T2 ) (2.7)
qout = u4 u1 = Cv (T4 T1 ) (2.8)
 k 
1 rc 1
th,Diesel = 1 k1 (2.9)
r k(rc 1)
where rc is cut-off ratio, rc = VV23

2.5 Dual Cycle

A combination of Otto Cycle and Diesel cycle.
Heat addition process is represented by both constant-volume and constant-pressure
condition.

2.6 Stirling & Ericsson Cycles

Totally reversible.
Processes for Stirling cycle:
1. Isothermal expansion (heat addition).
2. Constant volume regeneration.
3. Isothermal compression (heat-rejection)
4. Constant volume regeneration.
Processes for Ericsson cycle:
1. Isothermal expansion (heat addition).
2. Constant pressure regeneration.
3. Isothermal compression (heat-rejection)
4. Constant pressure regeneration.
Advantages of Stirling & Ericsson cycles:
1. Having Carnot cycle efficiency.
2. Combustion can be done externally more choice of fuel.
Disadvantages of Stirling & Ericsson cycles:
1. Difficult to achieve.
2. Involve heat transfer through small temperature difference.
3. Requires very large heat transfer area and long time.

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CHAPTER 2. GAS POWER CYCLE 8

2.7 Brayton Cycle

Represent ideal gas turbine engine cycle.

Made up of four internally reversible processess:

1. Isentropic compression (in compressor).

2. Constant-pressure heat addition.
3. Isentropic expansion (in turbine).
4. Constant-pressure heat rejection.

For exact solution,

qin = h3 h2 (2.10)
qout = h4 h1 (2.11)
wout,net = wout win (2.12)
qin,net = qout qin (2.13)
wout,net
th,Brayton = (2.14)
qin
For approximate solution,
1
th,Brayton = 1 k1 (2.15)
rp k

P2
where rp = compression ratio = P1

Deviations between ideal and actual Brayton cycle is due to:

1. pressure drops during heat addition process.

2. irreversibilities in compressor and turbine.

Deviation between ideal and actual turbine and compressor can be accurately
accounted for by using isentropic efficiencies:
ws h2s h1
C = = (2.16)
wa h2a h1
wa h3 h4a
T = = (2.17)
ws h3 h4s
where a is the actual process and s is the isentropic process.

Gas turbine engine are widely used to power aircraft since they are light and
compact and have a high power-to-weight ratio.

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CHAPTER 2. GAS POWER CYCLE 9

In ideal jet propulsion cycle, gases are partially expanded in turbine. The exut
gases are used to provide thrust for the aircraft.

Some of the work produced by turbine is used to run the auxiliaries within the
aircraft.

the net thrust developed by the engine is:

F = m(exit inlet )aircraf t (2.18)

Propulsive efficiency is a measure of how efficienyly the energy released during

combustion is converted to propulsive energy:

P ropulsive power WP
P = = (2.19)
Energy input rate Qin

HH Updated: December 7, 2005

Chapter 3

Gas Mixtures

Many important thermodynamics applications involve more than one pure sub-
stance rather than a single pure substance or gas mixtures

Current study of gas mixture are considered non-reacting.

Non-reacting gas mixtures can be treated as pure substance because its composition
is homogeneous.

3.1 Composition of a Gas Mixture: Mass and Mole Frac-

tion
Properties of gas mixtures depend on:

1. composition of mixture.
2. properties of components.

Composition of gas mixtures can be described by:

1. Molar analysis = mole number of each component.

2. Gravimetric analysis = mass of each components.

Mass of mixture = the sum of masses of components:

k
X
mm = mi (3.1)
i=1

Mole number of mixture = sum of mole numbers of components:

k
X
Nm = Ni (3.2)
i=1

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CHAPTER 3. GAS MIXTURES 11

Mass fraction, mfi = ratio of mass of component to the mass of mixture:

mi
mfi = (3.3)
mm

Mole fraction, yi = ratio of mole of component to the mole of mixture:

Ni
yi = (3.4)
Nm

The sum of mass fractions or mole fractions should equal to 1:

k
X k
X
mfi = yi = 1 (3.5)
i=1 i=1

Relation between mass, m and mole number, N :

m = MN (3.6)

Apparent or average molar mass of mixture, Mm :

k
X
Mm = yi M i (3.7)
i=1

Apparent of average gas constant of mixture, Rm :

Ru
Rm = (3.8)
Mm

3.2 P-v-T Behaviour of Gas Mixtures: Ideal and Real

Gases
For ideal gases:
P v = RT (3.9)

For real gases:

P v = ZRT (3.10)
where Z is the compressibility factor.

For gas mixture P-v-T behaviour can be predicted using:

1. Daltons law of additive pressure.

2. Amagats law of additive volume.
3. Kays Rule.

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CHAPTER 3. GAS MIXTURES 12

For ideal gas, pressure fraction and volume fraction equals to the mole fraction:
Pi Vi Ni
= = = yi (3.11)
Pm Vm Nm

For real gas,deviation from ideal gas can be approximated by incuding compress-
ibility factor:
Pm Vm = Zm Nm Ru Tm (3.12)
k
X
Zm = yi Zi (3.13)
i=1

3.2.1 Daltons Law of additive Pressure

Pressure of gas mixture equal to sum of pressures each gas would exert if it
existed alone at the mixture temperature and volume

k
X
Pm = Pi (Tm , Vm ) (3.14)
i=1
The solution for equation 3.14 is exact for ideal gas and approximate for real gas.

3.2.2 Amagats Law of additive Volume

Volume of a gas mixture equal to the sum of volumes each gas would occupy
if it existed alone at the mixture temperature and pressure

k
X
Vm = Vi (Tm , Vm ) (3.15)
i=1
The solution for equation 3.15 is exact for ideal gas and approximate for real gas.

3.2.3 Kays Rule

and pseudocritical temperature, T
Utilizing the pseudocritical pressure, Pcr cr

Step by step procedures are as follows:

1. Create the pseudocritical pressure and temperature of the mixture:
k
X

Pcr,m = yi Pcr,i (3.16)
i=1

k
X

Tcr,m = yi Tcr,i (3.17)
i=1

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CHAPTER 3. GAS MIXTURES 13

2. From the pseudocritical pressure and temperature of the mixture, find reduced
pressure and temperature of the mixture (PR,m and TR,m ):
Pm
PR,m = (3.18)
Pcr,m

Tm
TR,m = (3.19)
Tcr,m

3. Using reduced pressure and temperature of the mixture, obtain compressibil-

ity factor of the mixture, Zm , from compressibility chart.
4. Substitute Zm into equation 3.12 for solution of pressure, temperature etc.

3.3 Properties Of Gas Mixture

Extensive property of gas mixture equal to sum of extensive property of
components of mixture

k
X k
X k
X
Um = Ui = mi ui = Ni ui (3.20)
i=1 i=1 i=1
k
X k
X k
X
Hm = Hi = mi hi = Ni hi (3.21)
i=1 i=1 i=1
k
X k
X k
X
Sm = Si = mi si = Ni si (3.22)
i=1 i=1 i=1

Intensive property of gas mixture equal to sum of intensive property of

components multiplied by mass fraction or mole fraction

k
X k
X
um = mfi ui , um = yi ui (3.23)
i=1 i=1
k
X k
X
sm = mfi si , sm = yi si (3.24)
i=1 i=1
k
X k
X
hm = mfi hi , hm = yi hi (3.25)
i=1 i=1
k
X k
X
Cv,m = mfi Cv,i , Cp,m = mfi Cp,i (3.26)
i=1 i=1

HH Updated: December 7, 2005

Chapter 4

Gas Vapour Mixture &

Air-Conditioning

Air-conditioning = process of conditioning air to suit specific needs e.g. human

comfort, process air.

Human comfort is influence by:

1. Air Temperature
2. Air Humidity
3. Air Velocity

Atmospheric air consists of dry air and water vapour = Humidity.

Air-conditioning process controls the temperature, humidity and velocity of air to

a specified state.

4.1 Atmospheric Air

Consists of dry air (air that contains no water vapour) and water vapour.

Composition of dry air remains relatively constant.

Composition of water vapour changes due to:

1. Condensation
2. Evaporation

Within typical range of air-conditioning application (-1050 C), dry air and water
vapour can be treated as ideal gas.

Within -1050 C:

14
CHAPTER 4. GAS VAPOUR MIXTURE & AIR-CONDITIONING 15

1. specific heat of dry air

= constant:
ha (T ) = Cp,a T = 1.005T (4.1)
Therefore,
ha = 1.005T
2. specific heat of water vapour
= constant.
3. enthalpy of water vapour = enthalpy of saturated vapour at same temperature:
hv (T ) = hg (T )
= hg,0 C + Cp,v T

= 2501.3 + 1.82T (4.2)

4.2 Air Humidity

Humidity = a measure of water vapour content in air.
Two ways to specify humidity:
1. Absolute or Specific Humidity, :
the mass of water vapour present in 1kg of dry air.
represented by:
mv
= (4.3)
ma
Pv
= 0.622 (4.4)
Pa
0.622Pv
= (4.5)
P Pv
Unit = kgkgdry
H2 O
air
2. Relative Humidity, :
ratio of actual mass of water vapour in air, (mv ) to the maximum amount
of water vapour the air can hold at that temperature, (mg ).
represented by:
mv Pv
= = ; Pg = Psat@T (4.6)
mg Pg
Unit = %
Specific humidity, and Relative humidity, are related by:
P
= (4.7)
(0.622 + )Pg
0.622Pg
= (4.8)
P Pg

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CHAPTER 4. GAS VAPOUR MIXTURE & AIR-CONDITIONING 16

Relative humidity:
has more effect on human comfort level.
changes with temperature since the amount of water vapour the air can hold
depends on temperature.
Enthalpy of air:
is the sum of enthalpies of dry air and water vapour.
is expressed in per unit mass of dry air.

h = ha + hg (kJ/kg dry air) (4.9)

4.3 Air Temperature

Classification of air temperature:
Dew point temperature
Adiabatic saturation temperature
Dry-bulb temperature
Wet-bulb temperature
Dew Point Temperature= temperature at which condensation begin when
air is cooled at constant pressure.

Tdp = Tsat@Pv (4.10)

Air Saturation Temperature:

The temperature that an air attains after flowing over water in long channel
until it is saturated.
Used to measure humidity.
Cp (T2 T1 ) + 2 hf g2
1 = (4.11)
hg1 hf 2
where:
0.622Pg2
2 =
P2 Pg2
Dry bulb temperature= ordinary atmospheric air temperature.
Wet bulb temperature:
thermometer bulb coverered with wet cotton wick.
it approximates the adiabatic saturation temperature
provides more practical way of measuring air humidity

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CHAPTER 4. GAS VAPOUR MIXTURE & AIR-CONDITIONING 17

4.4 Psychrometric Chart

chart that present properties of atmospheric air at specified total atmospheric
pressure.

consists of the followings:

1. line of constant enthalpy

2. line of constant relative humidity
3. line of constant specific volume
4. line of constant specific humidity
5. line of constant relative humidity
6. line of constant dry-bulb temperature
7. line of constant wet-bulb temperature

4.5 Air-Conditioning Processes

Comfort of human body mainly depends on:

1. dry-bulb temperature
2. relative humidity affect body heat dissipation through evaporation.
3. air motion removes warm and moist air.

Table 4.1: Typical values of comfort zone

Factor Comfort Zone

Temperature 2227 C
Relative Humidity 4060%
Air Motion approximately 15m/min

Air Conditioning processes:

Cooling Heating
Humidifying Dehumidifying
Cooling and Dehumidifying Heating and Humidifying

Air Conditioning analysis:

steady flow
KE and PE are negligible
Utilize mass and energy balance:

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CHAPTER 4. GAS VAPOUR MIXTURE & AIR-CONDITIONING 18

Dry air mass:

k
X k
X
ma,i = ma,e (4.12)
i=1 i=1

Water mass:
k
X k
X k
X k
X
mw,i = mw,e ma,i i = ma,e e (4.13)
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1

Energy:
k
X k
X
QW = me he mi hi (4.14)
i=1 i=1

4.5.1 Simple Heating

dry-bulb temperature increases

specific humidity constant

relative humidity decreases

4.5.2 Simple Cooling

dry-bulb temperature decreases

specific humidity constant

relative humidity increases

4.5.3 Heating with Humidifying

1. simple heating

characteristics of simple heating applies during this process.

2. humidifying (adding moisture)

specific humidity increases

4.5.4 Cooling with Dehumidifying

Air need to be cooled to saturation temperature (=100%) for vapour to condense
and able to be removed.

May need simple heating to get to required temperature.

HH Updated: December 7, 2005

CHAPTER 4. GAS VAPOUR MIXTURE & AIR-CONDITIONING 19

4.5.5 Evaporative Coolig

the principle is

as water evaporates, latent heat of vaporisation is absorbed from water

and surrounding air

Wet bulb temperature constant

Enthalpy constant

4.5.6 Adiabatic Mixing of Airstreams

State of air mixture lies on lines connecting states 1 & 2 on psychrometric chart

Ratio of distances 2-3 & 3-1 equals to ratio of mass flow ma1 and ma2

Mass of dry air:

ma1 + ma2 = ma3

Mass of vapour:
1 ma1 + 2 ma2 = 3 ma3

Energy:
ma1 h1 + ma2 h2 = mm h3

ma1 2 2 h2 h3
= = (4.15)
ma2 3 1 h3 h1

4.5.7 Wet Cooling Towers

Semienclosed evaporative cooler.

Suitable for large quantities of waste heat.

Serves as a transport medium for heat transfer between the source and the sink.

Principles:

air drawn into cooling tower from the bottom and leaves through the top.
warm water from the condenser is pumped to the top of tower and sprayed
into the airstream
water droplets fall under influence of gravity
small fraction of water evaporates and cools the remaining water
temperature and moisture contents of air increases during the process
cooled water collected at the bottom and pumped back to the condenser

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CHAPTER 4. GAS VAPOUR MIXTURE & AIR-CONDITIONING 20

make up water must be added to replace the water lost by evaporation and
air drift
air drift is normally installed to prevent loss of water by air drift

Two types of cooling tower:

Induced draft cooling tower Air circulation in the tower is provided by a fan.
Natural draft cooling tower Air circulation in the occurs naturally = Air
in the tower has high water vapour content, thus lighter than outside air.
Therefore, light air in the tower rises and the heavier outside air fills the
vacant space inside the tower, creating airflow from the bottom to the top.

HH Updated: December 7, 2005

Chapter 5

Chemical Reaction & Combustion

Combustion = chemical reaction during which fuel is oxidised and a large quan-
tity of energy released

5.1 Combustion Process

Three elemets for combustion:

1. Fuel
2. Oxidizing agent
3. Heat/ignition

1. Fuel
Major components of most fuels are hydrogen and carbon.
General chemical formula for hydrocarbon fuel is Cn Hm .
Fuels are mixtures of various hydrocarbons but usually represented by
single hydrocarbon of simplicity e.g.
Gasoline = Octane = C8 H18
Natural gas = Methane = CH4
Diesel = Dodecane = C12 H26

2. Oxidizing Agent
Air is the most common source of oxidizing agent.
Air consists of mainly Nitrogen (79%) and Oxygen (21%).
Each kmol of oxygen in air is accompanied by 3.76 kmol of nitrogen.
Therefore 1 kmol O2 + 3.76 kmol N2 = 4.76 kmol air.
Water vapour in air can be treated as inert gas.
3. Heat / Ignition

21
CHAPTER 5. CHEMICAL REACTION & COMBUSTION 22

In order to start combustion, fuel temperature has to be above its ignition

temperature.
Other factor is air fuel ratio has to be within flammibility range for com-
bustion to begin.

Table 5.1: Ignition temperature of common fuels

Fuel Ignition Temperature

Gasoline 260 C
Carbon 400 C
Hydrogen 580 C
Methane 630 C

In combustion process, the mixture of fuel and air react chemically and converts
to products.
Combustion process = represented by chemical equation, i.e.:
F uel + Air P roduct

Chemical equation utilize the conservation of mass balance principle, by which

during combustion process:
mass is conserved.
number of atoms of each element is conserved.
total number of moles is not conserved.
Complete combustion process is defined as when:
all carbon burns to carbon dioxide, CO2 .
all hydrogen burns to water, H2 O.
all sulfur (if any) burns to sulfur dioxide, SO2 .

5.1.1 Stiochiometric Combustion

complete combustion with no excess air exist in the product.
also known as theoretical combustion.
the amount of air required for stoichiometric combustion is called stoichiometric
air or theoretical air.
example of stoichiometric combustion:
F + Air} CO2 + H2 O + N2 + heat
| uel{z | {z }
reactants products

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CHAPTER 5. CHEMICAL REACTION & COMBUSTION 23

5.1.2 Complete Combustion with Excess air

complete combustion with the existence of excess air in the product.

amount of air feed for combustion is more than stoichiometric air.

amount of excess air normally expressed as percent excess air or precent theoretical
air.

example of excess air combustion:

F + Air} CO2 + H2 O + N2 + O2 + heat

| uel{z | {z }
reactants products

5.1.3 Incomplete Combustion

When the amount of air in insufficient for combustion.

Causes of incomplete combustion:

insufficient oxygen.
insufficient mixing.
molecule dissociation at high temperature.

Common practice is to provide excess air for combustion:

to increase chances of getting complete combustion.

to control/reduce combustion chamber temperature.

example of incomplete combustion:

F + Air} CO2 + H2 O + N2 + CO + heat

| uel{z | {z }
reactants products

5.2 Enthalpy Of Combustion

Components of internal energy:

sensible & latent energy associated with the change of state of structure.
chemical energy associated with the change of molecular structure.
nuclear energy associated with the change of atomic structure

During combustion process, chemical bonds that bind atoms are destroyed and
new ones are formed, resulting in change in chemical energy.

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CHAPTER 5. CHEMICAL REACTION & COMBUSTION 24

Chemical structure of reactants and products are different in combustion process,

therefore a standard reference state is needed to perform calculation of heat re-
leased during combustion.

Standard reference state:

chosen at 25 C and 1 atm.

represented by superscript , e.g. enthalpy of oxygen at reference state is
given by, hO2

Enthalpy of reaction = the amount of energy released / absorbed in chemical

reaction.

Enthalpy of combustion = the amount of energy released as fuel is burned com-

pletely.
k
X k
X
hC = hproducts hreactants (5.1)
i=1 i=1

It is not practical to list the enthalpy of combustion for all fuel because:

the combination of reactants and products are infinite.

the difference in combustion conditions, i.e. different pressures and tempera-
tures.
combustion process is unlikely to be complete.

Therefore, need to use new term = the enthalpy of formation.

Enthalpy of formation = the amount of energy absorbed / released as compound

in formed from its stable elements (e.g. O2 , N2 , H2 , C)

the enthalpy of formation of all stable elements is 0 at standard reference state.

Enthalpy of substance at a specified state = the sum of the enthalpy of substance

at 25 C and the enthalpy required to bring the substance to required temperature
from 25 C
h = hf + (hT h ) (5.2)
where hf = the enthalpy of substance at 25 C.
and (hT h ) = the enthalpy required to bring the substance to the required
temperature from25 C.

5.2.1 Heating Value

Heating Value = the amount of heat released when a fuel is burned completely in
a steady flow process and the products are returned to the state of the reactants.

HH Updated: December 7, 2005

CHAPTER 5. CHEMICAL REACTION & COMBUSTION 25

Heating Value = can also be expressed as the absolute value of enthalpy of com-
bustion. Heating value = |hC |.

depends on the phase of water exists in the products.

Higher Heating Value = when water, H2 O in the products exist in the liquid
form.

Lower Heating Value = when water H2 O in the products exist in the vapour
form.
HHV = LHV + (mhf g )H2 O (5.3)

5.3 First Law Analysis

5.3.1 Open System
1st. law = applicable to reacting and non-racting systems.

For open system (steady flow, with KE and PE negligible):

Qout = Hreactants Hproducts

k
X k
X
Qout = Nr (hf + h h )r Np (hf + h h )p (5.4)
i=1 i=1

5.3.2 Closed System

For closed system:

Table 5.2: Enthalpy of combustion of some fuels

Fuel Formula h C = HHV

kJ/kmol
Hydrogen H2 (g) -285,840
Carbon C(s) -393,520
Methane CH4 (g) -890,360
Propane C3 H8 (g) -2,220,000

HH Updated: December 7, 2005

CHAPTER 5. CHEMICAL REACTION & COMBUSTION 26

QW = Usystem
QW = Uf inal Uinitial
QW = Uproducts Ureactants
= (H P V )products (H P V )reactants
" k # " k #
X X
= Np (hf + h h )p (P V )p Nr (hf + h h )r (P V )r
i=1 i=1
" k
# " k
#
X X
= Np (hf
+ h h )p (P v)p Nr (hf
+ h h )r (P v)r
i=1 i=1
k
X k
X
QW = Np (hf + h h P v)p Nr (hf + h h P v)r (5.5)
i=1 i=1

5.4 Adiabatic Flame Temperature

Chemical energy released during combustion process is either:

released to the surrounding as heat.

used internally to raise the temperature of the products.

If no heat is lost to surrounding (Q = 0), all energy released is used to raise the
temperature of products to maximum. This maximum temperature is called =
Adiabatic Flame Temperature (AFT).

Condition for AFT:

Qout = Hreactants Hproducts = 0
Therefore:
k
X k
X
Np (hf + h h )p = Nr (hf + h h )r (5.6)
i=1 i=1

Important points on adiabatic flame temperature:

1. AFT is important in combustion chamber design (e.g. material thermal

strength). Using AFT, engineers can predict the maximum possible tempera-
ture a combustion can achieve. Hence, the selection of material for combustor
design can be made.
2. Calculation of AFT normally involves some iterations.
3. AFT is maximum when combustion is stoichiometric.

HH Updated: December 7, 2005

Chapter 6

Compressible Flow

Compressible flow = study of fluid flow in which change in fluid density is sig-
nificant.

Significant when fluid velocity is greater than the speed of sound.

Occurs mainly in gas flows than in liquid, e.g. combustion gases, jets.

Two most important and distinctive effects:

choking flow rate is limited by sonic condition.

shock waves discontinuity in property changes

6.1 Stagnation properties

For high-speed flows, kinetic energy of the fluid is significant.

Stagnation condition is defined when:

1. flowing fluid is put to rest

2. kinetic energy is converted to enthalpy
3. increase in fluid temperature & pressure

6.1.1 Stagnation enthalpy

Enthalpy and kinetic energy of fluid combined to single term: stagnation
(total) enthalpy, h0 .
V2
h0 = h + (6.1)
2

27
CHAPTER 6. COMPRESSIBLE FLOW 28

Static enthalpy = the enthalpy of a fluid when it is brought to rest adi-

abatically or an ordinary enthalpy which doesnt include the kinetic energy
term.
If kinetic energy term negligible, it can be seen from equation 6.1.1 that the
total enthalpy = static enthalpy.

6.1.2 Stagnation temperature

Stagnation (total) temperature, T0 = the temperature of fluid when it is
brought to rest adiabatically. For ideal gas,

V2
T0 = T + (6.2)
2Cp

2
Figure 6.1: Temperature of ideal gas rises by 2Cp when it is brought to stop [1].

6.1.3 Stagnation pressure

Stagnation (total) pressure P0 = the pressure of a fluid when it is bought
to rest isentropically
For ideal gas with constant specific heats:
  k
P0 T0 k1
= (6.3)
P T
  1
0 T0 k1
= (6.4)
T

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CHAPTER 6. COMPRESSIBLE FLOW 29

For stagantion properties, the energy balance can be constructed without the need
to refer to kinetic energy term. For a single-stream, steady-flow device:
   
2in 2out
qin + win + hin + ) + gzin = qout + wout + hout + + gzout (6.5)
2 2

qin + win + (h01 + gzin = qout + wout + (h02 + gzout ) (6.6)

where h01 and h02 are stagnation enthalpies at states 1 and 2 respectively.

For constant specific heats:

(qin qout ) + (win wout ) = Cp (T02 T01 ) + g (z02 z01 ) (6.7)

6.2 Speed of Sound & Mach Number

Pressure wave Disturbances that create rise in local pressure.

Speed of sound Speed of infinitesimally small pressure wave

Figure 6.2: Control volume moving with pressure wave [1].

Consider a control volume that enclose a wave front as shown in Figure 6.2. The control
volume also moves with the wave as the wave travels. Applying mass balance on control
volume:

mright = mlef t
Ac = ( + d)A(c d) (6.8)
Ac = Ac A d + d Ac d A d

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CHAPTER 6. COMPRESSIBLE FLOW 30

Neglect higher order term and cancel the c.s.a:

 :0

dAd
Ac = Ac A d + d Ac 
c = c d + d c
c d d = 0 (6.9)

Apply energy balance on the c.v boundary during steady flow process. Assume no heat
or work crosses the boundaries and neglect P E, then equation 6.5 is simplified to:

c2 (c d)2
h+ = h + dh +
2 2
c2 c2 d 2
h+ = h + dh + c d +
2 2 2
0
c2
c2
d 2
h+
=  h + dh +
c d +

2
2 2
dh c d = 0 (6.10)

From T-ds relation,

T ds = dh dP (6.11)
1
T ds = dh dP

dP
T ds = dh

The propagation of sonic wave is adiabatic and can be assumed to be isentropic. There-
fore

:0
 dP
T
 ds = dh

dP
dh = (6.12)

Combining equation 6.9, 6.10 and 6.12, it can be shown that:
dP
c2 = at s = constant (6.13)
d
Equation 6.13 can also be written as
 
2 P
c = (6.14)
s

HH Updated: December 7, 2005

CHAPTER 6. COMPRESSIBLE FLOW 31

It can also be shown by using the termodynamics properties relation that equation 6.14
can be written as  
2 P
c =k (6.15)
T
For ideal gas, P = RT . Therefore, equation 6.15 becomes

 
2 P
c = k
T
 

= k (RT )

= kRT

c = kRT (6.16)

Mach Number, M a Ratio of fluid speed to speed of sound in same fluid at same state

M= (6.17)
C
Named after Austrian physicist, Earnst Mach (18381916).

defined as the ratio of the actual velocity of fluid to the speed of sound in the same
fluid at the same state.

M a can be different at different fluid temperature.

Ma<1 Subsinic flow

Ma=1 Sonic flow
1<Ma65 Supersonic flow
Ma>5 Hypersonic flow

6.3 Isentropic Flow

Fluid flow through some devices can be regarded as isentropic e.g. nozzles, diffusers

6.3.1 Variation of fluid velocity with flow area

Applying mass balance on steady flow process:

m = A = constant (6.18)
Differentiating equation 6.18
(A) (A) (A)
. + .A + . = (constant)
A
AV + A + A = 0 (6.19)

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CHAPTER 6. COMPRESSIBLE FLOW 32

Equation 6.19 can also be written as

AV d + dA + A d = 0

Dividing all terms with AV , the equation becomes

d dA d
+ + =0 (6.20)
A
Applying energy balance (equation 6.5) on steady flow process and simplify:
2in 2out
hin + = hout +
2 2
2
h+ = constant (6.21)
2
Differentiating equation 6.21:
dh + d = 0 (6.22)
Since the flow is assumed to be isentropic, the T ds relation can be applied. Substitute
equation 6.12 into 6.22

dP
+ d = 0 (6.23)

Combining equations 6.14, 6.17, 6.20 and 6.23, equation becomes
dA dP

= 2 1 M a2 (6.24)
A
Using equation 6.23 and manipulate,
dP
= (6.25)
d
Substitute equation 6.25 into 6.24

dA dP

= dP

1 M a2
A d
dP d

= 1 M a2
dP
d

= 1 M a2

dA A

= 1 M a2 (6.26)
d
It can be concluded that, from equation 6.26,
dA
For subsonic flow (Ma<1) d <1
dA
For sonic flow (Ma=1) d =1
dA
For supersonic flow (Ma>1) d >1

HH Updated: December 7, 2005

CHAPTER 6. COMPRESSIBLE FLOW 33

Figure 6.3: Variation of flow properties in subsonic and supersonic nozzles and diffusers
[1].

6.3.2 Property relation for isentropic flow of ideal gases

 
T0 k1
=1+ M a2 (6.27)
T 2

  k
P0 T0 k1
=
P T
    k
P0 k1 2
k1
= 1+ Ma (6.28)
P 2

  1
0 T0 k1
=
T
    1
0 k1 2
k1
= 1+ Ma (6.29)
2

From equation 6.27, 6.28 and 6.29, when M a = 1 properties becomes critical properties
i.e.

HH Updated: December 7, 2005

CHAPTER 6. COMPRESSIBLE FLOW 34

T 2
= (6.30)
T0 k+1
  k
P 2 k1
= (6.31)
P0 k+1
  1
2 k1
= (6.32)
0 k+1

6.4 Isentropic flow through nozzles

Figure 6.4: Effect of back pressure on pressure distribution along converging nozzle [1].

Back Pressure, Pb Pressure applied at the nozzle discharge / exit region

HH Updated: December 7, 2005

CHAPTER 6. COMPRESSIBLE FLOW 35

Let the inlet velocity is connected to large reservoir. Therefore the inlet velocity is 0,
and consider a few cases as below:

Case 1: Back pressure = pressure at inlet (Pb = Pi = P1 )

there will be no flow.

pressure distribution is uniform/constant along the nozzle (shown by line 1)

Case 2: Back pressure = pressure at 2 (Pb = P2 )

pressure at exit, Pe reduced to P2 .

pressure decreases along the nozzle. (shown by line 2).

Case 3: Back pressure = critical pressure (Pb = P = P3 )

pressure at exit, Pe reduced critical pressure, P .

fluid velocity at exit becomes the speed of sound.
mass flow rate is maximum.
flow is choked.
pressure decreases with higher gradiend along the nozzle. (shown by line 3).

Case 4: Back pressure = pressure at 4 (Pb = P4 )

pressure at exit, Pe reduced to P4 .

pressure decreases along the nozzle, but the profiles remains the same as in Case 3.

Case 5: Back pressure = 0 (Pb = P5 = 0)

pressure at exit, Pe reduced to 0.

pressure decreases along the nozzle, but the profiles remains the same as in Case 3.

The mass flow rate through the nozzle at steady condition can be defined as

m = A
P
= A M a kRT
T
r
k
m = P A M a (6.33a)
RT
Solve for T and P from equation 6.27 and 6.28 respectively and substitute into equation

HH Updated: December 7, 2005

CHAPTER 6. COMPRESSIBLE FLOW 36

6.33a
v
P0 u k
u
m = 
 k A Ma t T0
(6.33b)
1 + k1 M a2 k1 R 1+ k1
2 ( 2 )
M a2
s 

k1
P0 k 1+ 2 M a2
=  k A Ma (6.33c)

1 + k1


M a2 k1 RT0
2
r    1
A M a P0 k k1 2
2
=  k 1+ Ma (6.33d)
1 + k1


M a2 k1 RT0 2
2
r     1(k+1)
k k1 2
2(k1)
= A M a P0 1+ Ma (6.33e)
RT0 2
q
k
A M a P0 RT0
m = 
 k+1 (6.34)
1 + k1
2 M a2 2(k1)
From equation 6.34:

m is a function of the cross sectional area of nozzle, the Mach number, stagnation
temperature and stagnation pressure

For a given A, T0 and P0 , the maximum mass flow rate through the nozzle can be
dm
determine by differentiating equation 6.34 w.r.t. M a. Setting dM a = 0, the M a at
which the m is maximum can be determine. Referring to 6.34 let,

r
k
u = A M a P0 (6.35a)
RT0
r
k
u = A M a (6.35b)
RT0

   1+k
k1 2
2(k1)
v = 1+ Ma (6.35c)
2
   1+k 1  
1+k k1 2
2(k1) k1
v = Ma 2M a (6.35d)
2(k 1) 2 2

Using quotient rule,

HH Updated: December 7, 2005

CHAPTER 6. COMPRESSIBLE FLOW 37

" 
  1+k r
dm k1 2
2(k1) k
= 1+ Ma A P0
dM a 2 RT0
r     1+k 1  #
k 1+k k1 2(k1) k 1
A M a P0 1+ M a2 2M a
RT0 2(k 1) 2 2
,"     1+k #2
k1 2
2(k1)
1+ Ma
2

dm
When dM a = 0,

    1+k r
k1 2(k1) k
1+ Ma 2
P
A0
2 RT0
r     1+k 1  
k 1+k k1 2(k1) k1
P
A Ma 0 1+ Ma2
2M a =0
RT0 2(k 1) 2 2

    1+k
k1 2
2(k1)
1+ Ma
2
    1+k 1  
1+k k1 2
2(k1) k1
Ma 1+ Ma 2M a =0
2(k 1) 2 2

1+k
 2(k1)
k1
Dividing all terms by 1 + 2 M a2 ,

    1
1+k k1 2k1 2
1 = 2 Ma 1+ Ma
2(k 1) 2 2
   
k1 2 2 1+k
1+ Ma = Ma (k 1)
2 2(k 1)
2 + (k 1) M a2 = M a2 (k + 1)
2 + M a2 k M a2 = M a2 k + M a2
2 M a2 = 2
Ma = 1

For flow through a nozzle, maximum flow rate is achieved when M a is 1, i.e. when
the flow is sonic.

HH Updated: December 7, 2005

Bibliography

[1] Yunus A. Cengal & Michael A. Boles, Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach,

McGraw Hill, Fifth Edition in S.I. Units, 2006.

[2] Michael J. Moran & Howard N. Shapiro, Fundamentals Of Engineering Thermody-

namics, John Wiley & Sons, Second Edition, 1992.

[3] Gordon Rogers & Yon Mayhew, Engineering Thermodynamics Work and Heat Trans-
fer, Longman, Fourth Edition, 1992.

38