ADVANCED PROCESS CONTROL

Chapter 1: Introduction
Control in process industries refers to the regulation of all aspects of the process.
Precise control of level, temperature, pressure and flow is important in many
process applications.

Refining, combining, handling, and otherwise manipulating fluids to profitably

produce end products can be a precise, demanding, and potentially hazardous
process. Small changes in a process can have a large impact on the end result.
Variations in proportions, temperature, flow, turbulence, and many other factors
must be carefully and consistently controlled to produce the desired end product
with a minimum of raw materials and energy.

Process control technology is the tool that enables manufacturers to keep their
operations running within specified limits and to set more precise limits to
maximize profitability, ensure quality and safety

1.1 Process Engineering

Process engineering focuses on the design, operation, control, optimization and
Intensification of chemical, physical, and biological processes. Process engineering
encompasses a vast range of industries, such as chemical, petrochemical,
agriculture, mineral processing, advanced material, food, pharmaceutical, software
development and biotechnological industries. The application of systematic
computer-based methods to process engineering is process systems engineering.

Process engineering involves translating the needs of the customer into (typically)
production facilities that convert "raw materials" into value-added components.
These components are transported to the next stage of the supply chain, typically
packaging engineering. Some larger-volume processes such as petroleum refining
processes tend to transfer the products into transportation (trucks or rail) that are
then directed to distributors or bulk outlets.

Prior to construction, the design work of process engineering begins with a block
diagram showing raw materials and the transformations (unit operations) desired.
An example is shown in figure 1.1.

The design work then progresses to a process flow diagram (PFD), figure 1.2,
where material flow paths, storage equipment (such as tanks and silos),
transformations (such as distillation columns, receiver/head tanks, mixing,
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separations, pumping, etc.) and flowrates are specified, as well as a list of all pipes
and conveyors and their contents, material properties such as density, viscosity,
particle-size distribution, flowrates, pressures, temperatures, and materials of
construction for the piping and unit operations.

Figure 1.1 Natural gas processing block diagram

The process flow diagram is then used to develop a piping and instrumentation
diagram (P&ID), figure 1.3, which includes pipe and conveyor sizing information
to address the desired flowrates, process controls (such as tank level indications,
material flow meters, weighing devices, motor speed controls, temperature and
pressure indicators/controllers, etc.). The P&ID is then used as a basis of design for
developing the "system operation guide" or "functional design specification" which
outlines the operation of the process.

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Figure 1.2 Process Flow Diagram PFD

Figure 1.3 Piping and Instrumentation Diagram P&ID

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From the P&ID, a proposed layout (general arrangement) of the process can be
shown from an overhead view (plot plan) and a side view (elevation), as shown in
figure 1.4, and other engineering disciplines are involved such as civil engineers
for site work (earth moving), foundation design, concrete slab design work,
structural steel to support the equipment, etc.). All previous work is directed
toward defining the scope of the project, then developing a cost estimate to get the
design installed, and a schedule to communicate the timing needs for engineering,
procurement, fabrication, installation, commissioning, startup, and ongoing
production of the process.

Figure 1.4 Example for General Arrangement Drawing GAD

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Depending on the needed accuracy of the cost estimate and schedule that is
required, several iterations of designs are generally provided to customers or
stakeholders who feed back their requirements. The process engineer incorporates
these additional instructions (scope revisions) into the overall design and additional
cost estimates, and schedules are developed for funding approval. Following
funding approval, the project is executed via project management.

Under the umbrella of Process Systems Engineering, there are many disciplines,
such as:

Process design: synthesis of energy recovery networks, synthesis of

distillation systems, synthesis of reactor networks, hierarchical decomposition
flowsheets, superstructure optimization, design multiproduct batch plants. Design
of the production reactors for the production of plutonium, design of nuclear
submarines.

Process operations: scheduling process networks, multiperiod planning and

optimization, data reconciliation, real-time optimization, flexibility measures, fault
diagnosis

Process control: model predictive control, controllability measures, robust

control, nonlinear control, statistical process control, process monitoring,
thermodynamics-based control

1.2 Process Control

Process control is an engineering discipline that deals with architectures,

mechanisms and algorithms for maintaining the output of a specific process within
a desired range. For instance, the temperature of a chemical reactor may be
controlled to maintain a consistent product output.

Process control is extensively used in industry and enables mass production of

consistent products from continuously operated processes such as oil refining,
paper manufacturing, chemicals, power plants and many others. Process control
enables automation, by which a small staff of operating personnel can operate a
complex process from a central control room.

Process control may either use feedback or it may be open loop. Control may also
be continuous (automobile cruise control) or cause a sequence of discrete events,

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such as a timer on a lawn sprinkler (on/off) or controls on an elevator (logical

sequence).

A thermostat on a heater is an example of control that is on or off. A temperature

sensor turns the heat source on if the temperature falls below the set point and turns
the heat source off when the set point is reached. There is no measurement of the
difference between the set point and the measured temperature (e.g. no error
measurement) and no adjustment to the rate at which heat is added other than all or
none.

A familiar example of feedback control is cruise control on an automobile. Here

speed is the measured variable. The operator (driver) adjusts the desired speed set
point (e.g. 100 km/hr) and the controller monitors the speed sensor and compares
the measured speed to the set point. Any deviations, such as changes in grade,
drag, wind speed or even using a different grade of fuel (for example an ethanol
blend) are corrected by the controller making a compensating adjustment to the
fuel valve open position, which is the manipulated variable. The controller makes
adjustments having information only about the error (magnitude, rate of change or
cumulative error) although settings known as tuning are used to achieve stable
control. The operation of such controllers is the subject of control theory.

A commonly used control device called a programmable logic controller, or a

PLC, is used to read a set of digital and analog inputs, apply a set of logic
statements, and generate a set of analog and digital outputs.

For example, if an adjustable valve were used to hold level in a tank the logical
statements would compare the equivalent pressure at depth setpoint to the pressure
reading of a sensor below the normal low liquid level and determine whether more
or less valve opening was necessary to keep the level constant. A PLC output
would then calculate an incremental amount of change in the valve position. Larger
more complex systems can be controlled by process control systems like
Distributed Control System (DCS) or SCADA.

1.2.1 Process Control Historical Overview

Instrumentation and Control has evolved from a manual and mechanical

technology to a pneumatic, electronic, and digital technology. Ancient engineers
were surely using simple yet precise measuring devices. The following points
indicate the major steps in history:

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The flyball governor for steam engines was invented in 1774 and is
considered the first application of a feedback controller concept.
1800s .. tin-case and wood-case thermometers and mercury barometers.
1900s .. pen recorders, pneumatic controllers, and temperature controllers
(on-off) hit the market.
World War I .. Control rooms were developed, and the concept of PID
control emerged.
1930s .. analyzers, flowmeters, and electronic potentiometers were
developed.
1940s .. the Ziegler-Nichols tuning method was developed.
World War II .. pressure transmitters and all-electronic instruments were
produced.
1940s and 1950s .. the process control industry was transformed by the
introduction of the transistor, electronic controls, and the 4-20 mA DC signal
range.
1960s .. computers were introduced along with CRT-based MHI, PLCs, and
improved control valves.
1970s .. brought the microprocessor, DCSs, fiber-optic transmission
1980s and 1990s .. IT, software technology, neural networks, fuzzy logic,
smart instruments, and self-tuning controllers were also introduced.
2000 .. the demarcation between DCSs and PLCs disappears, auto-
diagnostics and self-repair, ease of use, and a standard plantwide
communication bus.

1.2.2 How Process Control Works

Control functions were originally performed manually by operators (figure 1.5a).

The operator typically used the senses of sight, feel, smell, and sound to measure
the process. To maintain the process within set limits, the operator would adjust a
device, such as a manual valve, or change a feed, such as adding a shovelful of
coal. The quality of control was poor by todays standards and relied heavily on the
capabilities, response, and experience of the human operator.

In modern systems, by contrast, the operators control function has been replaced
by a control unit that continuously compares a measured variable (the feedback)
with a set point and automatically produces an output to maintain the process
within limits (see figure 1.5b). This control unit is the controller. The operator
acts as a supervisor to this controller by setting its set point, which the controller
then works to maintain. Automatic controls provide consistent quality products,

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reduced pollution, labor savings, optimized inventory and production, increased

safety, and control of processes that could not be operated manually with any
efficiency. In addition, automatic controls release the operator from the need to
perform tedious activities, making possible more intelligent and efficient use of
labor.

Controllers have evolved from simple three-mode pneumatic devices to

sophisticated control functions that are part of a larger computer-based system such
as a distributed control system (DCS) or a programmable logic controller (PLC).
Such microprocessor-based units commonly provide self-tuning, logic control
capabilities, digital communication, and so forth. When selecting a controller for
an application, users should keep in mind certain considerations to ensure correct
operation. In addition to basic requirements such as the controllers range of input
and output signals, accuracy, and speed of response, personnel selecting controllers
should also consider
The effect the controller mode will have on the process if it is left on manual
(typically, the transfer from auto mode to manual mode should be a closely
controlled activity).
The ability of the control function to switch bumplessly from automatic to
manual and manual to automatic.
The implementation of direct-reading scales in engineering units.
The inclusion of built-in external feedback connection (or anti-reset windup)
to prevent the development of reset windup caused by the application (refer
to the section Modulating control later in this chapter).
The effect on the process if the controller fails and the potential need for
manual takeover or automatic shutdown.

a- Manual Control b- Automatic Control

Figure 1.5
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