Elementary Mechanics Text

ELEMENTARY
MECHANICS
BY
G. Li. Chandratreya,
M.A., B.Sc. (Bom.), M.A. (Cantab),
Principal and Professor of Mathematics
Institute of Post-Graduate (E) Studies
University of Delhi, Delhi
AND
D. S. Agashe, M.A. (Cantab),
Professor of Mathematics,
St. Xaviers College, Bombay.
VAKILS, FEFFER and SIMONS PRIVATE LTD.

BOMBAY.
ELEMENTARY MECHANICS
First Edition : 1953
Published by Rashtni Mehta for Vakils. Feffer

B.
and Simons P. Mehta Rd.
Pvt. Ltd. 60. Sir Bombay-1,
India. Printed by Sudhir Balsaver at Usha Printers,
National House, Tulloch Road. Bombay-1.
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
This book is meant to be an introductory course in
Elementary Mechanics and is intended to serve as a text-book
for the use of students in the intermediate classes of Indian
Universities. In writing this book we have endeavoured to keep
in front of us a few requirements which it has been our aim to
fulfil. The first has been to provide a continuous course in
Mechanics, without separating it into Statics and Dynamics as
unrelated branches at this stage. The other is to teach the *
fundamentals of Mechanics, sufficiently rigorously while laying

a foundation for further work. Vectors have been used tho-
roughly but intuitively. Calculus has been used wherever it
seemed an advantage. Emphasis is given both to the theory and
to the solution of problems. We have tried to bring the book
into line with modem teaching practice, especially in using the
analytical method. A
number of diagrams have been
large
used to ensure clear understanding of the subject. A sufficient
variety of examples has been provided, many being given as
'illustrative examples.
Some of the examples are taken from the examination

papers of Bombay and Poona Universities. We thank the
University authorities for giving us permission to use these
papers.
We offer our thanks to Mr. V. G. Kelkar, b. a., dip. tech,

for drawing figures for this book.
Our thanks are also due to the authorities of the Aryabhushan

Press for the readiness and patience with which they undertook
the printing of the book.
Finally we wish to say that we shall be very grateful for

any suggestions that may be made by the teachers and the
students for the improvement of this book.
F ge'
G. L. Ch.Bdr.trtr.
*lZT )
31st May 1953 J D. Agaahe
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
This book is meant to be an introductory course in
Elementary Mechanics and is intended to serve as a text-book
for the use of students in the intermediate classes of Indian
Universities. In writing this book we have endeavoured to keep
in front of us a few requirements which it has been our aim to
fulfil. The first has been to provide a continuous course in
Mechanics, without separating it into Statics and Dynamics as
unrelated branches at this stage. The other is to teach the *
fundamentals of Mechanics, sufficiently rigorously while laying

a foundation for further work. Vectors have been used tho-
roughly but intuitively. Calculus has been used wherever it
seemed an advantage. Emphasis is given both to the theory and
to the solution of problems. We have tried to bring the book
into line with modern teaching practice, especially in using the
analytical method. A large number of diagrams have been
used to ensure clear understanding of the subject. A sufficient
variety of examples has been provided, many being given as
îllustrative examples.
Some of the examples are taken from the examination

papers of Bombay and Poona Universities. We thank the
University authorities for giving us permission to use these
papers.
We offer our thanks to Mr. V. G. Kelkar, b. a., dip. tech,

for drawing figures for this book.
Our thanks are also due to the authorities of the Aryabhushan

Press for the readiness and patience with which they undertook
the printing of the book.
Finally we wish to say that we shall be very grateful for

any suggestions that may be made by the teachers and the
students for the improvement of this book.
Fen^Colfc*., -I
G. L. Ch>br. ;
31st May 1953 J D. ^ Agasha
CONTENTS
Chapter
I Introductory ... ... ... 1
II Vectors and Concurrent Forces ... 10
III Statics of a Particle... ... ... 36
IV Velocity and Acceleration

Motion in a straight line ... ... 47
V Laws of Motion ... ... ... * 80
VI Impulse, Work, Energy, Power ... 101
VII Moments : Parallel Forces ... ... 119
VIII Centre of Gravity ... ... ... 139
IX Equilibrium of a Rigid Body

under. Coplanar Forces ... ... 160
X Motion of a Projectile ... ... 173
Answers ... ... ... 187

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTORY
1. Mechanics mainly deals with the state of rest or motion
of material objects under external influences. It is that branch
of science in which we study the conditions under which objects
around us move or are at rest. It also enables us to predict
the subsequent motion of the objects under consideration. In
Mechanics, we are concerned with the nature of the objects
their location in space at any time and the physical influences
which keep them at rest or in motion. The main object of
Mechanics is to determine this state of rest or motion under
given influences and conversely to find the influences which are
capable of producing the given state of rest or motion.
2. Divisions of Mechanics. The two important aspects

of rest and motion divide the science of Mechanics into two
branches, viz. Statics and Dynamics Statics deals with bodies
.
Dynamics we consider bodies in motion. That

at rest, while in
part of Dynamics which deals with motion of bodies, without
reference to the causes producing it, is called Kinematics', the
other part, where we take into account the causes producing
motion, is known as Kinetics .
3. Space and Time. The idea of rest* or motion contains

9
two fundamental concepts, those of Space and Time. Space

itself cannot be defined, although we have an intuitive perception
of it through some of its properties. We assume space to be
unchangeable, boundless, uniform and continuous. In such a
space, a theorem like two straight lines cannot enclose space*
holds good. In brief, the geometry of the space in which objects
move or are at rest is assumed to be Euclidean.
As regards time, we have the following postulate : Time is
absolute and flows uniformly. This means that one event may
2 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS
be said to have occurred five seconds, say, before another event

without reference to the position or state of motion of the obser-
ver or the events. The passage of time is independent of the
observer and the events observed and we can construct a scale of
time by choosing, as unit, the interval between two consecutive
recurrences of any convenient natural phenomena.
The unit generally chosen is the Mean Solar Second, derived

fronl the mean solar day.
4 . Before considering the motion of material objects we

shall examine their nature.
Every material object occupies some space and is perceived

by the various senses. Matter , in fact, is understood to be that
which occupies space and portions of matter limited in every
direction constitute material bodies or simply bodies In mechanics, .
we are mainly concerned with three properties of a material body,

viz. its extension including the shape and the size, the structure of
its molecules and the amount of matter in the body as measured
by its inertia. Of course, matter possesses a number of other

properties besides these, but the properties just mentioned and
their idealisations are taken as the basis of our study in mechanics.
Since many of the phenomena and processes in the world of
nature are extremely complicated, we have to use simpler ideas
in order to be able to study and predict the behaviour of
bodies under given influences. That is why we shall con-
centrate on bodies having specific ideal properties.
Every material body in nature occupies a certain? region of

space in three dimensions, i. e. a material body, has extension
in length, breadth and thickness.
In an elementary study of the subject of Mechanics, we are

concerned with bodies whose shape and size remain invariable.
Their molecular structure is such that the distance between
every two of its molecules remains the same. Such bodies are
known as rigid bodies . Thus a rigid body can be defined as
a body, the different parts of which always occupy the same
relative positions. In nature we do not come across a perfectly
rigid body, a$ every body is deformed, howsoever little, under
INTRODUCTORY 3
sufficiently strong influences. A rigid body is, therefore, a

mathematical abstraction.
Every material body, if left to itself, does not change its

state of rest or uniform motion. This property of reluctance
to change its state is known as inertia which varies from body ,
to body. The mass of a body is defined to be a measure of

the intensity of its inertia ; the more inert a body is, the greater
is its mass.
This property of inertia is contained in what is commonly

known as Newtons 1st Law of Motion, viz.
Every body continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in

a straight line unless it is acted upon by some external agency.
This intensity of inertia naturally depends on the amount

of matter contained in the body and so, mass is usually defined
as the quantity of matter contained in the body.
5. A Material Particle. A body can be divided into a

large number of small portions, and all these tiny portions can
be imagined to make up the whole body. A tiny portion of
matter, of negligible dimensions, is called a material particle or
simply a particle , which can be represented by a geometrical
point. This idealisation as regards extension does not preclude
the particle from possessing the other properties mentioned above.
Thus every particle has a definite mass.
Sometimes a body of finite size may be regarded as a

particle for investigating its motion when its dimensions are
negligible compared to other distances involved in the problem.
For instance, the earth is regarded as a particle in its motion
round the Sun as its radius is negligible in comparison with
its distance from the Sun. Thus a body which is so small that
the distance between its various parts can be ignored for any
particular investigation can be considered as a particle and
hence can be represented adequately by a mathematical point.
In like manner we can suppose thin rods as represented by
mathematical lines, straight or curved, and thin sheets of matter
i. e. laminas as represented by mathematical surfaces.

6. Location of a Particle. In order to consider the

motion of a particle, we must be able to locate its position in
space at any time. For this purpose a fixed point 0 is chosen
as the origin. If the particle is located at the point P at any
time, then its position at the time is determined uniquely by
the distance OP (
r ) and the direction of the line OP, as
directed from 0 to P. This distance OP, taken with the proper

direction and sense, is known as the position vector of the point P
(or the particle at P) and is denoted by OP, the arrow indica-

ting that the sense of the direction is from 0 to P. Position
vector is a particular case of vectors, which are quantities
having magnitude, direction and sense. The vector OP is often
written as OP, it being understood that the sense of the vector
is from O to P.
It should be noted that if the origin 0 is not a fixed

point, the vector OP will still give the position of the point P
lative to O.
7. Force. We have seen that matter possesses the property

o and cannot move or change its state of rest or motion
inertia
by itself. Some external agency is required to bring about
this change of state. This external agency or cause of motion
is known as Force. In fact, Newtons 1st law of motion gives us
the qualitative definition of Force as :
Force is that which changes or tends to change the state of rest
or motion of a body*
Force manifests itself to our senses in a variety of ways. If

we push or pull a body, we exert a force on it and the body
moves in the direction of our push or pull. When a batsman
hits the ball,bowled by the bowler, he exerts a force on the
ball when hestrikes it and changes its motion. If the force
exerted is large enough, the ball goes to the boundary. It is
thus clear that the force applied possesses a definite magnitude
and direction, the change in motion produced being proportional
to this magnitude and taking place in the direction of the
applied force. This gives a method of measuring forces by

INTRODUCTORY 5
the effect they produce, the actual measure depending on the

units chosen.
These facts illustrate Newtons 2nd law of motion which

is stated as follows :
The change of motion is proportional to the impressed force and

takes place in the direction of the impressed force .
Further, every force has a definite point of application. If

a force is applied to a particle, the point of application of the
force is the particle itself. In the case of a body, the force
can be applied at any point of the body and this point will be
its point of application. Thus a force has the following three
characteristics :
(1) It has a definite magnitude;
(2) It acts in a definite direction and sense;
(3) It has a point of application.
The line drawn through the point of application of the

force in the direction in which it acts is called the line of action
of the force.

Since a force has both magnitude and direction, it is a
vector. Further since it acts along a definite line (
passing
through the point of application) it is called a localised vector .
A localised vector is also known
a jotor. Vectors alongas
parallel lines and having the same magnitude are equivalent,
but forces being localised vectors will not be equivalent, even
though they may be of the same magnitude and may be acting
in the same direction unless they are acting in the same line.
A force can, therefore, be completely represented by drawing
a directed line segment through the point of application in
the direction of the force, its length being proportional to the
magnitude of the force.
A further effect of force on matterchange its shape

is to
and form. A piece of rubber, when by the appli-
stretched
cation of a force will be deformed, the amount of deformation
depending on the force applied. This deformation, known as
strain is generally proportional to the force and hence gives

another method of measuring forces. In this book, however, we
are concerned with rigid bodies alone, which do not alter their
shape or size under any kind of forces.
8. Classification of Forces. Forces are of three kinds :
(1) Forces acting between bodies in contact, which are of

the nature of pressure ,
reactions or thrusts. Thus if a book is lying
on a table, its weight is supported by the table. The book
exerts a thrust on the table, which is balanced by the force of
reaction of the table on the book.
The between two bodies in contact depend

forces of reaction
on the nature of their surfaces in contact. If the mutual action
between the two surfaces is in the direction of the normal to their
common surface of contact, the bodies are said to have smooth
surfaces. Thus a smooth surface is one that can exert no reaction
that is not normal to itself. A rough surface, on the other hand,
can exert a reaction in the direction of the normal and in a
direction tangential to it. The reaction exerted in the tangential
direction is known as the force of friction.
t (2) Forces acting between bodies or particles connected by

strings or rods, which are of the nature of pull i. e. a tension or ,
a push i,. e.If a body is dragged by means of a rope,

a thrust.
the force exerted by the rope on the body is a pull viz. the tension
in the rope. Similarly, a thrust is exercised when we push a
body by means of a rod.
(3) Forces between bodies at a distance, which are of the

nature of attraction or repulsion . Attraction is a force exerted
by one body on another without the intervention of any visible
instrument like a string or a rod, the bodies being not necessarily
in contact with each other. A common example of this kind of
force is the attraction with which any body is pulled towards
the centre of the earth. This force of attraction is called the
weight of the body. Incidentally, the earth too is attracted
towards the body with an equal and opposite force. Similarly
two electric charges of the same sign will repel each other,
giving an illustration of a force of repulsion.

INTRODUCTORY 7
9. Action and Reaction, From the nature of different

types of forces, classified above, it is clear that force is the
mutual action of two bodies, that of one on the other, and the
amount of force exerted by one body on the other is exactly
equal to the amount of resistance offered by the other body.
In nature, forces always occur in pairs action and reaction,
the two being exactly the same in magnitude but opposite in
direction. This fact is embodied in Newtons third law of
motion :
Action and Reaction are equal and opposite.
We upon only one of the

often concentrate our attention
forces of such a pair, but the other force is always present. It
is clear that one cannot pull oneself up by ones boot straps.
10. The Principle of Transmissibility of Forces.
Two forces are said to be equal when they produce the

same effect on a given body.
If two forces of the same magnitude act on the same

particle in opposite directions, then the motion which one force
tends to impart is exactly the reverse of that which the other
force tends to impart. Hence if a particle be at rest, it will
continue to remain at rest and if it be in motion, its state of
motion willbe unaltered. The forces in such a case are said to

balance each other or to be in equilibrium.
If two forces of the at points A , B of a

same magnitude act
rigid body in the same AB
but in opposite directions, then
line y
the forces balance each other and are said to be in equilibrium.

We shall take this as a postulate.
More generally, if the effects of any number of forces act-
ing on a body are mutually neutralised, so that they do not
change the state of rest or motion of the body, they are said
to balance or to be in equilibrium. Conversely, if two forces
acting on a body balance each other i. e. are in equilibrium,
they must be of the same magnitude and act in the same line
but in opposite directions.

We can now state the principle of Transmissibility of Forces

The effect of a force on a rigid body is unaltered if its point of appli-
cation is transferred to any other point in its line of action provided
this point is rigidly connected with the body .
Let a force F act at a point A of a rigid body along the

line BA B being another point of the rigid body in the line of
;
action of the force F. At B introduce two equal and opposite

forces, each of magnitude F, acting along BA and AB. These
two forces of the same magnitude acting at the same point and
in opposite directions are in equilibrium and so have no effect
on the body. Now A and B being points of the rigid body, the
force F A in the direction BA and the force F acting
acting at
at B in the opposite direction AB (both acting in the same
straight line AB), must balance each other and hence we are
left with the force F acting at B in the direction BA Thus the .
force F acting at A in the direction BA, is equivalent to the

force F acting at B in the same direction BA.
Thus the point of application of a force acting on a rigid

body can be taken to be any point in its line of action, provided
that point is rigidly connected with the body.
from the principle of transmissibility of forces that

It follows
if we have a wood on a horizontal table, we shall have
log of
to exert the same horizontal force to move the log whether we
pull it from the front or push it from behind provided the lines
of action of the pull and the push are the same.
11. The Postulates of Classical Mechanics. These can

now be summarised as follows :
(1) The Geometry of space is Euclidean.
(2) Time is absolute and flows uniformly;

, and Newtons three laws of motion viz.

INTRODUCTORY 9
First law :
(3) Every body continues in its state of rest or of

uniform motion in a straight line unless it is acted
upon by some external force.
Second law :
(4) The change of motion is proportional to the

impressed force and takes place in the direction
of the impressed force.
Third law :
(5) Action and reaction are equal and opposite.
(6) Newtons law of

Gravitation The force of :
attraction between two masses is directly propor-
tional to their masses and inversely proportional
to the square of the distance between them.
The structure of Mechanics built on the above postulates

does not give results which are exactly verified by experiment,
though the discrepanciesfew and extremely difficult to
are
observe. This is so world is extremely,
because .the actual
complicated and it is not possible to explain completely all its
varied phenomena by means of a few simple laws.
CHAPTER II
VECTORS AND CONCURRENT FORCES

(I) Vectors
1. We have seen in the last chapter that some physical,

quantities have both magnitude and direction. Quantities which
have both magnitude and direction (including the sense) and
obey the geometric law of addition are known as vectors:
while those like mass, temperature, density etc. that possess only
magnitude are known as scalars. Thus a displacement of a
particle from a point A to a point B is a vector AB the order
of the letters denoting the sense of the direction as well. The
magnitude of a vector which is also known as its module is
essentially positive.
2. Consider now a man going from a point A to the east
a distance AB of 20 and then

ft.
moving to the north a distance

BC of 15 ft. He has thus undert
gone two displacements AB and
BC successively; the resultan-
effect of the two displacements is
the displacement AC
which, by
measurement or by simple
2 .
calculation is found to be 25 ft.
in magnitude, its direction being determined by the angle BAC.

In terms of vectors we say that the resultant or the sum of the
two vectors AB and BC is the vector AC and we express this in
the form
AB + BC AC;
AB and BC are known as the components of the vector
AC in the respective directions.
It should be observed that the +sign between AB and BC

does not mean algebraic addition of the lengths AB and BC
but it means that the displacement BC (representing the vector
BC) takes place after the displacement AB.
VECTORS AND CONCURRENT FORCES 11
Incidentally the man might have as well traversed the

distance AD of 15 ft. due north
and he might have then first
gone over the distance DC of 20 ft. due east, arriving at the

position C as before. In fact he might have traversed a distance
AE in any direction first and he might then traverse EC. In
every case, we have
AB + BC = AD + DC = AE + EC = AC.
More generally we will have
AC = AB + BD + DE + EC.
This is the vector law of addition which will be taken as the
basis in what follows.
Definition : A vector is thus seen to be a directed line segment

which is used to represent various physical quantities , having both magni-
tude and direction and which combines with similar directed line segments ,
according to ( known also as the law

the vector law of addition of geometric
addition ), the resultant or the sum vector representing the combined
effects of the quantities representing the original vectors .
Evidently the displacement of a point from A to B, i. e. the

vector AB, is exactly opposite in direction (but the same in
magnitude) to the displacement from B to A, i. e. as the vector
BA. We express this by writing
AB =- BA.
Also the displacement from A to B added to i. e. followed
by the displacement from B to A means no displacement at all.
Hence AB+BA*=0.
From these two results, we get
AC - BC = AC + CB = AB.
This is the law of subtraction for vectors .
3. It should be noted that since AD is equal and parallel

to BC, ADaBC, the equality holding as regards magnitude as
well as direction. Similarly AB =DC. In fact, vectors having
the same magnitude and direction are equivalent and a vector

therefore, may be moved parallel to itself in space, unless as
we shall see later, the actual position of the vector is also
material.
We are, however, often concerned with only the magnitude

and direction of a vector and not with its actual position or locality .
Such a vector is known as a free vector as opposed to a

localised vector. The moment of a couple is an instance of a
free vector.
Now vector AC is
the resultant the diagonal of the
parallelogram ABCD whose adjacent sides represent the vectors
AB and AD for AB + AD=AB + BC=AC. The vector law
of addition is, therefore, also known as the parallelogram law
of addition .
It will be seen that the parallelogram law of addition is
applicable to free as well as localised vectors while the geometric

or triangle law of addition, viz. AB + BGÂG is applicable
only to free vectors.
We shall now deal with vectors in some detail before we

turn our attention to the consideration of forces.
Notation
4 It will be seen that vectors are customarily
:
denoted by using clarendon (i. e. bold face) types e. g. P

or AB. This is convenient, however, only in printing.
In writing on the blackboard or in an exercise book vectors
can be more conveniently denoted by writing a bar on the
top of the letter or letters representing vectors, e. g. P or
AB;or P, AB. When a vector is denoted by a directed segment

we may specifically denote its direction by using a pointed bar
e. g.AB or AB indicating that the direction is from A to B . In

every case the magnitude or module of a vector is denoted by
writing the letter or letters denoting the vector in ordinary or
ordinary italic type. Thus P, AB or P, AB will denote
the magnitudes of the vectors P and AB respectively.
The magnitudes of the vectors P, AB are also denoted by
|
P |
and |
AB |
.
5. Definitions :
(i) Equality of Vectors: Two vectors are said to be

equal they have the same magnitude and have the same
if
direction. Thus P = Q, implies that P = Q, and that the two

vectors have the same direction.
fii) Negative Vectors : A vector whose magnitude is the

same as that of a vector P but whose direction is opposite to
that of P is called the negative of P and is written as P.
(iii) Unit Vectors : A unit vector in any direction is a
vector, in that direction, of unit magnitude. The co-ordinate
axes being rectangular, we shalldenote unit vectors in the posi-
tive directions of the axes of x and y by i and j respectively.
(iv) Zero Vectors : A vector a is called a zero vector
if its magnitude is zero. Thus a = 0 means a = 0.
(v) Resultant and Components : If a single vector is
equivalent to a number of vectors then this single vector is called

their resultant and the several vectors are known as the com-
ponents of the resultant.
In particular, when a vector R is such that it is equivalent

to vectors P, Q, whose directions are mutually perpendicular
then P, Q, are known as the resolved parts of the vector R in
the directions of P and
Q, respectively. It will be seen that the
imgnitude of the resolved part of a vector R, along any st. line
= R cos 6 where 0 is the angle between the given st. line and
the direction of R.
6. Some more Operations with Vectors :
(i) Multiplication of a Vector by a scalar i. e. by any

number If a be any vector and m any positive scalar then
.
ma is defined to be a vector with magnitude ma and direction

that of a; while if m is a negative scalar then ma is defined to
be a vector whose magnitude in |
m |
a and whose direction is
opposite to that of a.
It will be seen that m and n being any scalars
(m = + /z) a ma + wa
and w(a+b) = wa+wb.
Further m and n being any scalars, ma + n b is called a

linear function of the Vectors a and b.
Scalar Product of two Vectors

(ii) The scalar product :
of two vectors a and b is defined to be the scalar a b cos 6

where 6 is the angle between the directions of a and b and is
denoted by a*b or (ab). It will be seen that a bsb a. It is
also known as their dot product. Thus
a-b = (ab) = ab cos 0 = (b a) = b-a.
Clearly if a and b are mutually perpendicular then ab=:0

However, if it is given that a b = 0, it does not follow that a
and b are necessarily mutually perpendicular; for a b can vanish
even when at least one of a and b is zero; i. e. when at least
one of a and b is a zero vector.
It will be seen that if a and b have the same direction

a*b = ab .
Further (m a) *b = m (a-b) = a. (mb) ;

and aa =a =a 2 2
.
It will be seen later that the work done by the force vector
F in a displacement d of its point of application = F-d.
(iii) Vector Product of two Vectors : The veôr
product of two vectors a and b is defined to be a vector c such
that (1) c is perpendicular to both a and b, the sense of the
direction of this perpendicular being that given by a right-handed
screw motion due to a rotation from a to b and
(2) the magnitude c = ab sin 0 where 0 (0 < 0 < n) is
the angle between a and b.
The vector product of the two vectors a and b is denoted

by axbor [a, b] and it is also called their cross product.
It will be seen that

a X b = b X a;
and that if a and b are mutually perpendicular then
|
axb |
aa |
bxa |
= ab.
.
Note : If a unit vector in the direction of a is denoted by a

then we have a = a ;
similarly a vector of magnitude P in
the directed

segment OA can be written as

P OA*
OA
It will be seen that the area of a parallelogram whose
adjacent sides are the vectors a and b = a x b .
| |
(iv) Moment of a vector about the origin O. If r be

the position vector of any point in the actual line of a vector R
then the moment of the (localised) vector about the origin R
0 is defined as r X R.
be seen later that the moment of a force F about
It will
the origin is O
r X F where r is the position vector of any
point in the line of action of the force F and this moment is a
vector perpendicular to the plane of the origin 0 and the line
of action of the force F.
It will thus be^seen that the vectors a, b and a X b cannot

be in one and the same plane and so are not coplanar (except
in the trival case when a or b is a zero vector)
In this book, however, we shall be dealing only with*

coplanar vectors unless a statement is made to the contrary.
7. Examples :
Ex. (i) Find the resultant of the vectors p . OA and q OB,

.
Join AB and divide AB at D so that p.AD = q.DB. [Note that if p

and q have opposite signs D will divide AB externally].
Complete the parallelogram ODAL and ODBM .

M
Now by the parallelogram law of vector addition, OA= OD+ DA and

hence p m
OA * p'OD + /.6Aj similarly we have ^.OB = $.OD + ^DB.
Hence the resultant ofp'OA and q'OB
p*OA 4- q'OB
= p-OD+^ DA + q OD + $DB
= (p+q) OD + p-OL + g*OM.
But 'OL and ?.OM are vectors having opposite directions but hav-
ving the* same magnitude, since by construction |

p' AD = | |
g*DB |
.
Hen c
ÔA + q- OB = (/> + ?) OD,
where D is the point which divides AB in the ratio given by p' AD = q
m
DB,
Cor. : The resultant of the vectors OA and OB is 20 where M is
the mid-point of AB.
Ex. (II) If a and b are two non-parallel coplanar vectors then show that any
vector c in their plane can be expressed in the form m a + n b.
Since a and b are not parallel we can construct a parallelogram with

c as its diagonal and with its adjacent sides parallel to a and b. Thus let
1 ^ OC denote the vector c and lines
through 0 and C parallel to a and
b respectively intersect in B. Then
c = ~0C *= OB + BC. Let the
lengths of OB and BC be m'a

and n'b respectively. Then
OB = m'a or m'a according as
OB and a have the same or oppo-
site directions; similarly BC n'b or n'h according as BC and b have the
same or opposite directions. Hence in either case OB = ma and BC = nb

where m and n are scalars (positive or negative). Thus c=ma+nb.
Ex. (ill) If p.AB + q' AC =0 then show that the points A,Bfi are collinear.
We have p.AB =
q.AC; hence the vectors AB and AC originating
from the same point A have either the same or opposite directions according
as the scalars p and q have opposile or same signs. Therefore, in either case
the points A, B and C arc collinear.
. *
Ex. (iv) If l.OA+m.OB+n.OC = 0 and /+m-h=0 then show that the

points A 9 By C are collinear
For we have /* OA + nr OB (/ + m) ~0C = 0.
/. OCj + nr (OB OC) = 0.
l*CA -f- nvCB a0.

Hence as in example (iii) above, the points C, -4, i. e. the points A,
By C are collinear.
Ex. (v) am/ j denote unit vectors along the axes of x and y, the axes
being rectangular, and if
opi=*ii +J'ii
anrf 0/> ss*î+j j
t l
prove that OP1 -OP2 =x 1x 2 + yt y 2 and OP1 X OP2 = \ | | x1 > 2 ->ix 2 I

We have ij=ji=0
and ii=jj=l; while ixj = jxi =1. | | | |
Hence OPl -OP 2 =.{x i+y 1 i) 1
= (*1*2> (**) + Ui Jg) (iJ)
+ (*l.Tl)*'J + (^1*2) I
=*1* 2 +J' 1 J>2-
Again we have ixj= jxi, ixi=jxj=0
and |
ixj J
1 Jxi |
1.
Hence OP{ X OP2 = (* 1 i+.j'1j) X (.'

2 i+.j' 2 j)
= (*i> 2 ixj+(ji t* 2
) )
jxi
= (*iJ2-J'i 2) ix JC
l-
*.
I
OPx X OP 2 1
= *! ^2-^1 *2
| I

Examples II (a).
(1) G is the mid-point of AB and G' is the mid-point of CD. Prove

that
AC + BD= 2 GG'.
(2) G is the centroid of a triangle ABC. Prove that
GA + GB\+ GC = 0.
(3) ABCD is a quadrilateral and E and F are the mid-points of the
diagonals AC and BD respectively. Prove that
AB + ~CB + ~AD + CZ) = 4EF.
(4) P is any point in the plane of a triangle ABC. If the resultant
of the vectors PA. PB always passes through C show that the locus of P is the
median of the triangle ABC from the* vertex C.
E. M....2
,
(5) Five vectors AB ,

AC, AD, AE, AF act at the vertex A of a
regular hexagon ABCDEF Prove that their resultant is 3 AD,

() ABCDEF is a regular hexagon. Prove that
AB +AC+AE+ AF= 2 AD,
(7) If a and b are vectors, explain briefly with the help of diagrams
what is meant by (i) 2a+3b, (ii) 2a+b.
(8) Five vectors AB, AC, AD, AE, AF are concurrent at the vertex A
of a regular hexagon ABCDEF. Prove that their resultant is 6AO where 0
is the centre of the hexagon.
(9) a, b, 2a -j- 3b and a 2b are the position vectors of the points

A, B, C and D respectively. Prove that
AC= a-f 3b, BC = 2 (a +b)

and *
BD a 3b.
(10) a and b are the position vectors of A and B respectively. C is
a point in AB produced such that AC=3AB and D is a point in BA produced
such that D=22M. Prove that the position vectors of C and D are 3b 2a
and 2ab respectively.
(11) ABCD is a quadrilateral and the lines joining the mid-points of
its opposite sides intersect in P. Show that OA OB 4- OC + OD = 40P

where 0 is any point.
*
(12) ABCDEF is a regular hexagon. If AB a and BC b then
prove that CD b a, DE = a, EF = b and FA = a b.
(II) Concurrent Forces
8. Force. A force F acting at a point O of a given body

can be represented by means of a direc-
ted line segment drawn from the point O
in the direction of the force, the length
of the segment representing, on the scale
chosen, the magnitude of the force F.
A force thus an instance of a localised
is
vector . Such a vector possesses not only

magnitude and direction but also posi-
tion in space. Further we assume that
forces, being vectors, can be compounded
by the vector law of addition.
9. Resultantthe Parallelogram Law~*of Forces.

:
If a on a body the same effect (i. e. the

single force produces
same change of motion) as that produced by two or more forces
acting on it simultaneously, then this single force is called the
resultant of the several forces, the several forces being called the
components of the resultant force. Since forces, by our assump-
tion, obey the vector law of addition, they can be compounded
by the Parallelogram Law.
Thus if two forces are represented in magnitude and direc-
tion (including sense) by the two adjacent sides of a parallelo-
gram drawn from a point, then their resultant is represented in
magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram
drawn from the same point. An experimental proof or rather a
verification can be given as follows.
A
and B be two smooth light pulleys fixed to a vertical
Let
wall, overwhich pass two light inextcnsible strings tied toge-
ther at O. To the other ends of the strings are attached
weights P and Q,. A third string, tied to the same point O,
hangs vertically and supports a weight R, the three weights
being so chosen that any two of them are together greater than
the third. In the position of equilibrium of O, we markôff

OC and OD along OA and OB to represent, on a suitable
scale, the weights P and Q
respectively and then complete the
parallelogram OCED, The tensions acting at O in the three
strings are equal to P, Q and R and are in equilibrium. Hence,
since R
balances P and Q,, the resultant of P and Q, must be
#
equal and opposite to R. However, as R

acts vertically down-
wards, the resultant of P and Q, must be represented by a
line drawn through O, vertically upwards, and of a length which
will represent, on the scale chosen, the weight R. The
resultant of P, Q, however, is represented, on the scale chosen,
by the diagonal OE of the parallelogram OGED, and it is
actually found that OE is in the direction of the upward

vertical and that its length represents, on the scale chosen, the
weight R. in every case, whatever may
This can be verified
be the magnitudes of P, Q,, R, provided that any two of them
are together greater than the third and thus the parallelogram
law of forces is verified.
Forces being vectors it will be seen that all the results
proved for forces in 10 and 12-17 can be similarly proved
for vectors.
10. To find the resultant, in magnitude and direction,

of two given forces acting at a point.
Let P
and Q, be the
two given forces acting
at O and let them be
represented by the
directed segments OA
and OB respectively.
Let the angle AOB be *< .
Complete the parallelo-

gram OAGB; then by
the parallelogram law, OC represents their resultant R.
Denoting the magnitudes of the forces P, Q,, R by P, Q,

R and the lengths of the directed segments OA, OB, OC by
OA OB OC, we
y ,
have,
since OA P, OB = Q,,
OCR.
Let OC and hence R make an angle 6 with OA i. e. with
P. We want to determine R and 0.
. . . .
Draw GL perpendicular to OA, so that
OL = OA + AL
Also, we have LG = AG sin LAG
= OB sin AOB = Q,sin < ;
and AL = AC cos LAC= OB cos AOB = Q, cos *<
Now R = OC = OL + LG
2 2 2 2
= (OA + AL) + LC 2 2
= (P + Q,cos -f Q sin )
2 2 2 <
= P + Q? + 2PQ, cos 2 o<
R = VP + Qf+ 2PQ, cos 2 o<

.( 1 )
LG = Q, sin
Also tan u =
^ c
,
OL P + Q, cos o<
e. 6 = tan'
Q, sin 1
<
1. (2 )
^ P + Q. COS ) o<
Equations (1) and (2) give the magnitude and the direction
of the resultant R.
We shall obtain the resultant R in some simple cases.
(i) If =0, R = P + Q + 2PQ,

c< 2 2 2
and, therefore, R = P + Q.
Hence the resultant of two forces acting along the same line
and in the same direction is equal to their sum.
Similarly if < = 180,
R2 = P + Q 2 2
-2PQ,;
R =P^Q,
i. e. the resultant of two forces acting along the same line but
having opposite directions is equal to their difference and acts
in the direction of the greater force.
(ii) If * = 90, R 2 =P* +Q 2

. )
22 elementary mechanics
(iii) If P = Q, R* = P* + P*+2P*cos^
= 2P a (1 + cos *c
= 4P cos* -1
a
R= 2P cos
2
P sin <
and tan 0 = sin <
= tan 0<
,
P + P cos c< 1 + cos <
o<
0 =
b
Hence the resultant of two equal forces acting at an angle
*< bisects the angle between them and is, in magnitude, equal
to 2P cos ,
P being the magnitude of each of the two equal
forces.
11. Illustrative examples :
Ex. 1. Two forces P and Q have a resultant R which makes an angle 0 with
6
P. If P be increased by R, show that the new resultant makes an angle with the
direction of P.
Let the forces P and Q, be represented by OA and OB respectively.

Complete the parallelogram OACB so that OC will represent the resultant Rt of P
and (, making the angle CO A = 0 with P. Produce OA to D so that AD is
equal to R, and, therefore, OD represents P+P. Complete the parallelogram
ODEB so that OE will represent the new resultant when P is increased to
P-f/?. It is required to show that the angle EOD made by this new resultant
with P is
Since OC == AD CE,
cdk= ceo= i (dob + deb),
ddb = i dbs.
But dob = okc dob;

and deb = COA = 6,
dob = \dob =
Eat. 2. Two forces P and Q. have a resultant equal to Pm Show that if P is
doubled, the now resultant will be at right anglefto Q.
OA and OB represent the forces P and Q, respectively. Complete

Let
the parallelogram OACB so that OC is their resultant. Now because the resultant

is equal to P (in magnitude),
/. OC = OA.
Next produce OA to D so that AD = OA and OD represents the force
2 P .Complete the parallelogram ODEB sc that OE represents the new resul
tant. It is required to show that this new resultant is at right angles to <.
i. e. dok = 90.
Now wc have
BC OA = AD = CE;
and OC = OA = \ (BC + CE) = $ BE.
Thus in the triangle BOB, the median OC is one-half of the opposite
side BE.
the triangle BOE has a right angle at 0 .
i. e. BOE = 90.
Ex. 3. The greatest and the least magnitudes of the resultant of two forces of
constant magnitude are Rand S respectively . Prove that if the forces act an angle 20,
the magnitude of their resultant is
V R 2 cos2 0 + S2 sin2 0.
Let P and Q be the magnitudes of the two given forces acting at an

angle 20. Then the greatest and the least magnitudes of their resultant are
jP+Q, and % respectively. Hence we have /?=/*-(-{ and S=P*-*Q.
Now if R x be the magnitude of the resultant of the forces P and Q, when
they act at an angle 20, we have
R2 = p2 Q2 + 2 Pd cos 20.
R x2 = (P2 4- Q?) (cos 2 0 + sin2 0) + 2/ Q.(cos 2 0 sin 2 0)
>
= (P 2 2
+iQ.) cos 0 + (P - d) 2 Sin 2 0
= P 2 cos 2 0 4- S 2 sin 2 0.
k
R l = VR 2 cos 2 0 + sin 2 0.
Examples II (b)
1 . Determine the resultant of the forces P, Q, acting at an angle o< in

the following cases :
(i) P= 15, 0.= 7, ^= 120;

(ii) P= 8, 5, <<= 45;
(iii) P= 7, 0.= 8, = 60;
(iv) P = 45, Q= 24, .<= 90.
2. R is the resultant of two forces P and Q, acting at an angle
The angle made by R with the force P is 0. Determine the forces P and Q,,
given R, 0 and *< in the following cases :
(
i )
R = 44, 0 - 60, * = 120;
(ii) R =' 17, 0 = 90, < = 120;
#
(iii) R - 8^3, 0 = 60, < = 90;
(iv) R = 10, 0 = sec" V3, * = 30.

3. At what angle must the forces of 6 and 16 lbs. weight be inclined
o that their resultant may be 14 lbs. weight ?
4. The resultant of two equal forces "each 'of magnitude P acting at

an angle 0 is of magnitude R and the resultant of forces ofmagnitudes P and
1 2
-R acting at right angles is - R. Determine the value of0.
3 3
5. The resultant of two forces P and Q, (P>QJ acting at an angle of

108 is of magnitude P. Show that P + PV5.
6. Two forces P and Q, act an angle 0. If Q be replaced by P + Q,
acting in the direction opposite to that of Q,, the resultant remains of the
magnitude as before. Find the value of 0.
7. The resultant R of two forces P and Q equals P in magnitude.
Show that P and R make supplementary angles with Q,.
8. Two forces P and 2P acting on a particle have a resultant making an
angle of 45 with the line of action of the force P. Show that the angle
between them is 2 tan- 1 (V7 2).

9. Two P and Q, act at an angle < . Determine

forces if the
resultant of P and
Q. remains of the same magnitude when Q, is changed to
Q/. Show also that the resultant R
is given by 2 P2 QQ/.R =
10. Two equal forces acting at a given point have a resultant which is
fixed in magnitude and direction. Determine the locus of the extremities of

the equal forces.
12. Polygon method of compounding forces.

Let Fl9 F a F3 ,..., F n
, be the n given forces acting at a point
O, and let it be required to find their resultant.
Fig. 10.
Take any base-point A x and choosing a suitable scale draw

successively, directed line segments AjAa, A 2 A 3 , A3 A4 ,...,A An+1
to represent in magnitude and direction (including sense) ,
the
forces F^ F 2 F3 ,..., F n
, respectively. Finally, join A2 to An+1 ;
then on the scale chosen, A t A n +i represents the resultant of the

given forces in magnitude and direction.
n
Fig. 11.
2a ELEMENTARY MECHANICS
and Oy respectively. Then if OG = R, OA will represent the

resolved part of R along Ox.
V Now OA = Projection of
OC along Ox
= OG cos 0 = R cos 0.
Hence the resolved part
of a force R on a st. line Ox
is between R
R cos (angle
and Ox) and hence if R is
;
represented in direction and

4
magnitude by OG, then the
resolved part of R along Ox
= OC cos (OG, Or)

= Projection of OG on Or.
Cor. : The resolved parts along any direction of two forces
of the same magnitude and having the same direction are equal.
16. We know that if A, B, G be any three points then

the projection of AG on any st. line
= sum of the projections of AB and BG on the same

st. line.
Correspondingly we have the following theorem on the

resolved parts of two forces acting at a point and the resolved
part of their resultant :
Theorem : The algebraic sum of the resolved parts of two

forces acting at a point along any direction whatever is equal to the resolved
part of their resultant along the same direction.
Let P and Q, be two forces represented by OA and OB

and let Ox be any other straight line. Complete the parallelo-
gram OACB; then the resultant of the two forces P and Q,
will be a force R say, represented by the diagonal OC.
N ow the algebraic sum of the resolved parts of the forces
P and Q along Ox
= the algebraic sum of the projections of OA and OB
along Or
= the algebraic sum of OA and AO

of the projections
along , Ox since and OB = AG
is parallel to AC, and
the projections of the equal and parallel lines OB and
AC are equal,
= the projection of OG along Ox,

= resolved part of R, the resultant, along Ox; thus the
theorem is proved.
By repeated application of this theorem we can prove that

the algebraic sum of the resolved parts in any direction of any
number of forces is equal to the resolved part of their resultant,
when it exists, in the same direction.
17. Resultant of Concurrent Forces. Analytical method.
By making use of the results of 15-16 we can obtain the

resultant of a number of coplanar forces acting at a point in
the following manner.
Let Fj, F 2 , F 3 , Fa
be the given coplanar forces acting
at O and let Ox and O y be two
st. lines in their plane, mutually at
right angles. Let the forces make

angles 0 1? 0, 0 3 , Q n res-
pectively with Ox.
[The angles 0!, 0 2 , ,0n
are measured in an anticlockwise
direction from Ox, where Ox and O y are so chosen that the
rotation of Ox about O through a right angle in the anticlock-
wise direction brings it into coincidence with Oy .]
Let X X Xl9 2, 3, , X/i be their respective resolved parts

along Ox. Let Yj, Y Ys ,
.... Y n be their respective resol-
ved parts along Oy.
Then Xj = P^ cos 0^, X 2
== P2 cos 0 2 ,
Xn= P cos 0n ;
and Yi = sin 0 Y = P sin 0

X, 2 2 2, ,YB = Pn sin 0n .
Let R be the resultant of the given forces and 0 be the

angle made by it with Ox. Let X, Y be its resolved parts
along Ox and Oy respectively, so that
X = R cos 0, Y a R sin 0.
Then R cos 6 = X
= resolved part of the resultant along 0*,
= sum of the resolved parts of the forces
*2 ., Fn along O*
= x +x + 2 ... . . +X rt
== E Pr cos 1 0r.
1
Similarly R sin 0 = Y
-
= , + 2 + .. .... + Yn = E Pr sin 0r ;
1
R = X + Y*
a 2
/< \2 \2
= f E Pr cos 0r )
+(S Prsin 0r
]I
=- S Pr 2
+ 2 2 Pr Pj COS (0 r 0,), T -f S*
i. e. R = Vs Pr2 + 2 :S Pr Pj COS 0r5 (0

II CD
where ^s;
E Pr sin 0 r
and tan 0 = (ii)
E Pf cos 0r
Equations (i) and (ii) give the magnitude and direction of
the resultant force at O.
18. Illustrative Examples :
Ex. 1. Assuming that the parallelogram law of forces is true for magnitude ,
show that it is true for direction .
Let OA and OB be any two given forces. Complete the parallelogram

OACB and suppose that the diagonal OC represents the magnitude of the resul-

Fig. 15.
tant of the forces OA and OB; we shall then prove that the direction of the
resultant is that of OG; i. e. OC is the resultarft of OA and OB.
Take a st. line OE so that OA, OB, OE will represent a set of three
forces in equilibrium, and complete the parallelogram OBDE.
Now because OA, OB, OE are in equilibrium, therefore, the resultant
ofOA and OB equal is in magnitude but opposite in direction to OE i.e.
EO the resultant.
is
OE = length OC.
length
But OE = DB OC = DB.
/.
Also OD = OA = BC.
Now V OD = BC and OC = DB
/, OCBD a parallelogram.
is
OC BD; also OE BD;

|| ||
EOC a line. is st.
.*. The direction of the resultant EO is the same as the direction of OC

OG is the resultant of OA and OB.
Ex. 2. Two forces P and Q acting at an angle of 120 have a resultant R making
an angle of 30 with P. IfR = 6^3 lbs wt.,find P and Q,.
.
In the notation of Art. 13, we have

R = 6V3, < = 30 and p = 90.
Hence ~L
sin 90
_ _A. _
sin 30 sin 120
Hence P 12 lbs. wt. and Q. = 6 lbs. wt.

#
Ex. 3. The resultant of two forces P and d is ViO lbs. wt. when they act at
right angles but is Vl3 lb. wt. when they act at an angle of 60. Find P and Q,.
We have
10 = P2 + Q* (i)
and 13 = P 2 + Q2 + 2PQ. cos 60 (ii)
- P 2 + Q2 + PQ. (Hi)
Pd = 3.
From (i) and (iii) we get
P = 3 lbs. wt. and Q, = 1 lb. wt.
Ex. 4. The resultant of two equal forces when they are inclined at an angle 20
is half as much again as their resultant when they are inclined at an angle 20. Prove that
2 cos 0 sec 0 = 3.
Let P be the magnitude of either force. We then have, resolving along

and perpendicular to the bisector of the angle 20 between them, in the first
case, the resolved part of the resultant along this bisector,
= P cos 0 + 1
P^cos 0 = 2P cos 0
and the resolved part of the resultant in the perpendicular direction
= P sin 0 + P sin (
0) = 0.
Hence their resultant, when the angle between them is 20, is 2P cos 0.
Similarly their resultant tfhen they act at an angle 20 will be 2P cos 0.
2P cos 0 = ( 2P cos 0)
2 cosO sec 0 = 3.
Ex* 5. Forces 3P, 4P, 5\/3 P and SP act at 0 in directions making angles
of 30, 90, 120, 150 respectively with a st . line Ox. Find the resultant.
Let Oy be at right angles to Ox and let X, Y be the resolved parts of

the resultant R along Ox and Oy respectively; also let R make an angle 0
with Ox.
Then
X = 3P cos 30 + 4P cos 90 + 5y/3P cos 120 + 6P cos 150
= 3P*
+ 4P-0 + 5V3P (- y) + 6P
( y)
= - 4PV3.
Y - 3P sin 30 + 4P sin 90 + 5y/3 P sin 120 + 6P sin 150
- -L
3P--1 + 4P +5VS-
yP + 6P
= 16P.
R = Vx a + Y*
= P V48 + 256 - (4 V 19 )P
16P 4
and tan I
*
-4PV3 V3
Hence the resultant is 4^/19 P inclined at the angle
tan 1 with Ox.
Ex. 6. Forces 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 lbs. wt. act at a point in directions
parallel to the sides of a regular hexagon taken in order. Find the magnitude and
direction of their resultant.
Let the forces 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 lbs. wt. act at the comer A of a regular

hexagon ABCDEF, parallel to AB, BG, ., FA respectively. Let . and Y be X
the resolved parts of their resultant along AB and AE respectively. Then
we have
X=* 1 cos 0 +2 cos 60+ 3 cos 120 + 4co 180
+ 5 cos 240 + 6 cos 300
- + 2 ( +
1 3 (- * )+ 4 ( 1) + 5 (- J) + 6 ( 3.
Y- 1 sin 0+2 sin 60+3 sin 120 +4 sin 180* +5 sin 240 + 6 sin 300*
. : .
1x0 + 2 ^ljL^ + 3^/i^ + 4x 0 + 5
V3
+ 6
(- 4)
= 6 3V3.
the magnitude of the resultant
= V27 +9 = 6 lbs. wt.;
and it is inclined at the angle
- W*\
tan'i" 1
(^f) = tan- VS.
i. e. at 60 to AB.
Examples II (c)
1.
2.
(a) Assuming the parallelogram law of forces, find R the resultant
of two forces, P and Q,, which act at an angle a. Determine also the angles
made by the resultant with the forces.
(b) With the same notation as in (a) above, write the following, filling
in the blanks :
(i) If P = Q,, the direction of R the angle a and R= ....

(ii) If R vanishes, P and Q are and.
P R
5.
(iii) If
3
Q.
7 5
, then the angle between P and Q. is cos 1 . .

and that between P and R is 27?
D is the mid-point of the side AB of an equilateral triangle ABC.

Prove that the resultant of two forces represented by AD, AC is of magnitude
adVF.
3. The resultant of two forces P and Q. is R. If Q, be doubled, R is
doubled; R is also doubled if Q, is reversed. Show that
P:Q.:R= V2 :V3 : \/2.
4. P and Q, are the magnitudes of two forces acting at a point and 0

is the angle between their lines of action. Find the magnitude and direction of
the resultant of the two forces. Also find the maximum and minimum magni-
tudes of the resultant when P and Q, are constant and 0 varies.
If the greatest possible resultant of two forces be m times the least,
show that the angle 0 between them when the resultant is half their sum is given by
mn 2 + 2
cos 6
2(1- m 2 )
E. M. ...3
+
*
54 6. ELEMENTARY MECHANICS
Two forces P and Q, act at a point and have a resultant R. If Q be

2 R
~P2
replaced by a force acting in the direction opposite to that of Q,, show
that the resultant is still of magnitude R.
7. The resultant of two forces inclined at an angle 2a is twice as great

as when they are inclined at an angle 2(3. Show that the two forces must be
equal 9.
if cos a = 2 cos 3 .
8. The resolved part of the resultant of two forces P, Q, along the

direction of Q, is P. Show that the angle between them must be
The resolved parts of a force F along Ox and Oy are P and Q res-

pectively. If the angle xOy is cx and if the force F makes an angle 0 with Ox,
10.
prove that
F = Vp* + Q - 2Pq cos a
sin a
Q, P cos a
and tan 0 =
P sin a
Two forces, P and Q
two st. lines making an angle a
acting along
with each other have a resultant R; two other forces P', Q/ along the same
lines respectively have a resultant R'. Prove that the angle between the lines
of action of R and R' is
1
PP /
+ QQf + (PQ/ + P'Q.) cos a
RR'
1 1 . Two forces P and Q, acting at an angle a have a resultant R. If
each force is increased by R, prove that the new resultant makes with R an angle
(
p Q.) sin a -I
tan' 1
[ (p Q.) (1 + cos a) + RJ
12. Assuming the parallelogram law of forces for directions prove it for
magnitudes.
13. ABC is given triangle. If the resultant of the forces m PB, n PC

(where m and n are constants) lies along PA, show that the locus of P is a st.
line.
14. D is a point on the side BC of a triangle ABC. Forces P, acting Q

along AB, AC respectively have a resultant R acting along AD. Show that
P_
_ AB-DC
R ~ AD-BC
*
15. Forces P, Q, whose resultant is R act at a point O. A transversal

is drawn meeting their lines of action in L, M, N, respectively. Show that
P Q, R
)
16.D, E, F are the mid-points of the sides BC, CA, AB of a triangle

ABC. Find the resultant of forces represented by "DA, EB and FC.
17. O is any point in the plane of a triangle ABC and D, E, F are the
mid-points of BC, CA, AB respectively. Show that the system of forces repre-
sented by OA, OB, OC has the same resultant as the system of forces repre-
sented by OD, OE, OF.

18. O is the circumcentre of a triangle ABC. Prove that the resulant
of the system of forces OA, OB, acting at OC

is the force 2 O ON where N
is the centre of the nine-points circle of the triangle.
19. ABCD is a quadrilateral. Forces acting at a point are represented

in magnitude and direction by AB, AD, BC and DC. Find the magnitude
and direction of their resultant.
20. O is the circumcentre and H the orthocentre of a triangle ABC.
Prove that the resultant of the system of forces represented completely by OA,
OB, OC is the force represented by OH.
21. Three forces P, 2P and 3P AB, BC, CA of a
act along the sides
given equilateral triangle ABC
magnitude and the direction of their
;
find the
resultant and also the point in which its line of action meets the side BC.
22. Three forces, each of magnitude P, act at a point in directions
parallel to the sides of a triangle ABC taken in order. Prove that the resultant
is of magnitude
^1
/
- n
8
.
sin A an B C a
.
sin
.
and determine its direction.

23. A, B, C are three points on the circumference of a circle. Forces
act along AB, BC inversely proportional to their lengths. Show that their
resultant acts along the tangent at B.
24.Three forces of magnitudes 8 lbs., 25 lbs. and 15 lbs. weight act along
the sides AB, BC, CA respectively of a triangle ABC where AB= 24, BC 25
and CA =
7 inches. Prove that their resultant is 8\/5 lbs. weight and makes
an angle tan" 1 (}) with BA.
25. ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral. Forces proportional to CD and
CB act along AB, AD respectively. Show that their resultant acts along AC
and is proportional to BD.
26. ABCDEF is a regular hexagon. Forces of 1, V3 and 3 lbs. wt.
act along AC, AD and AE respectively. Find the magnitude and direction of
their resultant. ,
27. P,Q.,R are coplanar forces acting at a point and a,3,y are respectively
F is given by
the angles between Q,,R;R,P; and P,Q,. Prove that their resultant
Fa =Q? + R 2 + 2QR cos + 2RP cos p + 2PQ, cos y
P2 + <x
28. Two forces cos B and cos C act along the sides AB and AC respec-
tively of a triangle ABC. Show that their resultant divides the angle ABC
into two parts
J (A + B - C) and i (A - B + C).
.CHAPTER III
STATICS OF A PARTICLE
1* Equilibrium of particle.
We have so far considered various methods for finding the
resultant of a number of forces acting on a particle. We shall
now obtain the conditions for its equilibrium. Clearly the
be in equilibrium if and only if the resultant of the
particle "Will
forces acting on it is zero. We shall, therefore, examine the
various ways in which the conditions that their resultant should
vanish, may be expressed.
If a particle be in action of two

equilibrium under the
two forces must be equal and opposite,
forces then, evidently, these
for then and then only can their resultant vanish.
2. Equilibrium of a particle under three forces.

We shall first prove the following result known as the
Theorem of Triangle of Forces giving conditions for the
equilibrium of a particle under three forces.
The Triangle of Forces. Three forces acting at a point
( i. e. on a particle )
and represented in magnitude and direction by
the sides of a triangle taken Jn order, i. e. taken one way rounds shall be
in equilibrium .
Fig. 16 .
Let be three forces acting on the particle at O

and let them be represented in magnitude and direction by the sides
AB9 BCy CA of a triangle ABC. We have then to prove that the
resultant of the three forces AB, BC, CA acting at vanishes. O
STATICS OF A PARTICLE 37
Complete the parallelogram ABCD. Since AD is equal and

parallel to BC, and both have the same sense, the force ft can
be represented in magnitude and direction by AD as well. Now
by the parallelogram law, the resultant of the forces P and ft
represented in magnitude and direction by AB and AD respec-
tively, shall be represented by a force AC in magnitude and
direction. Hence the three forces P, ft, R acting at O are
equivalent to two forces acting at O and represented by AC
and CA; i. e. they are equivalent to two exactly equal and
opposite forces at O and hence must be in equilibrium.
It will be seen that by using the vector law of addition the
proof of the above theorem can be given very briefly as follows.
Let the resultant of the forces P, ft, R at O be called S. We
shall prove that S = 0.
Now S=P+ft+R= (AB + BC + CA)
= AC + CA = 0.
Hence the forces, P, ft, R must be in equilibrium.
3. Converse of the Theorem of Triangle of Forces.

If three forces acting at a point (i. e. on a particle ) be in equili-
brium, then they can be represented in magnitude and direction , including
sense , by the three sides of a triangle taken in order .
I et the three forces

P, Q., R, acting at be O
in equilibrium. Along
the lines of action of P
and ft cut off OA and
OB to represent the
forces P and ft.
Complete the parallelo-
gram OACB. Then the
resultant of the forces
P and ft will be a
force represented by the
diagonal OC.
Now since the forces P, ft, R, at O are in equilibrium the

forceR must be balanced by the force represented by OC; and
hence R acting at O will be represented in magnitude and
;
directionby CO. Thus the sides OA, AC (which is equal and

parallel toOB) and CO of the triangle OAC will, respectively,
represent the forces P, Q, and R in magnitude and direction .
From a property of equiangular triangles, it is clear that

any other triangle with its (and in the same
sides parallel to
sense as) OA, AG and GO (and hence parallel to P, Q, R)
will be similar to the triangle OAC; and hence the sides of this
triangle also, can represent the forces P, Q, and in magnitude R
and direction. Hence the converse of the Triangle of Forces
may be stated alternatively as follows :
If three forces acting at a point (i. e. on a particle) be in

equilibrium then any triangle drawn with its sides parallel to
the forces shall have its sides proportional to the forces.
4. Lamis Theorem* This is a very useful result on

three forces keeping a particle in equilibrium and can be stated
as follows :
If three forces acting at a point he in equilibrium then each is

proportional to the sine of the angle between the other two
The result immediately follows from the converse of the

Tfriangle of Forces. Thus let, in the Figure of 3, the angles
between the forces Q,,R; R, P and P, Q, be *< , y respectively.
As proved in 3,
we have
OA
Q,
AC
= _R
CO
(i)
Also by the sine rule applied to triangle OAC

we have
OA AC CO
y\ 9
sin OCA sinX^G sin OAC
but since CO lies along R,
AOC = 7r (3; also OAC = 7u V ;
and OCA = COB = 7T *<
OA AC CO
hence :
(2 )
sin o< sin fi sin V
.
Combining (1) and (2) we get
p a r
*
sin << sin p sin V
sin &) sin (RP) sin (PQJ

which proves Lamis theorem.
5. Equilibrium of a particle under four or more

forces : Polygon of Forces. If any number offorces acting on a
particle can be represented in magnitude and direction by the sides of a
closed polygon , taken in order , then the forces shall be in equilibrium .
We shall consider the case o

five forces only, but the argument
is perfectly general. Thus, let the
forces Fj, F2 F 8 F 4 F6
, , ,
acting at
O be represented in magnitude
and direction by the sides A A X 29
A2A 3, AA 3 4j A4 A A6 Ai of the
5j
pentagon A A3 A A5 res-
2 4 ,
pectively, and let R be their

resultant. It is sufficient to shqjv
that 0 R=
Now R =F, +F +F + F 2 3 4 +F 5
= A A +A A + AA + AA +A A
x 2 2 8 3 4 4 5 6 x
in magnitude and direction.
.*. R= (A x A 2 + A A + A A4 + A4 A + A Ax
2 3 3 6) 5
= AjAg + AgAi = 0. R=0 .*.
and the result is proved.
6. The converse of the theorem of the Polygon o

Forces. If any number of forces acting on a particle be in equilibrium
then a closed polygon can be drawn whose sides 9 taken in order , shal
represent the forces in magnitude and direction.
Thus considering, for illustration, the case of five force

only, let the five forces *i>F2 F3 F4j F6 be in equilibrium.
, ,
Let A xA A 2A3 A 3A4

29 , ,
A 4A b represent Fx F 2 F a F4 respectively, , , ,
A A
in magnitude and direction. It is sufficient to prove that the

side A5Aj of the pentag&n A A A 3 A 4A6
1 2 represents F5 in mag-
nitude and direction.
Now we have F* -f- Fg + F + F4 3 -4- Fg = 0.
*. AjA 2 "h Ag Ag "4" 3 A4 -4- 4 AB *4- F6 = 0.
AjAj -f* Fb =0 Fg = AgAj,
and hence the result is proved.
be seen that equiangular polygons (of more than 3
It will
sides) are not necessarily similar and hence the converse of the
Polygon of Forces stated as, If a number of forces acting on
a particle be in equilibrium, then any polygon drawn with its
sides parallel to the forces shall have its sides proportional to

them will not be true.
7.Geometrical condition for the equilibrium of a

particle acted upon by a number of forces. It will be seen
that, in virtue of the results proved in Art. 6, the necessary and
sufficient condition for the equilibrium of a number of forces
acting at a point is that the forces must be such as can be repre-
sented in magnitude and direction by the sides of a closed poly-
gon taken in order; i. e. the Force Polygon must be closed.
8. Conditions of equilibrium of forces acting on a

Particle : Analytical Method.
Let Fj, F2 F 3
, , , F/i be a system of coplanar forces
acting on the particle at O. Then, as in Art. 13, Chapter 2,
their resultant R satisfies the equation
R*=X +Y 2 2
where X = E Xr = P f cos 0 r
and Y= Y =P f r sin 0 f .
X, Y are the algebraic sums of their resolved parts along any

two perpendicular lines Ox and O y respectively, in their plane-
Now if the forces be in equilibrium then their resultant
must be zero, i. e. R == 0.
X + Y = 0.
2 2
.\ X =*0 and Y = 0.
Conversely if X =0 and Y = 0, then the resultant of the
farces acting at O will be zero and the forces will, therefore,
be in equilibrium.
Hence the necessary and sufficient conditions of equilibrium for a set

of coplanar forces acting on a particle are two; viz. the algebraic sums of
the resolved parts of the forces along each of any two mutually perpendicular
st lines in their plane should vanish separately .
9* A particle resting on a smooth inclined plane.
Fig. 19.
Let us consider the equilibrium of a particle on a smooth

inclined plane. Clearly the particle cannot rest in equilibrium
on the plane without the application of some external force P,
for the only forces acting on it are the reaction R in the direc-
tion of the normal to the plane and its weight acting vertically,
which are not equal and opposite. In the figure, OA is the
line of greatest slope and o< is the inclination of the plane tc^
the horizontal. Let the externally applied force P (which must

be in the vertical plane through OA) make an angle 0 with the
line of greatest slope. Since the forces P, R, W keep the
particle in equilibrium, we have, by Lamis theorem,
P
=_R = W
sin(RW) sin(WP) sin (^R)
P
_ R W
siD~(7t < )
jin + o< + 0)sin(|~ 0)'
P _ W
sin < cos ( < + 6) cos 0
Hence if 0 be known, we get
p= Wsinjc and R _ YL .
cos 0 cos 0
,
The student is advised to get these results by resolving the

forces along and perpendicular to the line of greatest slope.
10. Illustrative Examples.
Ex. 1. VD ,
OE, OF are perpendicular to the sides BC, CA, AB respectively of
a triangle ABC, 0 being within the triangle ABC. Forces proportional to BC, CA,
AB act on a body at D, E,F respectively along these perpendiculars, the forces being all
towards or all away from 0 . Prove that the forces must be in equilibrium.
Let the forces P, Q,, R proportional to BC, CA, AB act at D, E, F as

shown in the. figure. (The forces, for the sake of definiteness, are all supposed
to act away from O ). By the principle of transmissibility of forces we may

suppose that all of them act at Let us next rotate their lines of action in
0.
the same (counter-clockwise) sense in their plane through 90 so that the forces
now act along OL ,
0M >
ON, parallel to BC y
CA, AB respectively.
We now have three forces acting at 0 the forces being represented (in
magnitude and direction) by the sides of the triangle ABC taken in order and
hence are in equilibrium by the Triangle of Forces.
Now let us rotate them back through 90 (in the clock-wise sense) in the
same plane so that they return to their original positions. They will still con"
tinue to be in equilibrium; for, this rotation, as before, merely amounts to
rotating the plane of the forces through 90 in -their plane.
Hence the result follows.
Ex. 2. A weight is hung by means of two strings making angles of 30 and 15

on either side of the vertical. Find the ratio of the tensions in the strings.
Let Tl and T2 be the tensions in the strings making angles of 30 and
15 respectively with the vertical. Then resolving horizontally we get
T t sin 30 = T 2 sin 15.
T2 :T a = sin 15 ; sin 30
Ex. 3. A stone of weight 1000 lbs. is suspended by a chain . A rope fastened to

the stone is pulled until the chain makes an angle of 30 and the rope makes an angle of
60 with the vertical. Find the pull on the rope and the tension in the chain.
Let P be the pull on the rope and T the tension in the chain. In equi-
librium, the chain and the rope will lie on opposite sides of the vertical and
the three forces P, T and the weight of the stone must be in equilibrium, and
hence must be concurrent. Hence, since the foices are concurrent, applying
Lamis theorem, we get
P T _ 1000
sin 150 sin 120 sin 90
.
P =5 500 lbs. wt. and T= 500\/3 lbs. wt.
Ex. 4. Forces 1, 2, 3, 4 and 2\/2 lbs. wt. act at a point 0 in directions parallel
to AB, BC, CD, DA and AC respectively, where ABCD is a square. Show that they
are in equilibrium.
Take Ox and Oy parallel and perpendicular to AB and AD respectively

and X, Y denote the algebraic sums of the resolved parts of the forces along
let
Ox and Oy respectively.
Then X= +2 1 <v/ 2 cos 45 + 3 cos 180
= + 2 - 3 = 0,
1
and Y = 2 + 2V2 sin 45 - 4 = 2 + 2 - 4 - 0.

Hence the resultant of the forces is 0 and the forces acting at O are in
equilibrium.
Examples III

1 A string of length l is fastened to two points A, B at the same level
at a distance a apart (/ a). >
A ring of weight W can slide on the string and
a horizontal forces F is applied to it such that it is in equilibrium vertically
below B.
Prove that F = W and also that the tension in the string is
W * 2/2+
2 /2
'
2. Two forces acting on a particle are at right angles and are balanced
by a third force making an angle of 150 with one of them. The greater of
the two forces is 4 lbs. wt. What are the values of the other two ?
3. Three forces P, Q, and R acting at a point are in equilibrium and the

angle between P and Q, is double of that between P and R. Prove that
R* = Q(Q.- P).
4. Three coplanar forces are acting at a point O. A circle is drawn to

pass through O and to cut the lines of action of the forces in A, B and G. If
the forces are in equilibrium, show that they are proportional to the sides of the
triangle ABC.
5. A and B are two fixed points on a horizontal line at a distance c apart.

Two fine light strings AG and BC, of lengths b and a respectively, support a
mass at G. Show that the tensions of the strings are in the ratio
7.
b (a* -f c a ba ) : a (6
a
4- c a a2 ).
8.
6. If three equal forces keep a particle in equilibrium, then show that the
angle between any two of them is 120.
If three forces acting at right angles to the sides of a triangle are in

equilibrium, then show that they must be proportional to the sides of the triangle.
Three equal strings of no appreciable weight are knotted together

to form an equilateral triangle ABC and a weight is suspended from A. If W
the triangle be supported with BG horizontal by means of two strings atB and
C making angles ci

37T
with the horizontal string, show that the tension in the
string BG is
W -
T (3 V31.
9. A fine string of length l has its extremities attached to two fixed

points in the same horizontal level, distant a apart. A smooth weightless ring
which slides on the string carries a weight W
which hangs freely. Show that
/W
the tension of the string is
~ .
.
2V> a*
10. Three forces, two of which are each equal to P act on a particle
and are in equilibrium. between the equal forces be 60, deter-
If the angle
mfcic the third force in direction and magnitude.
11. A particle is in equilibrium under the action of three forces P, Q, R

acting due east, north and south-west respectively. If P = 10, find Q,and R.
12. A particle of weight W
is suspended by means of two strings of len-
gths / and 2/ from two points A, B in the same horizontal line distant 21 apart*
Determine the tensions in the strings.
13. A particle of weight W hangs by a fine string from a fixed point.

Find (i) the horizontal force, (ii) the least force, that must be applied to the
particle to make the string hang at an inclination of 30 to the vertical.
14. Two strings are attached to a weight and they pass over two W
smooth pegs in the same horizontal line and then hang vertically with weights 2w
and 3w at their ends. If the strings meet at right angles, prove that
W = wVl3.
15. The forces P, Q, R are in equilibrium and R a Q, ( P ). Prove = Q
that the angle between P and Q, is double the angle between P and R.
16. A particle is in equilibrium under the action of three forces of

magnitude 2P, P and P\/3. Find the angles between their lines of action.
17. I is the in-centre of a triangle ABC. Show that forces PjQ, R

acting along the lines IA, IB, IG, respectively, will be in equilibrium if
p Q. _ R
*" -
cos A
2
cos
B
2
cos
C
2
18. A
smooth ring of weight W
slides on a string whose ends A and B.
are fixed at two points in a horizontal line. A horizontal force P is applied to

the ring and pulls it to a point G so that BC is vertical and AG makes an angle
of 30 with the horizontal. Prove that
W = Pa/3.
A, B, G are three smooth holes in a table through which pass three
19.
strings which are attached to a weightless ring O on the table and carry, below
the table, weights of 4, 6 and 7 lbs. If the triangle ABC be equilateral, of side
two feet each, find the equilibrium position of O.
20. A body of weight 30 lbs. is in equilibrium on a smooth plane in-

clined at an angle of 45 to the horizon, being supported by a force P acting at
R

an angle 0 with the plane. Find P and show that
y= cos 0 sin 0 where
R is the reaction of the plane.
21. A very small ring of weight w is free to slide on a smooth circular

wire, radius a, fixed in a vertical plane. It is attached by a string of length l9
where 2 a>l >ay/2 , to a point on the wire in a horizontal line with the centre.
w (
l
2 2a2)
Show that the tension of the string is - -
ay/ 4 fl
2 _ /2
22. Find a point within a quadrilateral such that if it is acted upon by*
forces represented by the lines joining it to the angular points of the quadri-
lateral, it will be in equilibrium.
23. O is a point within a triangle ABG. If forces represented by OA t
OB, OG be in equilibrium, then show that O must be the centroid of the

triangle ABG.
A weight is supported on a smooth inclined plane, of inclination
24.
oc, by a string inclined to the horizontal at an angle (3. If the slope of the
plane be increased to y, the direction of the string remaining unaltered, the
tension of the string is doubled. Prove that
cot a =s tan (3 + 2 cot y.
25. A weight is supported on a smooth inclined plane; determine the

direction and magnitude of the least force which will keep it in equilibrium.
Find also the direction of the force if the thrust on the plane is double that
exerted in the first case.
26. A particle of weight W is supported on a smooth inclined plane of

inclination a by means of two strings (lying on the inclined plane) inclined at
angles and y to the line of greatest slope. Determine the tensions in the strings.
27. A ring P of weight W x

slides on a smooth vertical wire. A string
joining it to another particle of weight W 2 passesover a smooth peg Q,. Find'
the inclination of P to the vertical when the system is in equilibrium.
28. A string carries three equal weights at points which divide it into
four equal parts, its ends being fixed at two points in the same horizontal line.
If a, fJ are the inclinations to the horizontal, of the parts of the string, prove
that
3 cot a =3 cot (3.
29. Four forces acting at a point in equilibrium have a force-quadrilateral -
ABCD such that AB = BC, ABC = 90% BAb liCb =

105. The =
smallest of the forces is 10 lbs. Determine the others and the angles between
their lines of action.
30. Two equal circles intersect in P and Q.. The line joining their
centres is produced both ways to meet the circles in A and B. Show that the
forces acting on a particle and represented in magnitude and direction by PA,

PB, QA, QB are in equilibrium.
31. lbs. are suspended from the points B and C,
Weights of 10 and 8
respectively, ofa light string ABCD. The ends A and D are fixed in the same
horizontal line and AB, CD make equal angles of 45 with the vertical. Find
the tensions in the three parts of the string and the angle which BC makes with
the vertical.
32. A
weight W
is attached to an endless string of length/ which hangs
over two smooth pegs distant a apart in the same horizontal line. Prove that
the pressure on each peg is
m
CHAPTER IV
VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION :
MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE

1. We have already considered the equilibrium of a particle
acted upon by a number of forces. We shall now consider
the Kinematics of a particle i. e. the branch of Dynamics which
is concerned with the geometry of motion, ignoring the forces
that cause the motion.
Abody is said to be in motion when it changes its position
in space relative to the surrounding objects. The essential point
to bear in mind is that motion is only relative.
The houses in which we reside have no motion in relation

to the surrounding objects. But along with other objects on
the earth, they share the motion of the earth round its axis
and also round the sun. They would, therefore, be moving
relative to an observer who is not stationed on the earth. We
shall, however, consider motion of bodies in relation to the
surrounding objects only.
While considering the motion of a particle, we naturally
require toknow the distances described by it in various intervals
of time. For instituting comparisons, we will, therefore, have
to choose the units of length and time. These may, of course,
be chosen arbitrarily. In the British system of units, the foot
is taken as the unit of length and the mean solar second as

the unit of time, the unit of mass being the pound. This
system of units is, therefore, known as the F. P. S. (Foot-
pound-second) system. There is another system of units usually
used in scientific investigations, known as the G. G. S. system
or the Gentimeter-gram-second system, in which the units of
length, mass and time are the centimeter, the gram and the
second respectively.
The path of a particle or a point in motion is the line,
straight or curved, as the case may be, which passes through all
its successive positions.

' ;
2. Displacement, Speed and Velocity.
Fig. 21. Fig. 22.
Speed : Suppose a point P moves along any path (straight

in fig. 21 and curved in fig. 22) starting from a fixed point 0 and
,
suppose it describes the distance OP = s, say, in time t sup-

pose also that it describes the distance OP' = s', in time /'
where t' is greater than t, the distance being measured always

along its path . Then in time the point will have described
t' t
ftic distance / s = OP' OP = PP') along

( path. The its
* j
ratio is called the average speed of the moving point, dur-
t t
ing the interval (

t t ), as it moves from P to P'. If this ratio
has the same value for each and every interval of time, how-
soever small, throughout the motion, then the average speed
of the point will be the same throughout the motion and, we
say that the point is moving with a constant speed
s' s
D> say -
?~r
In general, however, the point will not be moving with a con-
stant speed. We, therefore, define the speed of a moving point
r' _ r
at P at time t, as the limit of the average speed when
t '
~t
the interval of time t' t becomes indefinitely smalland tends
to zero. Thus if v is the speed of the moving point at P at
time k we have
VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 49*'
v = lim f f .
(I
f
-0 ->0 -t t'
9
i. e. v =
Bf-*0
lim
8f
;
where St = t' t and 8s = s' s= distance described by the

point in time St.
Thus the speed of a moving point at any time t is the instantaneous
time-rate of change of distance described by it along its path.
The distance being a scalar quantity, it follows that the

speed is also a scalar quantity and has only a magnitude.
Again in Figures 21 and 22 above, the displacement of the
moving point P is OP, which is, as we know, a vector quantity
having both magnitude and direction. The displacement of the
same pointin time t ' is OP'. But we have OP' OP = + PP' ;
hence the displacement of the moving point in time t

r
t
(= St) is OP'-OP== PP'.
The instantaneous time-rate of this displacement at time t :M
lim PP'
viz. is defined as the velocity of the point P at time
ot>0 ^
ot
t; clearly as St -0, the point P' will tend to approach the
point P indefinitely close along its path; and hence the direction
of the velocity thus defined will be the direction of the limiting
position of the chord PP' as P' tends to P along the path and
thus the direction of the velocity of the point when it is at P, at
time t9 will be the direction of the tangent to its path thereat.
Also the magnitude of this velocity
lim chord PP'
~~ ~~
St-* 0 Yt
iim chord PP' arc PP'
=
St -> 0 "arcPP 7 St
lim chord PP' lim Ss

=
~Ss St-+0 si
E. Mt * 4
>
but as it-*- 0, P' -* P along the path and we have

lim chord PP' lim chord PP'
7
^ _
~ P' -> P ~arcPF _ ^
>

St-* 0 ~arcTPP
the magnitude of the velocity of the point P at time t
it
lim
0
= =
8s
it
ds
dt
.
its speed atA time
, .
t.
Thus the velocity of a moving point is the instantaneous

time-rate of its displacement i. e. the rate of change of position
and a vector quantity, its direction being the direction of the
is
tangent to its path at the point (in the increasing direction of j)
and its magnitude is the time-rate of change of its distance

along the path i. e. the same as its speed.
It will thus be seen that the speed of a point is a scalar

quantity while its velocity is essentially a vector quantity. The
speeds of two points moving in different directions may be the
same, but their velocities will be different.
3. Uniform velocity, Unit of Velocity. A point is said

to move with a uniform velocity or uniformly if its velocity is
Always in the same direction and the magnitude of its velocity,
i.e. its speed, is the same throughout. Therefore, if a point be
moving uniformly it moves in a straight line and its speed is constant .
,
If the velocity of a point be uniform, then it is measured

by its displacement in a unit of time; while if it is not uniform,
i. e. if it is variable, then it is measured at any instant by the
displacement that it would have during the succeeding unit of
time, if it had moved uniformly during that unit of time, with
the velocity that it has at the beginning of the unit of time.
A unit of velocity is the velocity of a moving point which

has a unit displacement in a unit of time. The magnitude of
the velocity will depend on the units of length and time. Thus
if the units of length and time be a foot and a second, then the
unit for expressing velocities is 1 foot per second and is written as
ft./sec. ;
while if the units of length and time be a mile and an
hour, the unit of velocity will be a mile per hour and its written
as ml./hr. or m. p. h.
>
VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 51
4. Acceleration* Acceleration of a point (or a particle)
is defined as the time-rate of change of its velocity.
Let the velocity v of a moving point be represented at
g time t by the vector OA in mag-

nitude and direction; and let its
velocity v + 8v at time t + 8* be
likewise represented by the vector
OB. Then since
OB = OA + AB
the vector AB will represent the
change in velocity in time 8*.
We have also,
and the acceleration at time t will be,

lim AB lim 8v dv
9
Bt > 0 8J 8; 0 8 dt
in magnitude and direction.
Thus acceleration has both magnitude and direction and is
thus a vector quantity. We shall, however, be mostly concerned

with the motion of a point* in a straight line, in which case
the direction of the acceleration will always be the same. In
the case when the direction of the acceleration is the positive
direction of motion, i. e. when the speed v of the point is
increasing, i. e. when
dv
dt
is
.
positive, the acceleration of the
point is positive; and likewise, when the speed is decreasing

dv
(i. e. when - is negative) the acceleration is negative. Negative
dt
acceleration is also referred to as retardation.
Even when the acceleration is always in the same direction,

its magnitude may remain constant or may be varying. If the
magnitude as well as the direction of the acceleration is constant
throughout the motion, the acceleration is said to be uniform.
The unit of acceleration is the acceleration of a particle or

a point which moves in such a manner that a uniform change
of velocity equal to a unit of velocity takes place in a unit of
time. In the F. P. S. system af units, the unit of acceleration

is the acceleration of a particle whose velocity changes uniformly
by one foot per second, during every second and is one foot per
ft
second per second. This is written as 1
*
In the C. G. S.
sec*
system, the unit of acceleration is one centimeter per second per
second and is written as 1

sec 2
'Resultant of velocities : Components and Resolved

5.
Parts* If a point or a particle simultaneously possesses two or
more velocities and if these are equivalent to a single velocity,
then this single velocity is known as the resultant of the several
velocities and the several velocities are called the components of
the (resultant) velocity. Further, the components of a velocity
along two perpendicular directions are known as the components
or resolved parts of the velocity in those directions.
Since velocity, like force, is a vector, velocities, like forces, ^
can be compounded by the vector law i. e. by the parallelogram

law of addition. Thus we have the following rule known as
4
the Parallelogram law of velocities.
Parallelogram law of velocities : If a point (or a particle)

possesses two simultaneous velocities represented, in magnitude and direc-
tion , by the two sides of a parallelogram drawn from an angular pointy
their resultant is represented in magnitude and direction (including sense)
by the diagonal of the parallelogram drawn from that point.
We might, for purposes of illustration, prove this result by

making use of the vector law of addition for displacements.
Thus let the moving point P have at time t simultaneous velo- 9
cities u and v represented by OA and OB, so that u = OA,

v = OB. Consider the motion of the point during the succeed-
ing interval of time St. Ultimately St is to tend to zero and
hence, we may assume 8 1 to be indefinitely small; and so we
may assume that the simultaneous velocities u and v of the point
P during the small interval St are uniform. The displacement of
the point P in the interval St will be uSt and 8* in the direc-
tions ofu and v respectively. Let these simultaneous displace-
ments be represented in magnitude and direction by OA 2 and
OB x
respectively, OA = u St and
so that x OBj vSt. Complete
the parallelograms OACB and OA C B 1 1 1 .
Then we have in As OBC, OB 1 C 1

OB v vSt OBi

BC u uSt BiCi
and olBC = OlCc i ;
.". A OBCr and OB^ are similar.
.% BOC= B^Gj.
Also OB, OBj have the same sense; and so have B^BiC^
OCC! is a st. line.
OC and OC have the same

x direction and sense
OCi _ OBj __ vSt _

and
oc ob" 7
"
Now the displacement OBj may be represented in magni-

tude and direction by the equal and parallel directed segment
A^ and the simultaneous displacements of the moving point
;
in time St can, therefore, be taken as OA l9 A 1 C 1 in magnitude

and direction.
The resultant displacement, in time 8 f, of the moving

point will be represented, in magnitude and direction, by
OA + t AjCi i. e. by OC x i. e. by OC St. Hence the resultant
velocity of the moving point at time t9 is given by
lim i. e . by OC.
'
8t 0 81
Thus, the resultant velocity of the moving point is re-

presented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal OG, i. e.
by OC.
6.We have seen in the last article, how velocities, like

forces,can be compounded by the parallelogram law. We men*
tion some of the important results which are true for velocities
for the same reason. These results can be established in exactly
the same way as the corresponding results for forces proved in
the previous chapter. In fact, it is necessary only to substitute
the word velocity in place of force.
(i) The magnitude w of the resultant of two velocities u

and v including an angle < between them is given by
W2 ass tt
2
+ V + 2 UV
2
COS *< .
Also, if 0 be the angle made by the resultant velocity w

with u, then
U + V cos oC
(ii) The triangle of velocities : If a particle possesses two

simultaneous velocities represented in magnitude and direction
by the two sides of a triangle taken in order, the resultant velocity
is represented in magnitude and direction by the third side of the
triangle taken in the reverse order.
(iii) The polygon of velocities is a generalisation of the triangle

of velocities.
(iv) The resolved part of a velocity u in a direction inclined

to it at an angle 0 is u cos 0.
(v) If a point possesses a number of simultaneous velo-

cities, then the algebraic sum
of their resolved parts along any
direction is equal to the resolved part of their resultant in the
same direction.
(vi) If a point moving in the plane XOY possesses simul-

taneous velocities ul9 u 2i un in directions making angles
0 X , 0 B, , On respectively with OX then its resultant velo-
city v making an angle 0 with OX is given by
,
A
V% = L U\ + 2 S Ur Us COS (0 r 0i)
1 r+s
A
2 tf
r sin 6 r
and tan 0 = A

2 Mf COS 0 r
1
7. Composition and resolution of accelerations.

Since acceleration is a vector, accelerations, like velocities
and can be compounded and resolved by the vector law

forces,
of addition and resolution. We thus have the parallelogram
law of accelerations like the parallelogram law of forces or
velocities; and results like the ones proved in Arts. 5 and 6 for
velocities (like the corresponding results for forces proved in
the previous chapter) will also be true for accelerations. In fact,
we have merely to substitute the word acceleration in place of
* velocity \
The acceleration is usually denoted by f or or fa etc.,

the magnitude of the acceleration being naturally denoted by
/ or f x or f2 etc.
Ex. 1. The resultant of two velocities u and au is hu and is at right
angles to u. Prove that a2 = b2 + 1.
Let the velocity au make an angle 0 with the velocity tu
Resolving along the direction of the velocity u we get

u + au cos 0 = 0,
since the resultant velocity is at right angles to the direction of u.
Resolving in the direction at right angles to u we get
au sin 0 = bu.
Hence au cos 0 = u.
and au sin 0 = bu
Squaring, adding and simplifying we get
a2 = b2 + 1.
Ex. 2. A point possesses three velocitiesof 5 ft,, 10 ft, and 15 ft, per
second respectively parallel to the sides BC, CA and AB, taken in order, of an equilateral
triangle ABC, Determine its resultant velocity.
Let u ft. per sec. be the resultant velocity of the point and let it make
an angle 6 with BC. Then resolving the velocities in the direction of BG and
the direction perpendicular to BC (making with 3A an angle of 30) we get
u cos 0=5+ 10 cos 120 + 15 cos 240
~5-5 *
2 2
u sin 0 = +
10 sin 120 15 sin 240
= 10^!_ 15 V3 = _ V3.
2 2 2
. 225 75

T+T
.
" -
u = 5 Vs ft, /sc.
Sv'o 1
Also tan 0 =+ = -75 and 0 = 30,
15 V3
Ex. 3. Express (i) a velocity of 60 m. p. h. in ft. per second and (ii)
acceleration of 32 ft. per second per second in miles per hour per hour.
(i) 60 miles per hour = 60 X 5280 feet per 3600 seconds

= 60 X 5280

3600
ft. per sec.
= 88 ft./sec.
(ii) 32 feet per sec. per sec.
= miles per hour per hour

5280 3600 3600
= 32 X

3600 x 3600
5280
r hour per hour
miles per
= 78545 5
miles/hr 2.
9. Relative motion 3 Relative velocity*
We have already pointed out that all motion is relative.
Whenever we say that a point P is moving, what is implied is

its movement relative to surrounding objects which are con-
sidered to be at rest. We shall consider, here, relative motion
of two particles, or of two bodies which may be treated as
particles and hence can be
represented by points. ,
Consider the case of two

moving particles, A and B.
The position of the particle
B relative to A is determined
Fig. 25. by the vector AB. For, if the
position of A is known that of B is determined by die magni-

tude (i. e. length) and direction (including sense) of the vector
AB. If the particles A and B receive equal displacements (i.e.
equal in magnitude and in the same direction) so that they

occupy the positions A' and B' respectively, then we have
AA' = BB'; and consequently the figure ABB' A' becomes a
parallelogram. Hence
A'B' = AB
and so the position of the particle B, relative to A, remains the
same. Thus the relative position of two particles is unchanged if
they receive equal displacements.
10. Relative velocity. We have defined the velocity of a

particle as the time-rate of change of its position. Hence, the
of a particle B relative to a particle A (i. e. the relative velocity
velocity
of B, with respect to A) is defined as the time-rate of change of

Bs position relative to A. Now if the two moving particles are
both given the same additional velocity v, say, both will receive
instantaneously equal and parallel displacements and hence their
relative motion is not affected. Thus if A and B are moving with
velocities u and v respectively and if a velocity equal and oppo-
site to that of A e. the velocity u
i. be imparted to both, then
the velocity of A will become zero, e. A will be reduced to
i.
rest and the velocity of B will be the resultant of its velocity v

and the imposed velocity u.
Hence the relative velocity of a point B with respect to A

(i. e. relative to A) is obtained by compounding with the velocity
of B a velocity equal and opposite to that of A.
In vector notation, if Va and Vb be the velocities of A

B and Vba the relative velocity of B with respect to A then
VBA = Vb -Va .
From this relation we get the following useful result : The

resolved part of the relative velocity of B with respect to A is
equal to the resolved part of the velocity of B minus the resolved

part of the velocity of A, the velocities being resolved along the
same 'direction.
The relative velocity of B with respect to A (moving in the

same plane) can be obtained by finding the resultant of its resolved
parts along two perpendicular lines in the plane.
Cor. 1. If the points A and B are moving in the same

line or in parallel lineswith velocities u and u respectively, then
the relative velocity of B with respect to A is(i) v u if they are
moving in the same direction and (ii) v +u if they are moving
in opposite directions.
Cor. 2. Velocity of B relative to A + velocity of A relative

to B =0.
Analytically, if x 1 denotes the position of A and x2 that of
B in the same straight line, the velocities of A and B are
and
dtdt respectively. The relative velocity of A with respect
to B will be . If (x l9 yx ) and (x 2 , y 2 ) denote the

dtdt
positions of A and B, in the plane XOY, their velocity compo-
nents will be (
\dt
^J and (\dt J\
,
dt
,
dt
2
The relative velocity
7
of A with respect to B has, therefore, components

dxx _dx^ dyi^dy^
9
*
dt dt dt dt
11. Illustrative Examples :
Ex. 1. A bird can fly at the rate of 16 miles per hour Find the direction
which the bird must aim if it flies from west to east, when the wind is blowing straight
from the south at 8 miles per hour. Determine also the speed with which the bird flies
'
relative to the Earth*
A Suppose the bird aims in the

direction making an angle 0 with the
west-east direction towards the south.
Its velocity in this direction is 16 miles
per hour. Let this be represented by
OB and the velocity of the wind of 8
miles per hour, blowing north, be
represented by OA. Complete the
parallelogram OACB; then the velocity
of the bird relative to the Earth, u
miles per hour, say, must be represen-
ted by OC and must be west-east.
Hence OC must be perpendicular to
OA, u being the resultant of the velo-
Fig. 27. cities of 16 and 8 miles per hour in the
directions OBand OA respectively.
Resolving along and perpendicular to OC we get
16 cos 0 = u; 16 sin 0 8= 0.
/, 0 = 30 and u = 8^3.
Hence the velocity of the bird relative to the earths surface is 8\/3
miles per hour and the bird must aim in a direction 30 south of east.
Ex. 2. A ship is sailing due west and the apparent direction of the wind, shown
by the fluttering of the flag on the mast, is from the north. The wind is
known to be blowing from a /V

point 30 east of north . Show
that its velocity is double that
of the ship
Let O be the observer

30/
and let SON and WOE
be the south-north and f / T A
west-east lines. Let u be w / /
the velocity of the ship
towards the west and let
the reversed velocity of the V 1
ship be represented by OA
along OE. Let v be the an i
T
true velocity of wind
the
and let it be represented by
5\
OB, so that /.SOB = 30.
Complete the parallelogram Fig. 28.
OACB; the diagonal OC must then represent the apparent velocity of the
wind. But this velocity is from the north; therefore, OC lies along OS*
,
Then from the right-angled triangle OCB, we have

CB 1
sin 30 =
OB 2

OB = 2 BC = 2 OA.
v = 2 u.
Ex. 3. Two motor cars A and B are moving uniformly on two straight roads at
right angles to one another at 40 and 20 miles per hour respectively A passes the inters
section ofJhe roads when B has still to move 60 miles to reach it. At what time will they
be nearest to each other and what is the shortest distance between them ?
Let O be the position of A when B

is 60 miles from initially. A O is moving
along OX with a velocity of 40 miles per
hour and B is moving along YO with a
velocity of 20 m. p. h. In this position, let
a velocity of 20 m. p. h. be impressed on
both of them in the direction OY.
B is then reduced to rest and A moves

with a velocity V40* + 20 2 =20 v'5 m. p. h #
relative to B, along OR inclined at an

angle 0 = tan" 1 (i) with OX, OR being
the direction of the relative velocity of A
with respect to B. Let BL be perpendi-
cular to OR.
Then the shortest distance between
the cars
= BL = OB cos 0 = 60 X =
2
24 v'5 miles.
V5
The time t when the shortest distance occurs
= the time to describe the distance OL with the relative velocity o

20-^5 m. p. h.
= OL _ OB sin 0 60 X
1
= 3 ^
hOUr
20 V5 20-v/5 V5 20 V5 5
= 36 mins.
Examples IV a
1. The resultant of two velocities u and v is equal to and its
direction is at right angles to the direction of u. Find the direction of o

and the ratio of o to u
2. A man points his boat and rows it

t
with a velocity 12 m. p. h.
straight across a stream which is half a mile wide. If he lands 3 furlongs
below the point opposite to his starting place, find the velocity of the current.
3. Show that the components of a velocity v in directions making

angles < and (3 with it on opposite sides are
v sin p
B
-
v sin <
and
sin (
K + (3) sin ( + p)'
respectively.
4. A man rows directly across a river in time t

j
and rows an equal
distance down the stream in time t%. Prove that the ratio of his speed in
still water to the speed of the stream is
M
x +j
5. Wind is blowing from the south at 10 miles perj[hour but to a cyclist

it appears to be blowing from the east at 10 miles per hour. Determine the
velocity of the cyclist.
6. Two cargo Bhips leave a harbour at the same time. The first steams
north-west at 10 knots and the second, 60 south of west, at 12 knots. Find
the speed of the second relative to the first.
7. A motor-car is m. p. h. towards south-west and the

travelling at 15
wind appears, to a passenger in blow from the west with a velocity of 12
it, to
miles per hour. Find the true velocity and the direction of the wind.
8. To an observer on a ship A sailing due north with a velocity of
8 knots, another ship B appears to be moving in a direction due south-west with
a velocity of 6\/2 knots. Find the true velocity and the direction of motion
of the ship B.
If the ship A were to double its speed, find the direction in which B
would appear to move to the observer.
9. A man is
running with the velocity of 5 miles an hour in a shower
of rain which descending vertically with a velocity of 10 miles an hour.
is
If 0 be the angle made by the apparent direction of the rain with the vertical
prove that
2 tan 6 = 1.
A person, travelling eastwards at the rate of 4 miles per hour, finds

10.
that thewind seems to blow directly from the north; on doubling his speed it
appears to come from the north-east; find the direction of the wind and its
velocity.
11 To a cyclist, travelling at 8 m. p. h. due east, the wind appears to

come from the north-east ; but when he travels north-east with the same speed*
it seems to come from the north. Find the true velocity of the wind.
12. A steamer is travelling due east at the rate of u miles per hour.
A second steamer is travelling at the rate of 2 u miles per hour in a direction
6 north of east but appears to be travelling north-east to a passenger on the
first steamer. Prove that
4 sin 28 = 3.
13.A is sailing due west and the apparent direction of the wind,
ship
as shown by the fluttering of the flag on the mast, is from the north. The wind
is known to be blowing from a point 30 east of north. Show that its velocity
is double that of the ship.
14. To an observer on board a ship A, sailing north at 10 miles per

hour, another ship B appears to bear east. If during the next hour, B conti-
nues to bear east apparently and its actual course is 20 30' north of east, find
the rate at which B is sailing and the rate of increase of the distance between
the ships at the end of the hour.
15. A traveller on a railway train which is moving with a velocity of

30 m. p. h. wishes to throw a stone horizontally at a tree which is 132 ft.
away from the railway track. If the speed of the stone is 33 ft. per sec. and
it is thrown at rt. angles to the track, find the distance of the traveller from
the tree at the time of throwing.

16. A ship steaming north at the rate of 2 m. p. h., observes a ship,
due east of itself and distant 20 miles, which is steaming due west at 32 miles
per hour* When will they be closest to each other ?
17. To a passenger on a steamer A, plying due east at ten miles an

r
nour, the wind seems to come from the south-east while to a passenger on
another steamer B, sailing north-east at 10V2 miles per hour, the wind
seems to come from the east. Find the velocity of the wind.
18. A train is running at 45 miles per hour, when a ball is thrown

horizontally out of the window with a velocity of 44 ft. per second relative to
the train and making an angle of 60 with that of the train. Find the actual
velocity of the ball at the instant of projection.
19. Two particles start simultaneously from points A and B, which are
50 ft. apart, one from A towards B
with a velocity of 16J ft. per sec. and the
other perpendicular to AB with a velocity of 12J ft. per sec. Find the velocity
of one relative to the other in magnitude and direction; find also the shortest
distance between them and the time when they are nearest.
20. A is a point on one bank of a river of width l and B is the

fit.
point on the other bank directly opposite to A. A man who can swim in
still water at the rate of u ft. per minute wishes to cross the river whose
current flows at the rate of v ft. per minute (a > u).
Find (i) the shortest time in which he crosses the river and the distance
tê swims in this time;
(ii> the time he takes to cross the river if he reaches the opposite bank
at B and the direction in which he must ply his strokes to do so.
Motion in a straight line

12. Expressions for the velocity and acceleration for

motion in a straight line.
Fig. 30.
Suppose a particle (or a point) moves in a straight line OX,

some definite point O on it being taken as the origin. Let the
position of the moving point be P, at time t, where OP = x and
let its position at time t + 8* be P' where OP' = x + Bx. Let
its velocity at time t when it is at P be u.
Now, by definition, velocity is the rate of displacement;
PP'
u Jim
.
. m \ v = lim Bx
dx . (1)
Bt >0 8/ Bt >0 Bt dt
If the velocity at time t + Bt be v + Bv, for the acceleration

/, which is the rate of change of velocity, we have
lim + uV lim
iuu uu
do
/=
(V to) SlJ
: ^ >0^ .
Bt ->0 1
Bt Bt s7 dt
dx

It
dv d _ d 2x
f \dtj ~
(3 )
F.
dt dt Y 2
'
dv
dt
dv dx
dx 'Yt~
dv

U
71
dx
Thus we have the following expressions for the velocity
and the acceleration /, for motion in a straight line :
v = dx
and
, -
f = = dx = v
dv dv 2
dt dt dt 2 dx
13. Rectilinear motion of a particle (or a point) with

uniform acceleration.
Suppose a particle moves in a straight line OX with a
constant acceleration f in the direction OX. Let O Tie the
initial position of the particle and u its initial velocity. To
determine its motion, we must find its position at any time and
the velocity with which it is moving at that time. Let P be the
.
position of the particle at time t, OP being x, and let v be its
velocity at that time.
Since the acceleration at any time t is do

dt
, we have in this case
-=/1dt
Integrating this last equation with respect to t9 we get
fit +e
-f-
=ft +c >
where e is the constant of integration.
But initially i. c. at time = 0,

t o = ;
u =/ x 0 +c i. e. e u.
v = u + ft. (l)
[This result could also have been obtained as follows: The

..acceleration f being constant, we have, since the velocity incre-
ases from tf to o in time t,
y ~f e- v ~ +ft']
Now v = ^- = u +Ji.
dt dt
Integrating this last equation with respect t, we get
* = f ( +./*) dt + e'
ut + Ml* + c'
where e' is the constant of integration.
Also we have x = 0 initially; i. e. x =0 when t = 0.

0 = xO + l/xO, + (;U'0.
X = Ut + i ft*. (2 )
f ;
From (1) and (2) we get

*=(*+ ft )
2
,
= u + 2 uft + f*t
2 2
= + 2f{ut + \fi2
2
)
= + 2 fx.
2
This result may be directly obtained as follows :
Since the acceleration of a particle moving in a straight line
can also be expressed as v , we have

dx
Multiplying both sides of this equation by 2 and integrating

with respect to x , we get
f 2v
~ dx J 2/ dx + c,
i. e. 2v dv = 2fx +c
J 9
i. e. v1 = 2/x +c
where c is the constant of integration.
But v =u when =0 x
.\ = 2/x0 +
2
e. c = m*. c i.
Hence v = u + 2 fx.
a 2
(3)
Equation (1) viz. v = u + ft gives the velocity at any time t.
Equation (2) viz. x = ut + gives the position of the

particle at any time t.
Also equation (3) viz. u2 = m2 + 2fx, gives the velocity in

any position.
Equations v = u + ft
X =ut+Jft 2
and v2 = u + 2fx 2
give the rectilinear motion of a point moving with uniform

acceleration /
had been moving with uniform retardation
If the point
then itcan be considered as moving with uniform acceleration
and the equations in this case will be
E.M.. .5
V = U ft,
X = ut - i ft 2 ,
and v 2 = u 2 2 fx.
14. Alternative method :
The result x = ut + \ft 2
can also be obtained as follows :
Fig. 31.
Let AB represent the interval of time t9 A corresponding

to time 0. Let C represent the middle instant and V the velo-
city of the particle at the instant C, at time ~ . Now take
two small intervals of time each equal to p 1# say, at and Q, P

separated from T
C by seconds, one viz. P earlier and the other,
C, later. Then the velocities at P and Q, are V /T and V +/T
respectively.
Assuming p x to be so small that the velocity during these
two intervalscan be assumed to be practically constant, the
distances traversed by the particle during these intervals are
(V / T) Pl and (V+/T) Pl .
Hence the sum of the distances traversed during these two
equal intervals is
- (V -/T) Pl + (V +/T) Pl = 2VPl .
The intervals CA and CB may be divided into small equal

corresponding intervals p x , p 2, p 3, p, the same in number,
so that
AC = pi + pa H" + pn = CB = \ AB = \t.
Hence the total distance traversed during the time t
- 2VPl + 2Vp + + 2 Vp n 2 ...
= 2V (p + p + + pn) = Vt,
x 2 ...
But V is the velocity at time

.

t
,u being the initial velocity.

The total distance x, traversed during time t, is given by
*-( +/y) <=at +

as before.
15. Illustrative Examples
Ex. 1. A particle moving in a straight line with initial velocity of u ft, per
2
second and constant retardation f ft, I sec. describes 81 ft, in 3 secondsv The
retardation then ceases, and during the next 3 seconds, the particle describes 72 feet.
Determine u and f.
The retardation of the particle being/, the distance x described by it in

time t from the beginning is given by
x = lit \ft 2 .
In the present case x 81 when t= 3.

81 = 3-|/. (A)
At the end of three seconds the velocity will be u 3/ and the particle
then moves with this velocity for 3 seconds describing a distance of 72 ft.
.*. 72 =3 (u 3/). (B)
From (A) and (B) we get u = 30 and / = 2.
Thus we have u = 30 ft./sec. and / = 2 ft./sec. 2 .
Ex. 2. A train starting from rest is uniformly accelerated until it attains a

velocity of 20 ft. per second aud is then uniformly accelerated at half the previous rate
until it reaches a velocity of 40 ft, per second, and after thnt it moves with uniform
velocity. If the train takes 2 minutes 32 seconds to travel the first mile, find its
initial acceleration .
Let f 2. be the initial acceleration of the train.

ft./sec It attains the
velocity of 20 ft./sec. at the end of seconds where
20 -fh *1
=
20
During these t
seconds
the distance described by the train
At the end of changes to 2 Let

x seconds
t its acceleration }/ ft. /sec.
it attain the velocity of 40 ft. per second at the end of t

2 seconds from this
instant; then
40
40-20 + i/f 2 i.e. 1
2 /

and the distance described by it during these t

2 seconds will be
= 20
40 1 1600 1200
+ J/X7T-
For the remaining time of (152 t

2)
i.e.
/
^152 60 \
j
seconds
the train travels at the uniform velocity of 40 ft. /sec. describing the distance
60
/
^.152 v
j
X 40 ft. But the total distance covered during the 2 min. 32
seconds is 1 mile.
y +
200 60
.% -r
1200 /
(152 - /< v
)
X 40 = 5280,
1000
6080 - 5280 =
T'
/= 1 - ft. /sec.
2
16. Acceleration of falling bodies.

It is a matter of common
when a heavy experience that
body falls down on increasing till it
vertically, its velocity goes
falls on the ground. Thus the body must be subject to an
acceleration. This acceleration is due to the force of gravity
and is usually denoted by g The value of g varies from place .
to place on the earths surface but is the same for all bodies at
any place on the earth. These results have been deduced from
various experiments in which allowance is made for the resis-
tance of the air. In the F. P. S. system of units, the value of
2
g is known to vary from 32*09 ft./sec. at the equator to about
2 at
32*25 ft./sec. the poles. In practice it is usual to take the
value of g as 32 ft./sec.. 2 unless otherwise stated, in the F. P. S.
,
system of units. In the C. G. S. system of units the value of g

2 approximately.
is 981 cm/sec.
17. Motion, in a vertical straight line, under gravity.

Let us now consider the motion of a particle projected
downwards from a point 0 with the initial velocity u in the
direction of the downward vertical OX. 0 is called the point
of projection and u the vdocity of projection.
\ g
Let P be the position of the particle at time t and let

O OP = x. Let v be its velocity in the direction of the
downward vertical at this tujie t. The particle is then
subject to the constant acceleration g in the direction
OX ,
and hence putting /= g in the results (1), (2),
(3) of Art. 13 we have
v = u + gt,
p xÛt + ^-gt*,
and v 2 =s u2 + 2 gx.
If the particle falls freely under gravity , i. e. if its
velocity of projection is zero, then u = 0 and we get

Fig. 32.
= gt,
and v2 = 2 gx.
The velocity of a particle falling freely through a distance
x is thus V2gx .
18 . Suppose next that the particle is projected vertically

X upwards from the point 0 with velocity , OX being
the upward vertical. Let P be the position of the
particle at time t when its velocity is v in direction
OX and let, as before, OP = x. The particle is
subject to the acceleration g in the direction of the

'
^ downward vertical and hence has the acceleration
in the direction of the upward vertical OX Hence
putting/ a#- g in the results (1), (2) and (3) of Art.
1 3 we get.
= u - gt,
0
X = at -l gt*,
t 4
O and v = u 2 gx.
2 2
Fig. 33.
.
70 , ELEMENTARY MECHANICS
The velocity v in the direction of the upward vertical will
be zero, and thus the particle will attain its maximum height,
at time t, given by
0 u gty -
i. e. at time t .
g
The maximum height attained is the value of x at time
t =s and hence is
g
/ u \2 2
==
u 1 u
UX
2
g[
\
)
J 2
,
A, say.
g g g
Thus the particle reaches its maximum height at time

2g g
Thereafter, the particle will start falling from rest vertically
downwards. The velocity acquired by it in falling through this
distanced is
V2gk = 2 gh X = u.
J 2g
Thus when the particle arrives at 0 it has the same speed
u (the same in magnitude as the velocity of projection) in the
direction of the downward vertical.

Ex. 1. A falling particle in the last second of its fall passes through 224 ft.
Find the height from which it fell and the time of falling .
Let t seconds be the time of falling. Then the distance fallen through
in the t*h second

=* (distance fallen through in t seconds)
(distance fallen through in [/ 1] seconds)
- X S (f
- I)
2
S (2/ 1) = 224.
.%
\
16 (2/- 1)- 224.
(*=71 seconds.
VELOGITY AND ACCELERATION 71
Also if h be the height from which it fell, then
= 225 X 4 = 900 ft
Ex. 2. A body is projected upwards with a velocity of 96 ft. per sec Find
when it will be at 112 ft. below the point of projection.
Let O be the point of projection, the upward vertical through O

being taken as OX. Then if x is the height of the body at time t, above O,
we have
*=96 1
*=96*-16f a .
If the body is 112 ft. below O at time t we have * = 112 at that

instant.
- 112 = 96/- 16 2 t .
:. f
2 6 f 7 = 0;
i.e. /=-1 or 1 seconds
t
The required time must obviously be the positive value of t.
Hence the body will be 1 12 ft. below O after 7 seconds.
The negative value 1 second can be interpreted as follows: If instead

of being projected with velocity of 96 ft. per sec. the body had been thrown
upwards from below, so as to pass through this point of proj ection with th * ;
velocity, it would have been at a depth 112 ft., 1 second before reaching the
point of projection.
Ex. 3. A stone is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity just sufficient to

raise it to the top of a tower 100ft . high. Two seconds later, another stone is thrown
upwards from the same place with the same velocity . Find when and where the stones
will meet.
(Take g = 32 ft. /sec.
2
)
Let u ft./sec. be the velocity with which the first stone was thrown
upwards; then u is given by
0 = b2 - 2 X 32 x 100; u = 80.
The time taken by the first stone to reach the top of the tower will be
80 .
i.e.2 - seconds.
1
Suppose the two stones meet at the end of t seconds from the instant
the second stone was thrown. Clearly they will meet when the first stoneh as
moved downwards from the top of the tower for [t J) seconds . The distance
described by the first stone during these t J seconds will be
-i X 32 {t - i)
2 - 16 (t - J)
a feet;
/
n ELEMENTARY MECHANICS
the second stone will have gone up during the t seconds a distance 80/ Jx 32/ a
i.e. 80/ 16 a feet. The sunt of the distances travelled by them is 100 ft.
/. 16 (/ - i) 2 + 80/ - 16 2 = 100.
/
64 / = 96; / = J seconds.
1
Also the distance travelled by the second stone during these 1} seconds
will be
= 80 x
3
2
1
2
X 32 X =
9
4
84 ft.
Thus tjie two stones will meet at the height of 84 ft. when the second
stone has gone up for 1 seconds.
20. Simple Harmonic Motion.

When a particle moves in a straight line so that its accele-
ration along its path is directed towards, and is proportional to its
distance from, a fixed point of that path, it is said to move in a

simple harmonic motion. This is often denoted as S. H. M.
O is the fixed point on the line A'OA and P is the position
of the particle at time Z.
m
A' op/}
Fig. 34.
Let OP = *; then the acceleration of the particle at time

d2X
t is This is inwards (i. e. towards 0 ) and is equal to [jur,
dt 2
say. (t* >0).

d 2x = - (IX.
Hence (1 )
dt2
This is called the equation of motion.
n *
d*x dv
dt 2 dx
v being
= dx
dt
the velocity of the particle at time f.
dv
Integrating this last equation with respect to x, we get

v2
= +
p
x2
C, where G is a constant.
;
When v = 0, let x = a,
so that 0 = + C.
2
x
i. c. sin* 1 - = Vil
r t + ky where k is a constant.
a
Let x =a when t = 0,
so that k = sin* 1 V(1)
'
=
2
.
sin" 1 = a
i y'jiJ-j- 2
x =a sin VP + - 1
y)
x =a cos V [L t (3)
Equation (2) or (2') gives the velocity of the particle in

any position. The ambiguity of the sign in (2') can be deter-
mined from the direction of motion of P along the line. At P/
the velocity is positive if P is moving in the positive direction.
Equation (3) gives its position at any time t.
If time is measured from O i. e. if x = 0 when t = 0, the

constant of integration has to be adjusted.
Now sin* 1 a = V[i t + k.

If x sss 0 when t = 0, then k = 0
x = a sin V [i t (4)
If the initial conditions are more general i. e. if at t = 0,

x a and = V,
dx
the integration can be effected as follows.
-H
7

B 3
Fig. 35.
. .
We have
dv
'
s'
-Jii+c.
2 2
= V + u.a*
s
Now when x = a, v = V; this gives C
* = V*
+ pa* px*
= P x
(b* *),
i = a* +
V
where
f*
dx UA .
db V [jl [b 2 * 2
)
dx
i. e. = V ra A.
vV - * 2
integrating this equation, we get
Sin_1
-f
= + <X.
or cos- 1 = V x(+
^ l
where o<
t or o<
a is the constant of integration.
In either case, we can write
C0S_1
^
= V[Lt +
i. e. x == b cos (v'fx t + <), (5)
o< the constant of integration being determined from the initial
conditions.
Thus the solution of the equation of motion

= û x
dH
dt 2
is x = a cos V [jl ty (3)
or x = a sin Vp< (4)
or x = b cos (\/p + t ), (5)

depending on the initial conditions, the last one being the most
general one.
r
21. It will be seen from equation (3), viz. * = a cos vV *
that as V \l t increases from 0 to 2tz i. e. as t increases from 0

2tz
to r x passes through a cycle of values from a to a and
V (i
back to a and that these values will repeat themselves if t is
2tc
increased through further -
. Hence the Period of the motion
V (X
2n
is zr*
Vp
The velocity of the moving point is zero at A and A' and
the motion of the particle is an oscillation (to and fro motion
between A and A')*
The distance OA or OA' is called the Amplitude and the
number of complete oscillations per second is called the Frequency ,
the motion being called Simple Harmonic.
In fact even in equation (5), we can write
x = b cos (V[x + <<) t
= b COS V + 2n +
( (JL t o<
)
2n
= b cos +V[L7"^-^ + t <<
/ }
The point has, therefore, the same position, velocity and
direction of motion after time

measured
2tt
after time t as it had
vV
at time t. Therefore, the time of a complete oscillation i. e. the
27U
Periodic time is zr.
Vp
The amplitude now is, however, b i. e.
sJ
I a2 +
the motion starting from A, moving up to B and then to B'
and back to B.

Ex. 1. A particle of mass m is attached to one end qf a horizontal spring whose
other end is attached to a fixed point Discuss the motion qf the particle, if it is consm
trained to move horizontally.
The equation of motion for the particle is
j2*
where T is the tension in the spring.

m
^=~ T
Now if the natural length of the spring is / and the coefficient of elasti-
city is X, the tension in the spring when it is stretched a distance x is X

x

d 2*
it
Hence m
dt 2
--
x
l
d 2x X
Hence the particle describes a simple harmonic motion of period
* f'aL.
X
Ex, 2. A particle describing a simple harmonic motion passes through the

position of equilibrium with velocity 8 cm. I sec. and its maximum retardation is
16 cm. I sec 2 . Find the period and the amplitude of the motion.
The simple harmonic motion is given by
x a cos VyLt ,
2k
where a is the amplitude and 3 is the period.
vV
^ 2X
Here v
2 \l (a
2 x 2 ) and - = jul x.
dt*
Now the velocity in the position of equilibrium i.e. when *=0 is given by
v2 = [La
2
64 = [La 2 .
Also the acceleration is maximum when x is maximum i. e. maximum

retardation (negative acceleration) is y.a [ia = 16.
Hence a = 4 and jjl = 4,
i. e. the amplitude is 4 cm. and the Period is i. e. it secs.
Examples IV (b)
1 . Prove that if a particle moves in a straight line with uniform
acceleration/, the distance described by it in the (t -f 1)^ second from the start
is u + /
(2< + 1), being its initial velocity.
2 The times taken by a body to describe two successive lengths i are

.
found to be t x and t 2 . Show that if the body is moving with uniform acce-
leration, the value of the acceleration is
* 1^2 (^1 + ^
2)
. .
3. A particle starts with a velocity u and moves with constant accele-

ration. 'After moving through 10 ft. it acquires a velocity of 20 ft. per sec. and
after moving through 15 ft. more, its velocity is 30 ft. per sec. Show that
its velocity will be 40 ft. per sec. sifter it has described 46 ft. from the start
and that u = 8*165 ft. per second approximately.
5.
4. If a, b9 c be the distances covered by a particle moving with a
uniform acceleration during the p^, q^, and seconds respectively, prove that
a (q -r) + b (r -p) + c (p- q)
** 0.
A particle moving in a straight line with constant acceleration is
found to be at distances a , b, c from a fixed point on the line at time t

ft. 0, =
t= n and = t 2n seconds respectively. Prove that its initial velocity must be
4 3a c .
c a 2b
ft. /sec. and its acceleration - ft./sec 2 .
In n2
Show also that at time t 3 n seconds its distance from the initial
position will be
8. a + 3 (c b) feet.
6. A particle falls freely from the top of a tower and during the last
second of its motion it falls 5

y
ths of the total height; what is the height of
the tower ?
7. A train travelling with the velocity of G5 miles per hour has to *
slow down to 15 miles per hour, due to repairs along the road. The train
covers one mile of the road with slackening speed and two miles in recovering
the original speed. Assuming uniform retardation and acceleration, find the
10.
time lost in the journey due to this obstruction.
A particle starting from rest moves in a straight line, first with

uniform11.
acceleration f1 ft./sec 2 . and then with uniform retardation /2 ft./sec*
If it comes to rest in time t seconds measured from the beginning after describ-
ing a distance x ft. prove that x.
9 A balloon,
at rest on the ground, ascends with uniform acceleration
of 4 ft./sec 2 .
At the end of half a minute a body is released from it; find the
time that elapses before the body reaches the ground.
A stone projected vertically upwards from a point Opasses a point

A "three seconds after projection. If it returns to O after a further interval
of 4 seconds, find the height of A above O. Also find the velocity with which
the stone passes the point mid-way between and A. O
If a body, thrown vertically upwards, takes t seconds to reach a
height h feet and V more seconds to return to the point of projection, show
that h * 1
2
gtt\ Prove also that the greatest height is R
8
(< + *')* feet
and the velocity of projection is g

(t + <') ft, /sec.
12. A stone thrown vertically upwards is observed to pass upwards

through a point P and after an interval of 2 seconds to pass downwards
through the same point. Find the velocity of the stone at P.
13. A body projected vertically upwards from A, the top of a tower,
reaches the ground in seconds. If it be projected vertically downwards from
A with the .same velocity, it reaches the ground in t 2 seconds. Prove that if
it falls freely from A it would reach the ground in t

2
seconds.
14. From the bottom of a cliff 400 ft. high a stone thrown vertically
is
upwards with a velocity just sufficient to carry it to the top. After a second,
another stone is dropped from the top. When and where will the two
stones meet ?
15. A heavy particle is projected vertically upwards from a point O

with a velocity w. Find the maximum height attained by the particle above
O and show that it will be at half its greatest height above O at times whose
ratio is (3 + 2 V2): 1, the times being measured from the instant of projection.
16. Explain why a stone dropped from a cliff reaches the ground in
less time than when dropped at the same height from an ascending balloon.
Find the difference in the times if the height is 144 ft. and the balloon is
ascending at the rate of 128 ft./sec.
17. A stone falls freely for 2 seconds when it strikes a glass pane
which breaks but destroys one-fourth of the velocity of the stone. Find the
time the stone will now take in falling through the next 108 ft. to reach the
ground.
18 . A stone dropped into a well strikes the surface of water with a
2
velocity of 1 12 ft. per sec. and the strike is heard 3 seconds after it is dropped.
Find the velocity of sound.

19. A particle
is dropped from a height of 300 ft. After falling through
200 ft. a second particle moving upwards with double its velocity.
it passes
With what velocity was the second particle projected from the ground? What
height will it attain ?
20. From
the edge of a cliff, two stones are thrown at the same time,
one upwards and the other vertically downwards with the same
vertically
velocity of 30 ft. per sec. The second stone reaches the ground in 7*5 secs.
How much longer will the first be in the air ?
21 . A man in a lift throws up a with a velocity v relative to the

ball,
lift, and catches it after t seconds. Prove that the vertical acceleration of the
lift is g 2v
downwards.
22. The amplitude of a simple harmonic motion is 4 ft. and the period
is 2 secs. Find the maximum velocity and also tlje velocity at a distance of 2
ft* from the centre.
23. The amplitude of a harmonic motion is 18 cm. and it is described
in 3 secs. Find the time taken to describe half the amplitude from the posi-
tion of rest.
24. A particle moving with S.H.M. has a period of 2 secs, and its
maximum velocity is 10 ft. /sec. Find the amplitude of the motion.
25 . A particle is moving in a simple harmonic motion. When t 2 =

secs, it passes through the origin and when t = 4 secs, its velocity is 4 ft./sec.
Determine the motion and show that if the complete period is 16 second^
QO ^9
the amplitude of the path is ft.
7C
26. The amplitude of a simple harmonic motion whose period is 2

secs, is 2 ft. What distance has been travelled from the position of rest when
the velocity is 5 ft ./sec. and what time has then elasped ?
27. On
a given day, the depth of high water over a harbour is 32
f eet and at low water 6 hours later it is 20 feet. If high water is due at
7-10 P. M., what is the latest time that day at which a ship drawing 29 feet
can cross the bar, assuming the rise and fall of the tide to be simple harmonic?
[Hint : The amplitude of the simple harmonic motion is 6 ft. and the
period is124 hours. Take the motion as x = a cos V p, t and find the time
when the value of x is 3 ft.].
28 . A horizontal plate with a particle resting on it is made to oscillate

harmonic motion through a distance of 2 ft. What is
vertically with simple
the smallest number of vibrations per minute that will throw the particle off
the plate ?
[Hint Take
: the simple harmonic motion as x = a cos 2rent where
n is the number of vibrations per minute and a is the amplitude. The
maximum value of the acceleration is obtained as 4n 2 n 2 a; if it exceeds g
the particle will lose contact with the plate],
29. A particle of mass m is suspended from a spring, of modulus X,
whose other end is attached to a fixed point O. Show that the vertical
motion of the particle is simple harmonic and find its period, l being the
unstretched length of the spring.
1. CHAPTER V
LAWS OF MOTION
In the last chapter we have seen how the motion of a
particle can be completely described with the help of the funda-
mental concepts of position, velocity and acceleration, irrespective
of forces which cause the motion. Now we shall explain such
motion in relation to the forces which produce it.
The discovery of the principles on which the science of
Mechanics is based is mainly due to the genius of Sir Issac
Newton, though it must be admitted that the valuable experi-
mental researches of Galileo paved the way for Newtons work.
Newtons three laws of motion can be stated as follows :
1. Every body persists in its own state of rest or uniform

motion in a straight line, except in so far as it is compelled,
by an impressed force, to change that state.
II . Rate of change of momentum is proportional to the
impressed force and takes place in the straight line in which
the force acts.
III. To every action there is an^ equal and opposite reac-
tion; or themutual actions between two bodies on each other
are equal and oppositely directed.
These laws form the basis of Classical Mechanics and give
an adequate explanation of all ordinary phenomena of motion.
There is no proof of these laws which are taken as axioms or
postulates. That the results obtained from these laws have been
found consistent with experiments and observations is sufficient
verification of the laws. A striking example, very often given, is
the discovery by Adams of the planet Neptune from the observed
motion of the planet Uranus.
2. First Law of Motion.
Our first knowledge of motion and its causes comes from

our own efforts to set the bodies in motion. The cause in such
a case is our own muscular effort and we see that the resulting
LAWS OP MOTION 81 J
motion depends on The same muscular force also

this effort.
produces vastly different depending on the bodies set in

effects,
motion* By using the same maximum exertion, a small stone

can be thrown over a longer distance than a large one. It is
seen that there is some property of matter which determines its
response to the causes of motion. This property is called the
inertia of the body.
Newtons first law of motion, in fact, enunciates this Principle

of Inertia . The natural tendency of bodies
is to maintain their
uniform velocity in a straight line, any departure

state of rest or
from this being attributable to the action of force. The latter
part of Newtons first law of motion really gives the definition
of force which changes, or tends to change, the state
as. that
of rest or of uniformmotion in a straight line. The law
explains the concepts of mass, which is a measure of inertia,
and force and enables us to recognise a force, by noticing its
,
effect on mass.
Another point be noticed with regard to the First Law

to
is that the state of rest or uniform motion
i> to be considered
with regard to the surrounding objects. The terms rest or
uniform motion in a straight line imply a frame of reference

with respect to which these stales are observed. A particle at
rest on the surface of the earth is, in fact, moving with the
earth, in its motion round the sun, and is also sharing the
motion of the solar system; but for the purpose in hand, the
particle is at rest on the earth and so has no force acting upon
it except the weight of the particle and the reaction of the
surface which, being balanced, produce equilibrium. Hence
though the frame of reference, because of its unknown motion,
has equally unknown forces acting upon it, we must, as the law
asserts, leave these forces and motions out of account. We
say that a particle at rest or in uniform rectilinear motion with
reference to this frame, is acted upon by no unbalanced force.
We generally take the walls and the floor of the laboratory as
our frame of reference with respect to which the state of rest
or motion of the body is found. In general, the location of an
object is to be studied with regard to the environment which is
considered as fixed.
E.M....6
Illustrations*
1. A ball set rolling on the ground continues to move in
a straight line and only comes to rest because of the various
forces like the friction of the ground, air resistance acting upon
it, etc. It is seen that if these forces are partially removed, the
ball continues to move for a
longer time, as can be seen from the
motion of the ball sliding on a sheet of ice. In fact, in the
ideal state when the forces of resistance are completely removed,
the ball will go on moving uniformly for ever.
2. The jerk that is felt by a person when he jumps out of

a moving car affords another illustration of the same law. His
feet are brought to rest suddenly by the friction of the ground,
while the upper part of his body continues to move forward
and so he is thrown forward.
3. A heavy particle whirled round a horizontal circle, a*
the end of a string, flies off at a tangent, as snon as the string
breaks. The particle has no force acting on it after the string
breaks and continues to move in the direction of the tangent to
the circle at the instant of release. In fact, the curved path is
not natural; due to the force of tension in the string which
it is
causes the particle to depart from its natural state of uniform

motion.
We
have seen in a previous chapter that when a body
moves with uniform velocity, its acceleration is zero. We can,
therefore, express the law of motion as no force, no acceleration,
and conversely, e no acceleration, no resultant force* since in this
case the forces must balance.
3. Definition of mass.
It is clear that the inertia of a body becomes observable
when we attempt to change its velocity i. e. to produce acceleration.
The effort does not depend on the shape or size of the body
or on other physical conditions like temperature, colour, texture
etc., but only on the intensity of its inertia.
Two bodies A and B are mounted on friction! ess wheels and

are connected by a spring. When the spring is compressed
and released, A moves to the left with acceleration a a and B
moves to the right with acceleration as. It is possible to measure
LAWS OF MOTION 83
these accelerations. The amount of compression or the nature

of the spring changes the individual accelerations a& and as but
the ratio remains constant and depends only on the two

dB
bodies. This constant is, therefore, a property of the two
bodies and hence we can write
+ = constant =
as ma
We may call m\ the mass number or mass of the body A and ma
the mass of the body B. The experiment can be performed with
a number of bodies enabling us to compare their masses.
Mass, as thus defined, is a scalar quantity and possesses an

additive property.
4. Unit of mass.
By taking one of the masses, m\ as unity, ms is uniquely
determined by the above experiment. Replacing B by any
other body, we can determine its mass, keeping the body A as
a standard body.
The unit of mass is thus arbitrarily chosen. It is the mass

of a standard body previously agreed upon.
In the British or F. P. S. system of units, the unit of mass

is the imperial Pound, which is the mass of a lump of platinum
deposited in the Exchequer Office.
In the Metric or C. G, S. system of units, it is the gram

which is the one-thousandth part of a kilogiam, this being the
mass of a certain quantity of platinum placed in the Archives
at Paris. The gram is intended to be the mass of a cubic
centimeter of* pure water at 4G.
In practice masses are compared, as we shall see later, by

weighing them; but here the comparison is on the basis of the
accelerations produced.
5. The Second Law of Motion.

The first law states that acceleration is caused by force; now
we shall formulate a law for the measurement of this force.
Whatever be the nature* of the force, it must be measured by

the effect produces on the body. It is evident that the mea-
it
sure of a force will depend both on the mass which is moved

and the change in velocity which it produces. We shall give
a modified statement of Newtons second law of motion.
Each of the forces acting on a given particle is proportional
in magnitude (and identical in direction) to the acceleration
which it- produces. We define the magnitude of a force which
acts on a body of mass m as the product of the mass of the
body and its acceleration a produced by the force.
Symbolically F = ma
and since the acceleration is in the same direction as the force,
F = m a.
Since acceleration is defined as the time rate of change of
velocity,
o ii
giving F =m
dt
=_ (mv), provided m is constant.
We define mv, the product of its mass and its velocity, a

the momentum of the body. The relation
(mv) = F
dt
means may
also be measured by the the time rate
that the force
of change of momentum. In fact this equation is more general
than the equation F m a. =
It may be noted that mv or the momentum' of a particle
is a vector quantity.
From the relation dt

(mv) =F
we get the usual statement of Newtons Second law of motion :
The rate of change of momentum is proportional to the

impressed force and takes place in the direction of the straight
line in which the force acts.
.
LAWS OF MOTION 85
Wc shall now derive the relation ma* =F from this state-

ment of Newtons law.
Since momentum = my '
Y t
(
mv * F
) ~ ( mv) = kF,
where k is the constant of proportionality.
In most of the problems with which we are concerned

m is constant, and
m kF:
dy
dt
i. e. ma = F.
The value of k depends on the units chosen. The unit of

force is so chosen that a unit force acting on a unit mass
produces a unit acceleration, so that
F= 1 when m = 1 and a = 1
From the relation ma = &F, we get k = 1.
ma = F.
We may compare two by making them act on
forces F,
7
a mass m successively. If the accelerations produced by them,

are a and a' respectively, we have
F = ma, F' = ma.
.
F __ a

F' a
Similarly two masses m and m' can be compared by obser-

ving the accelerations a and a' produced in them by the same
force F. Thus because ma = F = m'a\
m __ a'
m' a
We have already made use of the result in defining the

unit of mass.
6. The equation of motion.

Newtons second law of motion can be stated in the symbolic
form
ma =F
where F is the vector .sum of all the forces acting on a particle

of mass m and a is the acceleration of the particle.
This equation is a vector equation and is called the

equation of motion.
The solution of any problem in Dynamics depends on
writing this equation and obtaining its solution in conformity
with certain initial conditions. The student, while attempting
any problem should first and then
write the equation of motion
proceed to solve it. The
problem in Dynamics
solution of a
consists in finding the position and velocity, at any further time,
of any material body, given the initial position and velocity
and given the forces to which it is subjected.
7. Unit of Force.
From the relation

F = ma
if m== 1, a = 1, then F= 1. Thus we adopt the unit of force
as that force which gives a unit mass an acceleration of one unit.
In the British i. e. the F. P. S. system, the unit of force

is called a poundal and is that force which produces an accele-
ration of 1 ft. per sec. per sec. in a mass of 1 pound. It is
written as lb. ft./sec. 2
In the Metric i. e. G. G. S. system, the unit of force is
called a dyne and is that force which produces in a mass of 1
gramme an acceleration of 1 cm per sec. per sec. It is written

as gm. cm./sec. 2
8. Mass and Weight.

As we have seen in the case of falling bodies, in a previous
chapter, a free particle released from rest near the earths surface,
moves vertically downwards with an acceleration whose measure
is g. The value of this quantity varies from place to place;
being greater in higher latitudes than in lower ones. It also
decreases as we go further up from the surface of the earth.
The force to which this acceleration is due in respect of

any given mass is called its weight It is in fact the Earths .
attraction on the mass, a gravitational force.

LAWS OF MOTION 87
Denoting the weight of any given mass m as w we

9 have
by Newtons second law of motion *
w = mg
and so a particle of mass m has weight mg.
Thus a mass of m lbs. has a weight mg poundals; the weight

of m grammes is mg dynes.
Thus a mass of m lbs. has a weight equal to mg poundals
or mX 32*2 poundals approximately. Similarly a mass of m

grammes has a weight equal to mg dynes or m X 981 dynes,
approximately.
9. Practical measurement of mass.

For any two particles
wi = m igi> a>t = m *g2>

gv g* being the values of g at the two places where the masses
m x and m2 are weighed.
h ^ igi
w2 m 2 gt
If the particles are weighed at the same place
gi g2
.
m t _w 1
m2 w2
Thus same place any two masses are in the ratio of

at the
their weights and we may measure them, in terms of a standard
unit of mass, by weighing them with the common balance.
Moreover the ratio of the weights of two masses at one

place is the same the weights of the same two
as the ratio of
masses at another place, as the ratio does not depend on the
value of g. Hence weighing with the common balance is a
practical method of comparing masses.
10. The two systems of units.
The system of units where a force is measured either in
poundals or dynes is called the absolute system of units. Its
advantage is that the unit is absolute i. e. is applicable every-

where, for whatever thelocality, a force of one dyne will give a

mass of one gramme an acceleration of one cm. per sec. per sec.
at any place on the earth.
The gravitational system of units has the weight of a standard

mass as the unit of force. This unit changes from place to
place according to the value of g. In this system, the unit of
force is either the weight of one gram or the weight of one
pound and is written as gm. wt. or lb. wt. in the G. G. S. and
the F* P. S. systems of units, respectively. This unit, say, the
lb. wt. is not constant.
Of course, this system can be made independent of the place

by choosing a particular value of g.
In this system of units since P = ma and w = mg the

equation of motion is written in the form
P_
a w
=
1. e. P a.
w g g
Here P and w are expressed in the same units and so also
are a and g.
The absolute system of units is used in most of the scientific
work and we shall use the same, unless otherwise mentioned.
The gravitational system of units is used mostly by engineers

while the absolute system of units is used in all branches of
pure science. We shall adhere to the latter system unless other-
wise stated.
11. The physical independence of forces.

Another important principle contained in the second law is:
Each force produces its own effect in its own direc-

tion independently of other forces.
We have seen that the effect of a force F on a particle is
an acceleration represented by the vector a of definite magni-
tude in the direction of the force F. Since every force produces
its own effect independently of others, the resultant effect of
forces is the resultant of the accelerations produced by each of

the forces.This principle can be used to deduce the parallelo-
gram law of forces from the corresponding parallelogram law
. . . . ;
LAWS OF MOTION 89
"for accelerations or vice versa. It is also useful in considering

independently the motion under different forces and obtaining
the resulting motion by compounding the various motions. A
ball dropped from the hand inside a moving carriage falls on
the floor of the carriage at the same point whether the carriage
is at rest or in motion. This possibility of considering, inde-
pendently, motions especially along lines at right angles enables
us to solve a number of problems in Dynamics.
12. Motion of a particle on a smooth inclined plane*

Let m be the mass of the particle and *< the inclination
R of the plane to the horizontal.
The only forces acting on the par-
ticle are its weight mg acting vertically
downwards and the reaction R of the
plane acting perpendicular to the
plane, the plane being smooth.
Since there is no motion and, therefore, no acceleration

perpendicular to the plane, the forces perpendicular to the plane
must balance one another. Hence
R mg cos *< == 0
i. e. R = mg cos o<
If the acceleration down the inclined plane is jf, theili
mf = mg sin < ;
f=8 sin *<
Hence the body moves down the inclined plane with

acceleration g sin <
It is clear that the motion of a body on a smooth inclined

plane is similar to the motion of a body falling under gravity,
except that instead of g we take g sin <<
Webe able to obtain the motion of a particle projected

will
up an inclined plane in exactly the same manner. For a

particle, whose velocity of projection up the line of greatest
slope of the inclined plane is u , the velocity v at time t and

the distance s decsribf d in time t can be written as
v = u g sin o<
s = u \ g sin t << t
2
.
Also v = u 2 g sin
2 2
<<

Ex. 1. A mass of 4 lbs. falls 200 ft. from rest and is then brought to rest
by penetrating 4 ft. into some mud Find the average
. resistance of the mud on it.
The mass falls freely through 200 ft. The velocity acquired by it is
V2 X 32 X TOO 80 Vi ft. per sec.
This velocity is destroyed in penetrating 4 ft. If / is the retardation

roduced by the force of the mud, we have
0= (80 V2) 2 - 2-/. 4.
/= 1600 ft. per sec. per sec.
If the average resistance of the mud is R, the forces acting on the mass
are its weight acting downwards and R acting upwards; hence
mf = R mg.
R= mg + mf
= 4x 32 -h 4 X 1600 poundals
= 32 (204) poundals
*= 204 lbs. wt.
Ex. 2. The resistance to a train of mass 180 tons is 14 lbs. wt. per ton.
Find its acceleration when running freely down an incline of 1 to 50.
The resolved part of the weight down the inclined plane

180 x 2240 i
lbs. wt.
50
180 x 2240 x 32
poundals.
50"
The resistance to motion

= 14 X 180 lbs. wt.
= 14 x 180 X 32 poundals.
If a ft./ sec
2 , is the acceleration, then,
180 x X 32
180 x 2240 x a = 14 x 180 x 32.
50
32 x 18 x 14 (32 - 10) 44
Simplifying, we get a
180 x 2240 Too*
The acceleration is 0*44 ft. /sec
2.
LAWS 07 MOTION 91
Ex. 3. An engine which exerts a constant pull is attached to a tram of mass

120 tons (including the engine), the resistance due to friction being 14 lbs. wt. per
ton. It runs for a mile on a level track and gets up a velocity of 30 miles per hour
and reaches the foot of an incline. Find the force exertbd by the engine. Find also
how far the train will run up the incline of 1 in 100 steam being shut
, off.
Let the pull of the engine be P poundals and let f ft. /sec.
2 be the
acceleration of the engine on the level track. Then
120 X 2240*/= P - 14 x 120 .
Also, with this acceleration, the engine acquires a speed of 30 miles

per hour from rest, after running for a mile.
30 X 5280v 2

("So-) -V' 5m
i.e. /= w ft - /sec2 -
x +
11
P = 120 X 2240 14 x 120 *] poundals
[
22^X_2240
~32
-
+ 140 x 12 I lbs. wt.
[ ]
= ftp x 23 lbs. wt. = 3220 lbs. wt.
When the steam is shut off, the retardation of the train up the incline i
14 x 32 32 32 260
*
2240 100 160 500
H
25~
ft./ttX 2
Hence the distance that the train can go up the incline

is

44 X 44
3
22 X 44 x 25
nr

1861
7
tj

"-
2
*t s
Examples V a
1 . A particle is given an acceleration of 3 ft. /sec.

2by a force of 2 lbs,
2
wt. What force will give it an acceleration of 2 ft./sec . and what is its mass?
2. A train is subject to a resistance of 10 lbs. wt. per ton. Find its
retardation when it is running freely on the level.
3. If the units of time, length and mass were the minute, yard and
cwt. respectively, what would be the unit of force ?
92 !
4. At a place where g = 32 a particle weighs 4 lbs. How much

will it weigh, where g =* 8, in poundals and in lbs. wt. ?
5. A spring balance stretched horizontally gives a particle an acce-

leration of 2 ft./sec 2 . where g = 32. What acceleration will it produce
when g = 16 ?
6. A particle of mass 4 gms. is moving under the action of its weight

and a force of 2000 dynes at 60 to the upward vertical. What is its
acceleration ?
7. A train of mass 100 tons is moving at the rate of 30 m. p. h. What

force will stop the train in 220 yds. ?
8. A person, going up in a balloon, finds that a weight of 5 lbs.

when suspended on a spring balance shows 5 4 lbs. With what acceleration
is he going up ?
9. A
body weighing 5 lbs. drops through a distance of 100 ft. and
is brought to rest by penetrating in the mud. If the penetration is 10 ft.
find the average resistance of the mud.
10 . A mass moves under the influence of an external force and descri-

bes 10 ft. in 2 secs. What distance will it describe in the next second ?
11 . A stone weighing 6 lbs. is dropped into water; while sinking, the

resistance of the water is 2 lbs. wt. Find the acceleration.
12. A man whose mass is 150, lbs. is standing in a lift. What force
will the floor of the lift exert on him in the following cases ?
(i) When the lift stays still,
2
(ii) when it is ascending with an acceleration of 2 ft./sec .,
(iii) when it is descending with an acceleration of 2 ft./sec 2 .,
(iv) when it is moving with uniform velocity.
13. A bucket containing a hundred-weight of coal is being drawn up

from a coal-pit so that the pressure of the coal on the bottom of the bucket is
equal to 126 lbs. wt. Find the acceleration of the bucket.
14. A 2-ton lorry is travelling at 20 mi. /hr. What force in tons wt. is
needed to stop it in 10 seconds ? What force will stop the lorry in 10 yards I
15. A mass of 1800 tons is at rest. If a force of 20 lbs. wt. acts on this
mass, how long will it act before the mass acquires a velocity of 1*5 mi /hr.?
16. A motor car can be stopped in 16 feet by its brakes when travell-
ing it 20 mi. /hr. In what distance can it be stopped by the same braking
force when travelling at 40 mi. /hr. ?
17. A mass of 12 lbs. moves in a straight line being acted on by a

constant force; it acquires a' velocity of 50 ft./sec. in 5 seconds. What is the
magnitude of the force ? -
*

LAWS OF MOTION 93
18* Find the time taken by a body to slide from rest down a smooth
inclined plane of height 16 ft* and length 32 ft. and the velocity acquired on
reaching the ground.
19. Show that the time taken by a body in sliding from rest down any
smooth chord of a vertical circle, drawn from the highest point, is constant.
20. From a fixed point A, several particles start from rest and move
down smooth inclined planes of different angles of inclination to the vertical.
Show that the velocity of each particle on reaching the common horizontal
base of the planes is the same.
21. A railway waggon moves freely down an inclined plane, which

falls 1 in 200, with uniform velocity. Find in lbs. wt. per ton the total resis-
tence to the motion. If the waggon is started up the incline with a velocity
of 15 miles per hour, find how far it travels before coming to rest, assuming
that the resistance is the same whether up or down the incline.
22. A motor car travelling with a speed of 30 m. p. h. is brought to

rest,by the application of its brakes, in four seconds. Find the distance travel-
led by the car in coming to rest. Show further that the average force exerted
by the brakes is - times the weight of the car.
23. A train of 200 tons is running at 20 m. p. h. when steam is shut

off and resistance of 1 100 lbs. wt. acts continuously until brought to rest.
it is
Find the distance it travels after the steam is shut ofF and the time taken
to come to rest.
14. The Third Law of motion :
Action and reaction are equal and opposite.

The first two laws are concerned with the motion of a
single particle. The third relates to the action of one particle
or body on another.
If two bodies A and B exert forces on one another, the force which
A exerts on B is equal and opposite to that which B exerts on A and these
forces act in the line AB .
must be noted that the forces of action and reaction

It
or mutual action between two bodies A and B, are equal and
opposite forces acting, not on the same body , but on two
different For considering the motion of one of the
bodies .
bodies, say A, we have to take into account the forces acting
upon A and not forces exerted by A and similarly for the
motion of the other body. If, however, we consider the two
.
94 elementary mechanics
bodies together, we need not take into account these forces of

mutual action as they are equal and opposite forces balancing
each other.
Illustrations :
(1) A on a horizontal table

ball resting The ball is in :
equilibrium and, therefore, the forces on it must balance. The
weight of the ball, say w acts vertically downwards and the
,
reaction or thrust of the table on the ball acts upwards. These

forces balance and hence the thrust on the ball is equal to its
weight. Now as between the ball and the table, the action
and reaction are equal and opposite, hence the force acting on
the table is equal to the weight of the ball
(2) Consider the motion of a cart pulled by a horse.

The horse pulls the
cart with a force T
and the cart also
pulls the horse with
a force T. The
question often raised
is How is it that the
cart moves ?*
Fig. 37.
First consider the forces acting on the horse; we need con-

sider only horizontal forces, as the vertical forces balance, since
the horse has no vertical acceleration. As the horse presses the
ground by his feet, he tries to push the ground backwards, the
horizontal component of this force being P, say. Then by
Newtons 3rd law, the ground pushes the horse forward with
an equal horizontal force, P. Let T be the force with which
the horse pulls the cart forwards, then the cart pulls the horse
backwards with an equal force T.
The resultant forward force on the horse is P T and

hence so long as P > T, the horse will move with an
acceleration.
Similarly for the motion of the cart, the force T on the

cart exerted by the horse tries to move the cart forwards while
the force of friction F by the ground on the cart will try to
LAWS OF MOTION 95
oppose this motion. If T > F, the force pulling the cart for-
wards being T F, the cart will accelerate.
If we consider the system of the horse and the cart together,
the net forward force producing the acceleration will be P F,
the mutual action between the cart and the horse consisting of
two equal and opposite forces. With respect to the system,
such forces are known as internal forces .
Hence, if the masses of the horse and the cart are M and
M' respectively, their common acceleration f is given by
P-T_T-F_ P F
7
M M' M~+M'
If the horse pulls the cart with a force just sufficient to
overcome the force of friction on the cart, then P = F = T and
the system moves uniformly.
Thus we see that though the forward pull of the horse and
the backward pull of the cart are equal and opposite, it does
not imply that the system cannot move, since (i) these forces
act on different bodies and (ii) the other forces acting on either
body are not taken into account.
15. Dimensions and Dimensional Analysis.
In mechanics we consider the three quantities, length, time

and mass as fundamental and we express other physical quantities
in terms of these. For example, area, volume, velocity, accelera-
tion and and are expressible in terms
force are derived quantities
of length, mass and time. Thus length, time and mass have
fundamental dimensions which are denoted by L, T, respec- M
tively. The dimensions of any other derived physical quantity
can be expressed in terms of these. For instance, since velocity
denotes a certain distance, described in unit time, its dimensions
are those of length divided by time i. e. those of or LT" 1 .
We thus usually express the dimensions of velocity as [LT* 1 ].

Similarly the dimensions of area, acceleration, force and momen-
tum can be expressed as [L 2], [LT~ 2], [MLT* 2] and [MLT -1]
respectively.
)
The method of dimensional analysis can be applied to verify

the correctness of a formula and checking equations for errors
pther than numerical. Any equality can be true only between
quantities of the same kind and so the dimensions of both sides
of any equation must be the same in terms of the fundamental
dimensions L, T, M,
For the equation s =ut + \ft 2
s = [L], u = [LT' ], / = [LT-*] 1
and so ' [L] - [LT^] [T] + [LT~ [T 2

]
2
]
which is obviously correct.
The equation is, therefore, a valid one. Note that this method
does not check the correctness of any numerical constants, as for
example the coefficient for ft 2 .
16. A body of mass m lbs. is carried by a lift moving with an acceleratior.
f\find the pressure on the floor of the lift.
(i) When the lift is going up, the acceleration of the mass m is f
upwards; and the forces acting on the mass are its weight mg vertically
downwards and the pressure of the floor of the lift, say, R vertically
upwadrs.
Hence, the equation of motion, for the mass, is
mf = R mg,
R = mg -f mf.
By Newtons third law of motion, the pressure of the body on the
floor of the lift is equal and opposite to this force and hence is m (g + /)
acting downwards. It is seen that this is greater than its weight.
(ii) If the acceleration of the lift is downwards, we can write the

equation of motion for the mass as
mf = mg S
where S is the pressure on the mass by the floor of the lift acting upwards.
S = mg mf.
Hence the pressure on the floor by the body is m ( gf and is acting

downwards.
As long as f < g, the body presses down the floor and so is in contact
with the floor. If / g this force is zero and

t
the body does not press the
floor but is moving freely with it.
If f> g, the pressure is negative, which is impossible. Hence in that

case, the body will lose contact with the floor and move down freely under
gravity.
J
LAWS OF MOTION 97
17* Two particles whose masses are m 1 and m 2 (,ni

1 > m2 ) are connected by a
light inextensible string, which passes over a smooth light pulley . Investigate the motion .
Let T be the tension of the string. Since the string is light and inextensible
and the pulley is smooth, the tension T is the same
throughout the length of the string.
^ Since > m 2 m , descends and m2 ascends.

The length of the string being constant.the downward
J , V
T acceleration of
tion of m2 .
m1
Let / be
is equal to the
the magnitude of the
upward accelera-
common
IM acceleration.
By applying the second law of motion to the

Vm/S. particles and m 2 we ,
get
m l f=m 1 g-T. .. .. (1)
Fig. 38. m 2 f=T m 2 g. .. .. (2)
The acceleration :
By adding (1) and (2), we get
(i + a) / = m i m i) (
m l~ m 2
J
r ,

+ m2
The tension T of the string :
Again, equating the values of m^m^, f from (1) and (2), we ge

m2 (i g T) = ttij (T m 2 g).
T (m 1 -f m 2) = 2m 1 m 2 g,
T=
mx + m 2
This can be written as
- JL 1
9
T g 2 S
i. e. T is the harmonic mean between the weights of the two particles.
The pressure on the pulley :
is T, on either
Since the tension of the string
side of the pulley, the two parts of the string exert
a pressure on the pulley, equal to 2 T.
By considering the motion of such a system,
it is possible to measure the acceleration of either
particle. The -value of g can then be determined.
The mechanism for this is known as Atwoods
Machine.
18. Two particles of masses m and m 2 are con-
nected by a light inextensible string . m 2 is placed on a
smooth horizontal table; the string passes over alight pulley
at the edge of the table at a distance c from the pulley .
Fig. 39. Find the tension of the string and the time required
for the particle m2 to fall over .
E.M.. .7
Since the string is inextensible the accelerati on of m2 is the same as

the acceleration of m j. Let it be
denoted by /. Let Tbe the tension
of the string.
Then writing the equations of
motion form ^ and m 2 we , have
r m i/= m i& T >
Wg/ X*
Adding, we get
/ (i + 2 = m xg. )
m/S
/- fflj + g\
Fig. 40. fTlr
n Xm 2
and T g-
w,
nj +m
~r m*2
The particle m 2 moves with constant acceleration f and moves from

rest a distance c with this acceleration in time /, say. Then c
hc _ j 2c (w 1 + rn 2 )
J f V g
19, If m
2 lies on a smooth inclined plane of angle < , mx freely and
hangs
the string passes over a smooth light pulley at the top of the inclined plane , investi
gate the motion .
Let / be the common acceleration when motion ensues with m x mov-

ing vertically downwards. Let T be
the tension in the string.
The equation of motion for
m is
m l/= m l s T -
The acceleration of m2 is f
up and writing the
the inclined plane
equation of motion for m 2 we have ,
m 2f T m 2 g sin < .
Eliminating T from these two equations, we get

mx m2 sin
f= WI^-p 171
g.
2
Hence T = m xg m x f
=
m1 + m2
(1 + sin <) g.
Here if mx < m 2 sin < , f will be negative and then mx will ascend and
m2 will move down the inclined plane.
20. Two masses mx and m 2 are connected by a string along two smooth planes
inclined at angles and (3 to the horizon respectively Investigate the motion.
LAWS OF MOTION 99
Let m2 > and f be the common acceleration with which m 2 moves

down îe plane and m x moves up
the other plane.
Resolving along the two planes

for m 2 and m l9 we have
m 2 g sin T = m 2 f
(3 ;
sin o< -f T = m x f.
Eliminating T we
#
get
m2 sin m 1 sin
/ =
( fi )
g>
Fig. 42 m1 + m 2
and hence
T = m g sin C + mxf
mi m 2 (sin < + sin (3)
m 1 ~b m 2
Thus according as m 2 sin is greater or less than m sin <<, m
(3
1 1 moves
up or down the plane and m 2 moves down or up the other plane.
Examples Vb
1 . A
mass 2m pulls a mass m up a smooth plane of inclination 30 to
the horizontal by means of a string passing over a fixed pulley at the top of
the plane. Find the tension of the string and the acceleration of the masses.
2. A mass of 9 lbs. hanging vertically draws a second mass from rest
up a smooth inclined plane of inclination 30 to the horizon. After the motion
has continued for 4 seconds, the string connecting ihe masses is cut. If the
second mass moves 2 ft. up the plane before descending, find its magnitude.
3. A
mass of 6 ounces slides down a smooth inclined plane whose
height is its length and draws another mass from rest over a distance
half of
of 3 feet in 5 seconds along a smooth horizontal table which is level with the
top of the plane over which the string passes. Find the mass on the table.
4. A body of mass 12 lbs. is placed on a smooth inclined plane, whose
height is half its length, and is connected by a light string passing over a
pulley at the top of the plane with a mass of 8 lbs. which hangs freely; find
the distance through which each mass moves in 5 seconds.
5 masses m and
. Two M
are connected by a light inextensible string.
The mass m on a smooth plane inclined at an angle C to the horizontal
is
and the string, passing over a smooth light pulley at the top of the plane,
supports the mass M, which hangs vertically. If the mass descends, find M
the acceleration of the system. The positions of the two masses are next inter-
changed and then the mass m descends. If the acceleration in this c?.se is
twice the acceleration in the first case, prove that

2M- m
< =
Sin
2~M
What is the tension in each case ?
6. A mass m t
bottom of an inclined plane of inclination <
at the
attached by a light string that passes, over a smooth
pulley
and height h, is
.
dat the top of the plane and carries a mass m' at the other end. If m* is
etached7.after m has moved ft distance d and after that if m just reaches tne
top of the plane, show that
a =
(m+m')
h l
(h+l)
-
m
-- where l = h cosec <
Two masses, m and m\ are connected by a light inextensible

string; m is placed on a smooth plane inclined at an angle C to the horizontal,
and the string, after passing over a smooth light pulley at the top of the
plane, is attached to m* which hangs vertically. Initially the masses are at
rest and tl]pn m' begins to descend. Find the acceleration of each mass and
the tension of the string at any instant. If the string breaks five seconds
after the commencement of the motion and the mass m thereafter travels a
further distance 104

6
feet up the plane before beginning to descend andi
sin = ,
prove that m= m'.
8. A smooth inclined plane, whose height is one-half of its length,

has a small smooth pulley at the top over which a string passes. To one end
of the string is attached a mass of 22 lbs. which rests on the plane, while from
the other end, which hangs vertically, issuspended a mass of 14 lbs. and
the masses are left free to move. Find the acceleration and the distance
traversed from rest by either mass in two seconds.
9. Two masses 7 lbs. and 14 lbs. hanging freely are connected by a
light inextensible string over a small smooth pulley. If the string
passing
breaks after the motion has continued for three seconds, find after what fur-
ther interval of time the smaller mass comes to its original position.
10. Two equal masses are attached by an inextensible string that

passes over a smooth pulley. Show that the tension of the string is unaltered
13.
if of its mass is added to one and of its mass be removed from the
k A+ 2
other.
1 1 . Two m and 3m are connected by a light inex-
particles of masses
tensible string passing over asmooth pulley. After two seconds from rest, the
descending particle is suddenly stopped and immediately allowed to fall again.
Find the time that elapses before the string again becomes taut.
12. A mass of 4 oz. is attached by a string passing over a smooth
pulley to a larger mass; find the magnitude of the latter so that after the
motion has continued for 3 seconds and the string is cut, the former will
7
ascend 1 ft. before descending.
A pulley carrying a total load W hangs in a loop of a cord which

passes over two fixed pulleys and has unequal weights P and Q, freely
suspended from its ends, each segment of the cord being vertical. Show that
W will remain at rest provided
1 1 4
CHAPTER VI
IMPULSE, WORK, ENERGY, POWER
1* We
have seen that a force acting on a body produces
an acceleration in it, which is proportional to the force. It is
now required to find the effect of a force on a given body, if
it acts for a given interval of time or if it moves the body over a
given distance. We may call these effects of a force as time-

effect and distance-effect respectively.
2. Impulse of a Constant Force.
We define the impulse or the time-effect of a constant force

P, acting for a time /, as the product P t. If we denote impulse
by I,
I = Pf.
3. Impulse of a variable force.
Considering a small interval of time St during which the

forcemay be regarded as constant, the impulse of the force P
during time St is P St. Adding such products for all the small
sub-intervals into which the total interval is divided, the
impulse of the variable force P during the interval is EP St or
in the limit,
2
LtSPSii.e. pdt
J*
where the interval is from time tx to time t2 .
We thus define the impulse of the force P during the interval

*2
t to as P dt.

4. Impulse of a Force is given by the increase in
Momentum.
We have expressed Newtons second law of motion as
P =m/.
.
U
f
21
For a constant force, ,
and hence P =m
t
i. e. Pta mv mu.
For a variable force
F = mf
J = m
A
Integrating this equation with respect to t between the limits
tx and f2 > we get
11
= [mo ]
h
= mu mu
where a, v are the velocities of the particle at time and
respectively. Hence in both cases
I = mv mu.
We have defined the momentum of a moving body as the
product of its mass and velocity; hence
the impulse of a force = increase of momentum .
Since every force produces its own effect, independently of

the others, we have the result: If several forces act on a body,
which is moving in a straight line, then the impulse of the sum
of the resolutes along the line of motion, of all the forces acting,
is equal to the increase of the momentum of the body.
5. Force as the Rate of change of Momentum.
From the relation, change in momentum = impulse of forces,

i. e. mv mu = Pt ,
mv mu __
we have r ,
t
i. e. the acting force is equal to the rate of change of

momentum.
IMPULSE, WORK, ENERGY, POWER 103
This gives a statement of Newtons Second Law of motion.
The change of momentum is proportional to the impulse

of the impressed force and takes place in the direction of the
force or the rate of change of momentum is equal to the impres-
sed force.
The equation can also be used to determine the force from

the change in momentum it produces.
6. Impulsive Forces.
If a force acts on a particle for a very short time, it is
impossible to determine the acceleration produced and hence the

magnitude of the force; but the impulse of such a force can be
found from the change in momentum it produces. Thus a force
P many act on a body for a small interval of time such that
neither the time t for which the force acts nor the negligible
displacement in position produced by the force can be measu-
red; at the same time P may be large enough to produce a
finite change in velocity. Such forces, which occur when there
is, for example, the blow of a hammer, the firing of a gun, the
impact or collision of two particles etc., are called impulsive

forces. An impulsive force is a very large force, which acts
for an interval of time so small that the displacement of the
point of application during the interval is negligible but which
produces a finite change of velocity. The relation
mu mu = Pt, i. c. mv -- mu = I
gives the result : the effect of an impulsive force is measured by the
change in momentum it produces .
Thus an impulsive force, the force and the time for

for
which it cannot be measured separately, whereas in the
acts
case of a non-impulsive force, i. e. a finite force, they can be so
measured.
7. Units of impulse.
From the relation I = Pt ,
when P= 1 and t = 1, we have 7 = 1.
The most commonly used units in which the impulse of a

force is measured are
=
1 Poundal-second in the F. P. S. absolute system

of units,
i
and 1 Pound-second in the F. P. S. gravitational system

of units.
Similarly in the C. G. S. system, we have either the dyne-

second or the gram-second as the unit of the impulse.
Note that, 1 pound-second = 32 poundal-seconds,
and ^ 1 gram-second == 981 dyne-seconds.
8. Collision of two Bodies.

Let the velocities of thetwo bodies before collision be u x and
ut and after collision and v 2 respectively, all velocities being
be vx
supposed to be in the same sense, if positive.

If u x >u 2, the two bodies will collide, there being no external
forces acting. Let the masses of the two bodies be mx and m2 .
If the reaction between the two bodies during collision is R

and if the collision lasts for time t. then
u the impulse of this force is Rt.
For body m l9 m 1 v 1 Rt.
For body m 2 m 2v 2 * m 2 u 2
,
= Rt,
since the forces in the two cases are equal
and opposite.
Adding and transposing, we get

Fig. 43. m^ + m v 2 =
2 +mu 2 2,
i. e. the total momentum after impact = total momentum before

impact.
Thus for a collision the total momentum remains the same.
This is known as the principle of Conservation of

Momentum.
It should be noted that all momenta are measured in the
same direction.
If the two bodies coalesce after collision i. e. move together,
We have vx =v 2
and the common velocity after collision

m +m u 2 2
m +m
x 2
.
9. Motion of a shot and a gun.

When a shot
from a gun, the forces due to explo-
is fired
sion drive the shot forward and the gun backward. The total
momentum for the shot and the gun is unchanged, since the
forces of explosion are internal. As the gun and the shot are
at rest before explosion, the momentum after explosion will
be zero,
i. e. m +m 2v 2 = 0,
i. e. the momentum of the gun ( backward )

= the momentum
of the shot (forward).

Ex. 1. A hammer of mass 10 lbs . falls through a height of 4 ft . and comes
to rest after striking a mass of iron, the duration of the blow being sec. Find
the force (<assumed uniform) exerted by the hammer on the iron .
Here the velocity of the hammer in contact with the iron is given by
v2 =2 x 32 x 4.
.*. v = 16 ft. per sec.
Now impulse of the impact = change in momentum.
/. m (v - 0) = 10 (16-0)
= 160.
If the force, exerted by the hammer, (assumed uniform) is F, then the
impulse of the impact = Fx 1
F - 40 X 160
= 6400 pound als
6400
= = 200 lbs. wt.
32
Ex. 2. Water issues horizontally from a hose-pipe at 24 ft per sec . The

radius of the hose is J inch. Find the force exerted on a vertical wall (*) if none of
the water splashes back () if half of the water splashes back at 12 ft. per sec
Here the mass of water leaving the pipe per second
- 7C (V JL)\ 24 X 62-5 lbs.
The momentum of this water
= it x 24 X 62*5 X 24 pdl. sec.

)
*= 7T x 62 5 pdl. sec
none of the water splashes back, all this momentum

If as in case (i)
is destroyed by the wall.Hence the rate at which momentum is destroyed

gives the force exerted by the wall.
Hence the force exerted by the wall

= 7c x 62 5 pdl.
tc X 62-5
6* 1 lbs. wt. approx.
32
If as in case (ii) water splashes back, the momentum of the water

which splashes back
X 12 x 62*5 x 12 pdl. sec.
= X 62*5; and this is in the opposite direction.

4
Hence the force exerted by the wall
= X
5
4
7T
62*5 pdl. = 7'7 lbs. wt. approx.
Ex. 3. A mass of A lb. is dropped on the ground Just before hitting the
ground its velocity is 20 ft. per sec. and it rebounds with an initial velocity of 12 ft.
per sec. Assuming that the force exerted by the ground upwards is constant during
the period of contact which is sec. find the value of this force.
Here the momentum immediately before hitting the ground= X 20= 10

poundal seconds and this is measured downwards.
The momentum after rebound = J x 12=6 pdl. sec. and this is
measured upwards.
The change in momentum = 10 + 6=16 pdl. sec.
If F is the resisting force in poundals,
F X +=
40
16.
F = 640 poundals
= 20 lbs. wt.
Impulse of this force =16 pdl. sec.
11 . Two new concepts, which are of great use in dynamics,
are those of work and energy. The effect of a force in moving
a body over a certain distance i. e. the distance-effect of a force
can be interpreted as the work done by the force in transmitting
energy to the moving body.
.
impulse, work, energy, power 107
Work is said to be done by a force if its point of application

moves in the direction of the force .
12. Work done by a Constant force.
It is a common experience that the greater the force

applied, or the larger the displacement, the greater is the exer-
tion and hence the greater is the work done. For a constant
magnitude and direction) the work done is the product
force (in ,
of the magnitude of the force and the displacement, where the

displacement is in the same direction as the force. Thus W, the
work done by a force F in displacing a particle a distance x
in the direction of the force, is given by
W = F*.
The force F still does work even if the displacement of the
point of application is not along its line of action.
The work done
by a force, in the general case, is measured by the product of the dis-
placement of the point of application of the force and its resolved part
in the direction of the displacement of the point of application Hence
if a force F acting at a point O
moves the point of application
c to P along the line OP, where OP
makes an angle 0 with its line of
action, then the work done by the
force F is
W = OP x F cos 0
= F x OP cos 0.
Thus the work done by the
force is also equal to the product of the
the force.
It may be noted that work can be either positive or negative.

If the displacement of the point of application of the force is
in the same work done is said to be positive;

sense as the force, the
if opposite to the sense of the force, work done is reckoned to be
negative. In the latter case, work is said to be done against

the force. Thus the work done is equal to the product of the
magnitude of the force F, the magnitude of the displacement
OP and cos 0, where 0 is the angle between the two, i. e.
W=F X OP X cos 0.
Using vectors, the work done by a force F is equal to F.*,

the scalar product of the two vectors, where x is the displacement
of the point of application of the force.
If 0 = 90, work done by the F is zero, i.e. no work

force
is done if the point of application moves at right angles to the

direction of the force.
It may be noted that work is a scalar quantity.
Since every force produces its own effect, independently

of other forces, we have the result that work done by a
the
number of forces is the same as the work done by their
resultant. Also, the work done by a force, when its point of
application is displaced, is equal to the sum of the works done
by its components.
13. Work done by a Variable Force.
By considering small displacements, during which the force

is nearly uniform, the work done in a small displacement &x is
FS* cos 0 as before, 0 being the angle between t-he direction of
the force and the displacement at the Instant. The total work
done is given by
Lt
->0
W= 2 F cos 0 8*
8x
*2
= f F cos 0 dx,
J *1
the displacement being from the position x x to the position x 2 .
14. Activity and Power.

The activity of a force is its rate of doing work When an agent .
or a machine does work, the rate at which work is being done

by it is called its power.
Thus if W is the work and A is the power of an agent,
x dW
dt
The work done by a force F in producing a small display

cement &?, in its own direction, can be written as =FSx;
hence we can write
dfV _p d*_
dt dt
= Fv,
i.e. A = Fv.
Hence, the power of an agent is measured by the product
of the force exerted by the agent and the velocity of the point
of application in the direction of the force.
15. Units of Work and Power.

The unit of work is the work done when the point of
application of a unit force moves along the line of action of the
force through a unit distance; e. g. in the F. P. S. absolute
system, I foot-poundal (ft .
pdl . ) is the work done when the unit
of force is 1 poundal and the displacement is 1 foot.
Similarly 1 foot-pound = 1 foot X 1 lb. wt. is the unit of

work in the F. P. S. gravitational system and 1 centimeter-gram
= cm
1 X 1 gm . wt . in the metric gravitational system.
A special term is used for the G G . . S . or metric absolute

unit of work. The work done when the unit of force is 1 dyne
and the displacement is 1 cm. is called an erg.
1 erg = 1 centimeter X 1 dyne.
This unit is a very small one in practice and hence a larger

unit, Joule, is used. 1 joule = 10 7 ergs. The relations
the
between the gravitational and the absolute units of work are
1 ft. lb. = 32 ft- pdl.
1 cm. gr. = 981 ergs.
The unit of power in the F. P. S. system is a foot poundal

per second, while in the C G . . S . system it is one joule per second
and is called a watt. Thus
1 Watt = 1 joule per sec. 10 7 ergs per sec.
A Horse Power (H. P.) is a unit of power equal to 550

foot~lbs. of work per second or 33000 ft. lbs. of work per minute
Note that 1 H. P. = 550 X 32ft. pdl- per sec.

= 746 Watts, nearly.
16. Energy.
The conception of energy is an important one in physics,
t
where we come across various forms of energy, like heat energy,

electric energy etc. In mechanics we are concerned with two
forms, the kinetic energy and the potential energy. Both are
sometimes included under the name mechanical energy.
Energy of a body is its capacity for doing work and is mea-
sured by the amount of work it can do, by virtue of its motion or

position , In passing from its present state to some standard state.
Since the energy of a body is measured by the work, the
unit of energy is the same as the unit of work.

The Kinetic energy of a body is its capacity for doing
work by virtue of its motion and is measured by the work
which must be done against a force, so applied as to bring the
body to rest. A particle projected upwards possesses a certain
capacity for doing work as is seen by its being able to move up
against gravity.
Let m be the mass of a moving particle and v its velocity.

Suppose a uniform force F, applied to the particle in the opposite
direction brings the particle to rest after it has described a
distance x. If f is the retardation produced by the force, we
have by the Second Law of Motion
F = mf
Also since the velocity v is destroyed by the retarda-
tion /,
v2 2 f x =0;

Hence the work done = F -x = mf.x = mv 2 ,

2
i. e. The Kinetic Energy = mv a

,
i. e. it is equal to the product of its mass and half the square

of its velocity.
Again, since the momentum of the particle == mv, the kinetic

energy is equal to half the product of the momentum and
the velocity.
It is also seen that the work done in reducing the particle

to rest does not depend on the force so applied, and is the same
whether a large or a small force stops the body.
Using F. P. S. absolute system of units, the Kinetic

Energy, written in short as K. E., of a body of mass m lb. moving
at u ft./sec. is \ mu 2 ft. pdl. Similarly the K. E., if the mass is
m gm. and the velocity is u cm./sec., is \ mu

2 ergs. It is to be
noted that the K. E. \ mu * is given in absolute units as is seen
from the relation mu 2 Fx. =
17. The Energy Equation.
Consider the case of a body of mass m having initially a ,
velocity u and which, as a result of the action of a uniform force

F, acquires a velocity v, after moving through a distance x .
The acceleration f is given by F = mf.

Also v2 u2 2 fx .
u 2
Hence F mf =m
2x
Fx = mv
2
2 - - mu 2
2
;
i. e. the work done by the acting force is equal to the increase
in the kinetic energy . This result is often referred to as the energy

equation .
In the case of a variable force, supposing that the displace-
ment is in the direction of the force, work done by the force

F in the displacement from x 1 to x 2 is
But
2 mir
1

where u and v are the velocities at the beginning and at the

end of the displacement.
e
Hence - mv 2 -- mu 2 = f*2 F dx;
i. e. increase in K. E. = work done by the force.
More generally, the work done by all the forces acting on

a body is equal to the increase in the kinetic energy of the body.
18. 'The Potential Energy.
The potential energy of a body is its capacity for doing work by

virtue of its position or configuration and is the work which will be
done by the acting force when it moves from the present position to
some standard position .
A spring in a wound-up condition

body raised above or a
the ground For a body raised to
possesses potential energy.
the height h above the earths surface, which is conveniently
taken as the standard position, the potential energy is mgh ,
where mg is the weight of the body. This energy is stored in
the body, simply because it occupies a higher position, and can
be regained from it by allowing it to fall down. That is why
5
it is called potential energy.
19. Principle of Conservation of Energy.
The sum of the kinetic energy and the potential energy of a body
remains constant .
This is called the principle of conservation of energy. This

can be verified in the following simple case.
For a particle of mass m falling freely under gravity :
Let h be the height of the particle above the ground; its
K. E. is zero, and its P. E. is mgh in this position. If it
falls through a distance x ,

the velocity acquired by it is given
by v2 = 2gx.
K. E. in this position = \mv 2
and P. E. = mg (h *).
Hence the relation
%mv 2 +mg (A x) = 0 -f mgh

is true since v2 = 2 gx.
Hence the loss of potential energy is equal to the gain in

the kinetic energy. ,
i. e. the sum of K. E. and P. E. is constant.

We see in general, that energy is not lost but is transformed
from one form into another. This transformation of energy is
used for driving machines.
20. An important difference between momentum and energ

should be noted. The energy of a body moving with velocity v
is \mvP and is independent of the direction of its motion.
Thus the energy of a body rising with speed 50 ft./sec* is exactly
the same as the energy of the same body falling with speed 50
ft. /sec. Kinetic energy, in fact, is always positive. Momentum,
on the other hand, may be positive or negative and is always in
the direction of the velocity. A change in the direction of motion
changes the momentum hut not the energy of a body .
Thus energy is a scalar quantity , while momentum is a vector

quantity .

Ex. 1. A train of mass 100 tons is running at the uniform rate of 30
miles per hour on the level against a resistance of 10 ibs. wt. per ton . Find the
H. P. of the engine.
Here the speed of the train is 30 miles per hour i. e. 44 ft. per sec.
and the resistance to motion is 100 X 10 = 1000 lbs. wt.= 1000 g poundals.
The rate at which the engine is actually wo~king is 1000 X 44 ft. lbs.
per sec.
Hence the H. P. of the engine

44000
= -=
55U
80.
Ft. 2. A train of mass 120 tons is found to have a speed of 30 miles an
hour up an incline of 1 in 100 . If the H. P. of the engine is 256, find the force
of resistance in lbs. wt. per ton.
If x lbs. wt. per ton be the force of resistance, then this force of resis-
tance is 120 X x lbs. wt. Also the resolved part of the weight of the train
= 1 20 x
100
tons wt.
= 224 x 12 lbs. wt.
Hence the total force resisting the motion is
= (224 x 12 + 120 x) lbs. wt.
E.M.. .8
T
il4 ELEMENTARY MEGHAN1G8
Work done by the engine

=* (224 X 12 + 120 #) x 44 ft. lbs. per sec.,
since 30 m.p.h. = 44 ft. per sec.

The H. P. of the engine is 256. Hence
256 X 550 = (224 x 12 + 120 at) x 44.
.\ 3200 = 2688 + 120 #.
/. 120# = 512.
.*. # = =
64
4
4
lbs. wt. per ton.
Ex. 3. A shot of mass 1 ounce is projected with a velocity of 800 ft. per
s c. from a gun of mass 10 lbs . Find the velocity with which the latter begins to
recoil. Compare the kinetic energies of the shot and the gun.
Let v be the required velocity. Considering the direction of the shot as

positive, the total momentum of the gun and the shot is unaltered and being
zero initially, remains so after the explosion. Hence 16

x 800 10 v = 0.
.*. v = 5 ft. per sec.
K. E. of the shot JX X 800 X 800

16
20,000 poundals. ft.
K. E. of the gun = J X 10x5x5

= 125 poundals. ft.
Thus the K. E. of the shot 160 times the K.E. of the gun. It may
be noted that the superiority, in destructive power, of the shot is due to its K.E.
Ex. 4. A cyclist of mass 100 lbs. is pedalling at the rate of 16 ft. per
sec. If he stops pedalling find how far he can go before coming to rest if the total
resistance to his motion be 20 lbs. wt.
The 20 lbs. wt. - 20 g poundals. Let # be the

total resistance =*
required distance. Then, by the principle of energy, equating the change in
K. E. of the cyclist to the work done against the resistance, we have
S-100-0
2
- 100* 16 2 = - 20. g. x.
x = 20 ft.
Ex, 5. A bullet of mass 8 oz. is fired into a target with a velocity of 1800
jt. per sec . The mass of the target is 20 lbs. and it is free to move. Find the
resulting velocity of the shot and the target and calculate the loss in K. E.
If v common velocity of the
is the bullet and the target, then equat-
ing the momentum before and after, we get
20 x 0 + X
16
1800.
1800
o ft./sqc.
4
g
K. E. before impact = J () 1800* * 810000 ft. poundals.
K. E. after impact = J^20 +

810000
ft. poundals.
41
810000
Loss of K. E. = 810000 -
41
/ 40 \
= 810000 ft- poundals
j
= 810000*
40

1
-^-ft. lbs.
= 24695-1 ft. lbs. approximately.
Examples VI
1 . A hammer head weighing 1 lb. strikes a nail with a velocity of
10 ft./sec. and drives it through 2 inches. What is the average pressure of the
hammer on the nail ?
2. A train of mass 200 tons travelling at 30 m. p. h. has its brakes

applied. If the braking force is 50 tons weight and other resistances are
neglected find how much time will elapse before it stops.
3. An engine of mass 40 tons, moving at 10 ft./sec., is shunted to a

waggon of mass 10 tons at rest and is automatically coupled up so that the
two move on together. Find their speed.
4. A marble whose mass is 2 o^. falls from a height of 16 ft. and
rebounds to a height of 9 ft. find the impulse and the average force between
;
the marble and the floor if the time during which they arc in contact is -^rth
of a second.
5. A ball of mass 2 oz. falls freely, from a height of 16 ft., on the

ground and rebounds to a height of 4 ft. Find the impulse. If the time
during which the ball remains in contact with the floor is th of a second*
find the average force exerted between the ball and the floor.
6 A bullet passes through two

. planks in succession. Its initial velocity
is 1200 feet per second and it loses a velocity of 200 feet per second in pene-'
trating through each plank. Find the ratio of the thicknesses of the planks,
assuming that they offer the same average resistance.
7 A bullet of mass 50 gnu. starts to penetrate a beam of wood with

.
a velocity of 500 meters per sec. Ffad for how many seconds it will continue
to move against a resistance of 1000 gms. wt.
8. A cricket ball weighs J lb. and is moving horizontally with a speed

of 40 ft./sec. It is struck in the opposite direction by a bat which exerts a force
of 7 lbs. wt. for 15

1
sec.

Find the speed of the ball when it leaves the bat.
9. Water is squirted horizontally from a hose of diameter 2 in. on to

a vertical wall. If the water does not splash back and the water in the pipe
Hows at 20 ft./sec. find the force exerted on the wall.
10. A mass of 20 moves with a velocity of 10 ft./sec. and im-
lbs.
pinges on a second mass of 10 lbs. moving with a velocity of 6 ft./sec. in the
opposite direction. If the two masses coalesce find their common velocity
and calculate the loss of the kinetic energy.
11. A rifle weighing 56 lbs.fires a bullet weighing 2 oz. with a velocity

of 1120 ft./sec. What is the velocity of recoil ?
12. A shot of mass 24 lbs. is fired with a velocity of 1400 ft./sec. from
a gun whose mass is 8 tons. Fmd with what velocity the gun begins to recoil.
If a constant force stops the gun after 1J seconds, find its magnitude.
13. A shot of mass 50 with a velocity of 1400 ft./sec. from

lbs. is fired
a gun of mass 10 tons. Find the velocity of recoil of the gun. If the gun is
resting on an incline of 5 in 13 and a similar shot is fired horizontally with
the same velocity as before, find the velocity of recoil of the gun.
14. A shot of mass m is fired from a gun of mass M with a velocity u

relative to the gun. Show that the actual velocities of the shot and the gun
Mu mu
are and and that their kinetic energies
s 7 propor-
arc inversely * *
M+ m M+ m
tional to their masses.
15. Find the H. P. of an engine which can take a train of 200 tons
up an incline of 1 in 200 at 20 m. p. h., the resistance to motion being 14
lbs. wt. per ton.
16. A train of total mass 200 tons can be drawn by an engine work-
ing at the rate of 360 H. P. at a uniform speed of 30 miles per hour up an
incline of 1 in 200. Calculate the force of resistance.
17.A body of mass 10 lbs. moving with a velocity of 8 ft./sec. over-

takes a body of mass 2 lbs. which is moving with a velocity of 2 ft. /sec. in the
same direction as the first. If the two bodies coalesce after impact, find the
velocity of the compound body. What is the velocity of the compound body
if the second body were moving in a direction opposite to that of the first one?
18. A man standing at rest mounts a passing bus moving at 18 ft./sec.

Find the change of velocity produced in the bus if its weight is 5 tons and
that of the man is 140 lbs.
19. A mass of 12 lbs. is let fall from a height of 256 ft. Find the
work done in the last second of its motion.
.
20. An engine raises 1200 gallons of water per minute to a height of 6

ft. and discharges it with a velocity of 32 feet per sec. At what H. P. is the
engine working? (The mass of one gallon of water is 10 lbs.).
21 . A
weight of 2 lbs. falls from a height of one foot upon the head
of a vertical nail, weighing J 02 a horizontal wooden board and drives it
i inch; find the average resistance of the wood.
22. Find the horsepower of a locomotive which is travelling at 60
mi. /hr. against a resistance of 3000 lbs. wt.
23. In 3 seconds a machine has lifted a load of one ton, 2 ft. from the
ground, and has communicated to it a velocity of 2 ft. /sec. At what average
rate, measured in horsepower, has the machine been working?
24. If a cyclist works at H . P and

. the road and air resistance be
3 lbs. wt., what is his maximum speed on the level ?
25. An engine raises 160 gallons of water per minute through a height
of 51 ft. and discharges it at the rate of 6 ft./sec. Find the horsepower of
the engine
26. The horsepower required to drive a car weighing 25 cwt. along a

level road at 20 mi./hr. is 16. What horsepower will be required to drive it
at a steady speed of 30 mi./hr. up an incline of in 7, assuming the resistance, 1
due to friction and other causes, to be constant throughout?

27. A steel ball of mass 1 Kg. falls vertically through a height of 50
cm. on to the floor and rebounds to a height of 40 cm. Find (i) the loss of
K. E. due to the impact and (ii) the impulse on the floor.
28. A 35-ton gun fires a 500-lbs. shot with a muzzle velocity of 2000
ft./sec. Find the velocity of recoil of the gun. Show that the energy of the
recoil of the gun is about

157
of the energy of the shot.
29. A locomotive hauls a train, weighing 400 tons, at 20 mi./hr. up

an incline of 1 in 40. The due to friction
resistance is 12 lbs. wt. per ton
weight of the train. Find the horsepower required.
30. the speed of a car on level ground is 40 miles per hour, the
When
engine is stopped and the car, with no brakes applied, runs for 22 seconds
before coming to rest. If the mass of the car is 15 cwt. show that a little less
than 18 H. P. is required to dri\>e it up a hill of l in 60 at the steady speed
of 40 miles per hour, the resistance due to friction etc. being the same through-
out the motion.
Find the H. P. exerted by an engine which works a pump which
31 .
raises 2000of water per minute through a height of 30 feet, the water
lbs.
flowing away with a velocity of 10 ft./sec. Of the work done by the engine
show that about 4*95 per cent is employed in imparting to the water its
velocity at the efflux.
32 . An engine of horsepower draws a train of H

tons up an incline M
of 1 in 30, the resistance to motion apart from gravity being equal to the weight
of 1 7 lbs. per ton. Show thit the maximum speed is 6 ft. per sec. H/M
33 . A bullet ofmass 8 ozs. is fired into a target with a velocity of
1800 ft. per sec. The mass of the target is 20 lbs. and is free to move. Find
the resulting velocity of the bullet and the target and calculate the loss of
kinetic energy.
34. A block of wood weighing 5 lbs. is suspended from a fixed peg

by a vertical string 10 ft. long. A
bullet of & oz. mass and moving horizon*
tally with a. velocity of 1500 ft. /sec. enters the block and remains in it. Prove
that the block will swing through an angle of about 30.
35. of a rider and his bicycle which runs freely down an

The mass
incline of 1 a uniform rate of 8 miles per hour is 180 lbs.
in 60 at Show
that to go at the same rate up an incline of 1 in 100, he must work at the
rate of 0*1024 H. P.
36. Show that the work done by an impulse of magnitude I on a

mass M is I 2 /2M.
37. A stone weighing 10 pounds is dropped from a height of 300 ft.
What potential energy would it possess at the end of 4 seconds ?

38 A gun elevated at an angle a to the horizon is mounted on a
.
gun carriage movable on a smooth horizontal plane; if the mass of the gun and
its carriage be n times that of the shot, which leaves the gun in a direction
inclined at an angle 0 to the horizon, show that tan 0 = ^1 ^ tan a.
39 . An engine of 400 H P can draw a train of weight 200 tons up

. .
an incline of 1 in 280 at 30 miles an hour. Find the resistance of the rails in

pounds weight per ton.
40. Find the horsepower required to lift 1100 gallons of water per
minute from a well 20 feet deep and project it with a velocity of 192 feet per
second from a nozzle. (One gallon of water weighs 10 lbs.)
41 . A railway truck of total weight 6 tons, while moving at the rate

of 4 miles per hour, collides with another at rest and of total weight 9 tons.
If the latter moves off at the rale of 3 miles per hour after the impact, find
the new velocity of the former in magnitude and sign. What are the action
and reaction in this case ?
42. A mass of half a ton moving with a velocity of 800 ft./sec. strikse
a fixed target and is brought to rest in 1/100 sec. Find the impulse of the
blow on the target and, supposing the resistance to be uniform throughout the
time taken to bring the body to rest, find also the distance through which it
penetrates.

CHAPTER VII
MOMENTS : PARALLEL FORGES

1 We have seen that a force acting on a particle accele-
rates the particle in its own direction.
Suppose a plane lamina is free to turn in its own plane

about a point O of it, which is
fixed. If a force F acts on the *
lamina at O, or along a straight

line passing through O, the con-
straint at O will give rise to a
self-adjusting force, which will
prevent the point O of the lamina
from moving away from the position
Fig. 45. of the point O in space, provided
the constraint at O is strong enough to overcome all the
stress on it.
If, however, a force like shown in fig. .45, which

F, as
does not pass through O, were on the lamina in its plane,
to act
it cannot be balanced by the force of constraint at O, but it
would set the lamina rotating about O. The measure of the
tendency of this force F to rotate the lamina about O is
known as the moment of F about O and varies as the magni-
tude of the force F and its distance from the point O. This
can be verified experimentally as follows :
Let AB be a uniform rod resting horizontally on a support
A O
f B
| A [
!5th5 f/ba
Fig. 46.
at its midpoint O. Let a weight of 15 lbs., say, be suspended

from its end A
causing it to rotate about in the anti-clock- O
wise direction. If we suspend a weight of F lbs., say, at any
point L of the rod on the other side of O, this will tend to

rotateit about O in the opposite, i. e. clockwise direction. It

can be verified by adjusting F and the distance OL, that
whenever the rod rests horizontally,
F x OL = 15 x OA = constant.
Thus F x OL seems to be a proper measure of the
tendency of F to rotate the rod about O; i.e* its moment about
O. We, therefore, define the moment of a force about any
point as follows :
The moment of a force F about any point 0 is equal to the

product of the force F and its perpendicular distance from 0; u e. it
is equal to F X p, where p is the length of the perpendicular from 0

on the line of action of F and it measures the tendency of the force F
to rotate the body (on which it acts ) about 0.
If the tendency of F to rotate the body about O be in

the anti-clockwise direction, its moment is said to be anti-clock-
wise and is, by convention, regarded as positive . Likewise, if
the tendency of the force F to rotate the body about O be in
the clockwise direction, the moment of F is said to be clockwise
and is regarded as negative .
The moment of a force F about O will be zero if either
( i ) the force F is zero

or (ii ) the distance of O from F is zero, i.e. if F
passes through O.
2* Geometrical Representation of the Moment of

a Force.
Let the force F be represented by the directed segment

o AB and let O be the point about
which its moment is taken. Draw
OL perpendicular to AB and join
A OA and OB.
The moment of F about O
= F XOL
= AB x OL
= 2x area of triangle OAB.
Fig. 47.
MOMENTS : PARALLEL FORGES 121
3. Next let AB i. e. F make an angle 0 with AO and

let AY be perpendicular to AO. ,
Then the moment of the force F about O

= F x OL
= F X OA sin 0
= OA X F sin 0
= OA X the resolved part of F in the direction
perpendicular to OA.
Hence the moment of a force F, acting at A , about 0 is equal

to the product of AO and the resolved part of F in the direction at
right angles to AO.
It will be seen that the moment of a force F about any
point O is thus a vector and is equal to the vector product
r X F where r is the position vector of any point, in the line
of action of the force F, with respect to the point O.
4. Varignons Theorem on Moments for intersecting

Forces.
The algebraic sum of the moments of two intersecting forces about
any point in their plane is equal to the moment of their resultant about
the same point.

Let P and ft be two forces, intersecting at A, and let R
be their resultant. Let O be the
point in their plane about which
moments are taken. Join AO and
let A The drawn perpendicular to
AO.
The algebraic sum '

of the
moments of P and ft about 0
Fig. 48.
= AO X resolved part of P in the direction AT
+ AO X resolved part of ft in the direction AT
: AO X (sum of the resolved parts of P and ft the
direction AT)
: AO X resolved part of R in the direction AT
= moment of the resultant R about 0.
Alternative method : Let the line drawn through

(the point about
which moments
are to be taken)
parallel to P cut
the line of action
of the force ft in
D. Choose a scale
so that AD
re-
Fig 49. presents the force
ft.
Let AB represent the force P on this scale.
Complete the parallelogram ABCD , then AC represents

the resultant R. OA and OB.
Join Then from the figure
(fig. 49), the moment of P about 0, being anticlockwise
= 2 A OAB = 2 A DAC.
The moment of ft about 0, being clockwise,
= 2 A OAD.
The algebraic sum of the moments of P and ft
about O
= 2 A DAC - A OAD
[ ]
= 2 A OAC
= moment of the resultant R about 0.
The result can be similarly proved whatever may be the
position of the point 0 in the plane of the forces P and ft.
Hence the result follows.
The result can be easily extended to any number of con-

current coplanar forces.
5. We
have so far been considering forces acting on a
particle or a point. We shall now consider coplanar forces
at
acting on a rigid body. These coplanar forces acting at various
points of the body may be such that each one intersects the
others or it may be that some of them are parallel to one
another. We have seen how to obtain the resultant of two
intersecting forces which may be taken to act at their point of
intersection; now we shall explain how two parallel forces may
be compounded.
Two parallel forces are said tobe like when they act in
the same sense ; they are said to be unlike if they act in
opposite senses .
6. To find the resultant of two like parallel forces

acting on a rigid body at A and B*
Let the two like parallel forces P and Q. acting at A and B,
be represented completely by AD and BE respectively.
At A and B introduce two equal and opposite forces, each

of some convenient* magnitude S ,
both acting in the line AB
and letthem be completely represented by A and res*
pectively on the same scale as the one on which AD and BE

represent P and f. Complete the parallelograms ADJFD
and BE 1 GE.
Join AF and BG. Then by the parallelogram law of forces
AF will represent, on the same scale, the resultant R ly say of
the forces P and S acting at A; and BG will represent

likewise, the resultant P2 of the forces Q, and S acting at B .
Produce AF and BG to meet in 0. Through O draw OC

parallel to AD and BE (i.e* to the parallel forces P and Q)
cutting AB in C; and draw X'OX parallel to AB We shall .
then prove that the resultant of the forces P and Q, acting

at A and B is the force P + Q, acting along the straight
line OC.
The two each of magnitude S being equal and

forces }
acting in the same line but in opposite senses, will balance

each other and hence their introduction will not affect the
body in any way. Hence the resultant of the forces P and Q,
acting at A and B will be just the resultant of the forces
P, S at A and Q,, S at B; i.e. the same as the resultant of
,
the forces R and R 2 (represented completely by AF and BG res-

pectively) acting along AF and BG. Now by the principle
of transmissibility of a force, the forces, R and R 2 may be
considered as acting at any point in their lines of action and
hence may be considered as acting at 0 (the point o f intersec-
tion of their lines of action), provided the point 0 is a point of
the body. Let Rx
be considered as acting at 0 and let it be
resolved into components along OX' and OC (parallel to AD X
its
and AD respectively). These will evidently be S along OX'

and P along OC.
Similarly, let the force R 2 be considered as acting at
and let it its components along OX and OC
be resolved into
(parallel to BE1 and BE respectively). These will evidently be
S along OX and along OC. Q
and R 2 at A and B (and hence the given
Thus, the forces Rx
forces P and Q, at A and B) are equivalent to the four forces,
S along OX', P along OC, S along OX and Q, along OC. Now
the forces S along OX' and S along OX being a pair of ,
equal and opposite forces, balance each other. Hence the

parallel forces P and d acting at A and B are equivalent to
the forces P and Q both acting along the line OC in the
same sense. Thus the resultant of the given parallel forces
P and Q acting at A and B is the force P + Q, acting in the
line OC which is parallel to, and has evidently the same sense
. . .
as, the directions of P and Q. Its line of action will be

determined if we know one point C, say, on it viz. the point
in which it cuts AB
Now OAC and AFD being similar, we have

OG _ AC i*e
OC = AC 1
AD~FD ~p ~s
Similarly &s OCB and BEG being similar, we have

OC = CB
BE
EG
;
.
i.e. d S
OC = CB
. (
v
11 )
'
From (i) and (ii) we get, by division,
g = AC_.
P CB
i.e. C divides AB internally in the ratio Q : P.
Hence the resultant of two like parallel forces P and Q,

acting at A and B is a force P + Q, acting in the direction
( including sense ) of either of them and its line of action cuts AB

in the point C such that
P-AC = Q'CB
[
* The above proof
is based on the assumption that the
point O
can be assumed to be a point of the body by properly
choosing the sense and magnitude of the forces S Thus from .
(i) above we get,
5 (f + Q.)
AC - CB - AB N
(
V H T (i+p)
Hence by choosing S sufficiently large OC can be made

sufficiently small; i.e* 0 may be considered to be sufficiently
near to AB so that 0 can be considered to be a point of
the body.]
)
7 . To find the Resultant of two unequal unlike Para-

llel Forces acting on' a rigid body at A and B.
Let P and Q, be the two given unequal unlike parallel

forces acting at A and B and represented by AD and BE
respectively. At A and B introduce two equal and opposite
Fig. 51.
forces, each of some convenient magnitudes, both acting in the

st. AB and represented by AD and BE! on the
line X
same scale,
on which P and Q, are represented by AD and BE. Complete
the parallelograms AD X FD and BEjGE.
Join AF and BG. Then by the parallelogram law of forces
AF and BG will represent the resultants R x and R 2 say, of the

,
P and S at A and
forces and S
, Q, atB Produce AF and BG
.
to meet in 0 and through 0 draw OC parallel to A.D and BE

to cut AB (
produced in C. Draw XOX ' parallel to AB. We
shall prove that the resultant of P and Q, acting at A and B
moments: parallel forces 127
is the force PQ, acting along OC (in the sense in which P acts)
or, which is thesame thing, Q, P acting along CO (i. e. in
the sense in which Q, acts), according as P > ) or P < d-
R x of the forces P and , acting at

Transfer the resultant
0 and resolve it into the forces S along X'OX
to the point
' and P along OC Similarly transfer the resultant R 2 of the
.
forces Q, and S, acting at B to the point 0 and xesolve it into

,
the components S along XOX' and Q, along CO i.e d along

OC. Now the forces S along XOX and S along X'OX neu- 1
tralise each other while the forces P and Q, along OC and CO
reduce to the force P Q, along OC. Hence the resultant of P 2

and P 2 acting at A and B i. e. the resultant of the forces P
and Q acting at A and B is the force P Q acting along OC
which may be taken to act at C, provided C is a point of the
rigid body on which P and Q, act.
It can be proved by using the properties of equiangular

triangles that
P-AC=. Q;BC,
i.e.
AG d
BC
P
,
.
l. e. = dP
AG
CB
;
hence C divides AB externally in the ratio .
Thus the resultant of two unlike and unequal parallelforces P and d

acting at A and B is a force P- d ac ^nS the direction {including
sense) of P and its line of action cuts AB externally in the point C

such that P*AC = Q/PC.
8* Two equal and unlike Parallel Forces*
The construction given above for finding the resultant of

two unlike parallel forces fails if the forces are equal. Thus, in
Art. 7, if P= Q, the straight lines AF and BG become parallel
and hence they will not intersect in any finite point 0. Two
equal and unlike parallel forces have, therefore, no resultant.
They constitute a couple.

The algebraic sum of the moments of two equal and unlike parallel
forces, constituting a couple , about any point in their plane , is the same
and is equal in magnitude to the product of either of the forces and
./? the perpendicular distance between
them . This, taken with the proper
sign, is known as the moment
^ of the couple.
Thus, let Py P be two equal
and unlike parallel forces and p be
the perpendicular distance bet-
ween them. Let 0 be any point in
Fig. 52. their plane. From O draw OAB
perpendicular to the forces (P 5
P ). The algebraic sum of the
moments of the forces (
P ,
P) about 0
=P X OB P x OA = Px AB = P x p.
9. Varignons Theorem on moments of two Parallel

forces.
The algebraic sum of the moments of two parallel forces about any
point in their plane is equal to the moment of their resultant about the
same point .
Let P and Q, be the two given parallel forces and O be

any point in their plane about which moments are taken. From
O draw OBA perpendicular to the lines of action of P and Q,,
cutting these in A and B respectively.
Let 0 be on the same side of P and Q, ^ .
A c Case (i). Let P and

be like parallel forces.
Q
Their resultant is a force
P+Q ,
parallel to P and
Q,, cutting AB at C such
P
1
that Px AC = Cl x CB.
Now
the algebraic sum
of the moments of P and
Fig. 53. Q ,
about O
MOMENTS : PARALLEL FORCES 129
= P.OA + QOB
= P (OG + AC) + d (OG - GB)
= (P + d) OC + (P-AC - Q;CB)
= (P + Q) OC, since P.AC = Q;CB;
= moment of their resultant about O.
Case If P and Q are unlike, the same proof holds
(ii).
good provided we change Q into-Q, and we have, the algebraic

sum of the moments of Q, about O P and
= P*OA-Q;OB
= P (OC + AG) Q, (OG + BG)
= (P - d) OC + PAC - Q.-BG) (
= (P Q,) OC, since P AG Qj BG

= moment of their resultant about O.
If O is between P and Q, the same proof will hold provi-
ded the sign of each moment is taken in accordance with the
usual convention.
10. Resultant of a number of parallel forces.
Using the results established in Arts. 6 and 7, we can obtain

the resultant of a set of parallel forces, unless their algebraic
sum is zero, in which case the forces will either be in equili-
brium or will reduce to a couple.
11. Generalised theorem of moments for coplanar

forces.
Combining the results of Arts. 4 and 9 we get the following

result :
The algebraic sum of the moments of a set of coplanar forces about

any point in their plane is equal to the moment of their resultant about
the same point .
Let Fx , F 2 Fs Fn be a set of coplanar forces and let

, ,
0 be any point in their plane. Let R be the resultant of F 1

and F 2 R 2 that of R^ and F3 i. e. of F^, F 2 F3 , R 3 that of
; , ,
R 2 and F 4 i. e. of Fl5 F 2 F3 F4 and

, , so on.
E.M....9
Then the algebraic sum of the moments about 0 of the

forces Fx and F 2
= the moment about 0 of their resultant R x.
Similarly the algebraic sum of moments about 0 of the

forces F x F2
, ,
F*
= the algebraic sum of moments about 0 of R x
and F8
= the moment of their resultant R about 0. 2
Proceeding manner, we get ultimately that the

in this
algebraic sum of moments about 0 of the forces F x F 2 F3 F , , ,
is equal to the moment of their resultant about 0.
12. Centre and resultant of a set of coplanar para-

llel Forces.
We know that the resultant of two parallel forces P and Q,
acting at A and B is a force P + Q, acting at the point C in
AB such that P' AC =
QjCB This point C is called the centre
.
of the two parallel forces P and Q and its position depends only
on the magnitudes of P and Q, and is independent of their
direction. Of course, if P and Q are like, C will divide AB in
the ratio internally , while if they are unlike, it will divide
AB in the same ratio externally .
In a similar manner we define and determine the centre and

resultant of a set of parallel forces. Let P l9 P2 P3 Pn be a
, , ,
set of n coplanar parallel forces acting at the points Ax (x l9 y x ),

A2 (x 29 y 2 ) 9 As (x29 y 2 ), 9 An {x n , yn) respectively. The resultant
of the forces P x and P2 is a force P x + P2 (equal to the
algebraic sum of P x and P a acting at their centre G x which
)
divides A X A 2 in the ratio P2 :Pi> G v therefore, has co-ordinates

f P\ x i P 2*2 B yx + P2 y 2 \ x
{ Pi +P 2

^1+^2 /
Next, the resultant of P\9 P21 P2 i. e. the resultant of the
forces Px +P 2 and P3 acting at Gx and A 2 respectively will be
a parallel force equal in magnitude to their algebraic sum
Pi +P +P 2 a and will act at the point G2 in GX A Z dividing
P2
in the ratio . The co-ordinates of G2 will, there-
Pi+p*
fore, be
moments: parallel forces 131
P
(P +jPz)
{Pl !
\ .
(Px+Pj + pj,
I
33
Pi + P2 + P3
and (* + p.)
pf^~ + Py*
Pil"P2 tP3
1. e.
/ PlXl + P * + Ps*3
2 2 P1 J 1 + P2^2 + Pg^s N
V P!+P +P3 2

P1+P2+P3 )
Proceeding in this manner the resultant of the set of parallel
forces, when it exists, will be obtained as a parallel force equal in
magnitude to their algebraic sum Px +P + 2 + Pn and
will act at the point
/ Pj*i+ P2 * 2 + ...+ PnXn Pjî+ P2 ^2 + + Pnyn \

V Pj.+ P2 +--*+ Pn P 1 + P2 +-*-+Pn /
which is known as the centre of the parallel forces.
The symmetry in the last result shows that the centre of

parallel forces, when it exists, is unique and is independent of
their common direction.
By making use of Varignons theorem of moments we can

more simply obtain the co-ordinates of the centre of a set of
coplanar parallel forces. Let Pu Ps)"" Pn be a set of coplanar
forces acting at the points A A
ls 2, An and let their resultant
be the parallel force of magnitude R =P +P x 2 ++ Pn acting
at their centre ( x,y ). Since the position of their centre is in-

dependent of their common direction, we may assume all these
forces to be parallel to the axis of y Then taking moments .
about the origin O and using Varignons theorem we get
(Pi*i +PX +
2 2 ... + PnXn) = (Pi +P + 2 + Rn) x>
VP rXr
1
i- c. * =
S Pr
1
Similarly assuming the forces to be parallel to the axis of x

and taking moments about O, we get
(ilJ'i + PtJ> + 2 +?nyn) = {Pi + P2 + + Pn)y,

s Pryr
i
- J'- 1
s pT
i
Thus the centre of the parallel forces P 19 ^29 * *9 -P acting at the

'2Pr*f EPrj f \
(î,*A )9 (** (*n,yn) is the point
Q SP r SPr /
tkeir resultant being the parallel force of magnitude {equal to their
algebraic sum) P l -\-P2 ...-\-Pn .
13. Conditions of Equilibrium for three coplanar

parallel forces.
Let P, Q, R be three coplanar parallel forces acting at

the points A B and C respectively. Being in equilibrium, their
,
vector sum and also their algebraic sum must be zero. All
the three parallel forces cannot, therefore, be like, i. e. in the
same sense.
Let, therefore, two of them P and Q,, say, be like parallel
Pi forces and let R be unlike.

Let R' = P+ Q, be the
resultant of P and Q; R'
then will cut AB at C such
c
that
Pt P- AC = Q;CB.
Since R' is exactly
balanced by R, the third
P '
force R (unlike) must act

Fig. 54 at the same point C.
Thus we have
P _ d__ P + d .
9
CB AC AC + CB
P = d =JR
i. e.
CB AC AB'
P __ Q, _ R
*'
*
CB ~ AC AB
These are the conditions of equilibrium for three coplanar
parallel forces .
Thus if three coplanar parallel forces be in equilibrium each is
proportional to the distance between the other two .

Ex. 1. Two parallel forces act at the ends of a weightless beam, 10 ft. long
If their resultant is 20 lbs. wt and

. acts at a point which divides the beam in the ratio
3:2y find the magnitude of the forces .

Let AB be the given weightless
beam 1 0 ft. in length and let P, Q, be
the parallel forces acting at A and B.
Divide AB at C in the ratio 3 :2 so that
AC 6 ' and CB =4'.
Then the resultant P+Q.(=20)
of the two parallel forces acts at this
Fig. 55 point G and we get P x 6 = Q, X 4.
Also + Q. = 20;
P
we have P = 8 and Q, = 12.
Ex. 2. A uniform rod 5 ft. long supported by two vertical strings attached to
its ends has weights 1 , 2, 3, 4 lbs . hung from the rod at distances of 1 , 2, 3 and
4 ft. respectively from one of its ends . If the weight of the rod which acts at its
mid-point be 1 lb ., what are the tensions in the strings ?
;r Let AB be the rod, G its
mid-point and L, M, N, P the

points from which the weights
of 1, 2, 3, 4 lbs. are hung. Let
T T2 be the tensions in the
vertical strings at A and B.
Since the tensions T19 T 2 ,
the weights 1, 2, 3, 4 lbs. acting

at L, M, N, P and the weight of
the rod acting at G are in equi-
librium, we have, by taking
moments about A,
T 2 x5 4x4 3x 31 x 2i - 2 x 2 - 1 X 1 = 0.
.'. 5T 2 = 32J. /. T 2 = 6*5 lbs. wt.

Similarly taking moments about B we get
T1 x5-lx4-2x3-lx2J-3x2-4xl=0.
5T X 22J. Tx = 4*5 lbs. wt.
.
The tension Tt can also be obtained as follows: The above set of

parallel forces being in equilibrium, their algebraic sum is zero.
Hence T 2 + T 2 - - 2 - - 3-1 1 4 = 0;
i.e. T x + T 2 =ll,
which with T a = 6-5 lbs. gives T 1 = 4*5 lbs. as before.
Ex. 3. Forces P, 5P, 9P and 5P act along the sides AB, BC, CD, DA
respectively of a rectangle ABCD whose sides AB and BC measure 8 and 6 inches
respectively Find the magnitude and line of action of the resultant
The resultant will

evidently be parallel to
CD and 8P in magnitude.
Let it cut BC produced
in the point E. Then
taking moments about
E we get
P X (6 + CE)
-f 5Px8 9Px CE = 0.
/. 8 CE = 46.
.. CE = 5 inches.
Ex. 4. If three forces
acting on a rigid v body be
represented completely i.e. in magnitude , direction , sense and position , by the three sides
of a triangle taken in order # then show that they are equivalent to a couple, whose
moment is equal to twice the area of the triangle
Let the three forces P, Q,> R acting on the rigid body be represented
completely by the sides BC, CA and AB of
a triangle ABC. Through A draw AN
and X'AX perpendicular and parallel to
BC respectively.
At A introduce two equal and opposite
forces, each equal to P in magnitude,
along AX' and AX; these being exactly
equal and opposite are in equilibrium and
do not affect the state of the body.
Now the forces P along AX, Q, along
Fig. 58 CA and R along AB act at A and being
represented by the sides of the triangle ABC in magnitude and direction must
be in equilibrium. Hence we are left with the two equal and unlike parallel
forces P along BC and P along AX' forming a couple of moment
= P X AN** BC X AN
= 2 X area of triangle ABC.
Hence the given forces are equivalent to a couple of moment equal to

twice the area of the triangle ABC.
)
MOMENTS : PARALLEL FORCES 135
Examples VII
4
1 . A and B are the points of application of two parallel forces P and

Q, and C is the point in AB where their resultant acts. The forces P and
being like, find the magnitude and the position of their resultant if
(i) P= 12 lbs. wt.. Q,= 13 lbs. wt., AB = 15',
() P= 8 lbs. wt., Q,= 12 lbs. wi.. t ?3 * ^
(iii) P= 13 lbs. wt., Q,= 20 lbs. wt.. AB =* 2i'.
Two unlike parallel forces P and Q, act atA and B , and C is the
point in AB where their resultant acts. Find the magnitude and position of
the resultant if
(
i ) P= 23 lbs. wU, 15 lbs. wt., AB = 20';
(ii ) P= 26 lbs. wt., Q= 9 lbs. wt., AB _ 18';
(iii) P= 22 lbs. wt., Q,= 15 lbs. wt., AB = 16'.
3. A and B are the points of application of two parallel forces P and
Q. whose resultant R cuts AB in C.
(a) Given that P and Q. are like, find

(i) P and AB if R = 40 lbs. wt., Q, = 8 lbs. wt. and AC = 2 ft.,
(ii) P and Q. if R 36 lbs. wt., AB = 18" and AC - 9f m
(b Given that P and Q, are unlike, find

Q, and AB if R =* 34 lbs. wt., P
( i )
= 16 lbs. wt. andAC 9';
(ii) Q and R if P - 12 lbs. wt., AC = - 9' and AB = 12'.
4. The line of action of the resultant of two parallel forces of 10 lbs.
and 15 lbs. wt. is 20 ft. from that of the smaller force. Find the distance bet-
ween the lines of action of the two forces.
5. Resolve a force of 23 lbs. two like parallel forces acting
wt. into
at a distance of 6 ft. so that one of them may act at a distance of 18' from
the given force.
6 . Two men,
one stronger than the other, have to remove a heavy
load weighing 270 by means of a light pole whose length is 6 ft. The
lbs.
stronger man is able to carry 180 lbs. How must the pole be placed so as to
allow him that share of the weight ?
7. If the position of the resultant of two like parallel forces P and Q,

is unaltered when the positions of P and Q, are interchanged, show that they
must be of equal magnitude.
8. Two like parallel forces P, Q act on a rigid body at A and B
respectively.
(i) If Q, is changed to p2
, show that the line of action of the
resultant is the same as it would be if the forces were simply interchanged.

(ii) If P and Q, be interchanged in position, show that the point

of application of the resultant will be displaced along AB through a distance d%
where d AB
( ft! ) -
9. A uniform bar of length 7 ft. 6 in. and weight 17 lbs. restson a

horizontal table with one end projecting 2 ft. 6 in. over the edge. Find the
greatest weight that can be attached to its end without making the bar
topple over.
10. A seesaw consists ft. long of weight 40 lbs. and two

of a plank 14
boys whose weights are 30 and 50 lbs. sit at a distance of one foot from
lbs.
each end. Find where the plank must be supported for equilibrium.
1 1 Weights of 1,2, 3, 4 lbs. are suspended from a uniform lever 5 ft.
.
long at distances 1, 2, 3, 4 ft. respectively from its one end. If the mass of the
lever be 4 lbs., find the point at which it will balance.
12. A light rod isacted on by three parallel forces P, Qand R acting

at three points distant 1, 4 and 3 ft. respectively from one extremity and is in
equilibrium. Show that P Q, R = 1 2 3.: : : :
13. From a horizontal uniform rod 4 ft. long and weighing

1 lb., two
weights of 2 lbs. and 4 inches from

3 lbs. are suspended, the former at a point
the left edge and the latter at a point 6 inches from the right edge. Find (a)
where the rod must be supported on a knife-edge so as to balance and ( b ) the
pressure on the edge.
14. A uniform beam 24 ft. long and weighing 200 lbs. is supported
on two props, one 6 ft. from one end and the other 9 ft. from the other end of
the beam. Calculate the pressure on each prop when a man weighing 180 lbs.
stands as near this latter end as he can without upsetting the beam.
15. A rod 12 ft. long has a weight of 1 lb. suspended from one end
and when a weight of 15 lbs. is suspended from the other end, it balances at
a point 3 ft. from that end; while if 8 lbs. wt. be suspended from there, it
balances about a point 4 ft. from that end. Find the weight of the rod and
the position of the point where it acts.
16. A man carries a weight of 25 lbs. at one end of a stick 3} ft. long
resting on his shoulder and holds its other end. Neglecting the weight of the
stick, find the pressure on his shoulder when the portion of the stick in front
of his shoulder is 9 inches long.
17. A rod 16 inches long rests on two pegs, 9 inches apart, with its
centre midway between them. The greatest masses that can be suspended in
succession from the two ends without disturbing the equilibrium are 4 lbs. and
5 lbs. respectively. Find the weight of the rod and the position of the point
at which it acts.
18. AB is a uniform beam of weight resting on supports at A and W

B. Another uniform beam CD of weight w and half as long as AB rests on
the top of AB with D above B, and G above the mid-point of AB. A force
of magnitude wj4 acts vertically upwards on the upper beam at D. Calculate

the forces exerted on the lower beam by the supports at A and B and deter-
mine the line of action of the resultant reaction between AB and CD.
19. Parallel forces each equal to P act at the angular points of a

square. Find the magnitude and the point of application of their resultant.
20. ABCD is a square and four forces represented by AB, 2BC, 3CD
and 4DA act along its respective sides. Show that the resultant will be re -
presented in magnitude and direction by 2CA and find its position.
21. Three parallel forces P, Q, R

act at the angular points of a
triangle. If their resultant passes through the intersection of the medians of
the triangle, show that P = Q= R.
22. A movable about a point in itself.

triangular lamina ABC is
Forces act on it CA and BA. Prove that if

along and proportional to BC,
these do not move the lamina, the point must lie in the straight line that
bisects BC and CA.
23. A triangular lamina ABC is acted on by three forces, P acting

from A to B, 2P from B to C and 3P from A to C. Show that the resultant
of these forces passes through the in-centre of the triangle ABC.
24. Forces P, Q., R act along the sides BC, CA, AB respectively of a
ABC. If
triangle their resultant passes through the circumcentre of the tri-
angle ABC, show that

P cos A+ Q, cos B +R cos C 0.
25. If the resultant of the forces P, Q,, R acting along the respective
sides BC, CA and AB of a triangle ABC lies along the join of the in-centre
and the circum-centre of the triangle ABC, show that
P Q.
R
cos B cos C cos G, cos A cos A cos B
26. A table
whose surface is horizontal has the shape of an equilateral
triangle ABC
having a leg at each corner. If the table is weightless, find
where a weight must be placed on the table so that the pressures on the legs
may be as 1 2 3. : :
27 . A pole, 20 ft. long, is placed with its end on a horizontal plane

and pulled by a string, attached to its upper end and inclined at 30 to
is
the horizon, whose tension is equal to 30 lbs. wt. Find the horizontal force
which, when applied at a point 4 ft. above the ground, will keep the pole in
a vertical position.
28. The wire passing round is horizontal and the

a telegraph pole
two portions attached an angle of 60 to each other.
to the pole are inclined at
The pole is supported by a wire attached to the middle point of the pole and
is inclined at 60 to the horizon. Show that the tension in this wire is 4-y/3
times that of the telegraph wire.

29. A heavy uniform rod of weight w rests with its one end on a
smooth horizontal floor and thfe other end on a smooth vertical wall, making
an angle 0 with the floor. Prove that the horizontal force applied to the end
of the rod on the floor, in order to prevent it from slipping, is
w cot 0

2
30. Forces P, Q, R act along the sides BC, GA, AB respectively of a

triangle ABQ. Show that if their resultant lies along the line joining the
ortho-centre and the circum-centre of the triangle, then
P
:
cos A (cos 2 B cos 2 G) cos B (cos 2 C cos 2 A)
R
cos G (cos A
2 cos 2 B)
31. At what height from the baseôf a pillar must the end of a rope
of a given length l be fixed so that a man standing on the ground and pul ling
at its other end with a given force may exercise the greatest tendency to
make the pillar overturn ?
CHAPTER VIII
CENTRE OF GRAVITY
1. Centre of mass of n discrete coplanar particles.
Let m 19 m 2 ,
mn
be n coplanar particles situated at the
points A A2 l5 , ,
with An
co-ordinates (x l9 y 1 ) 9 (* 2 , y 2 ) 9
(* n , Jn ),
Their centre of mass is defined to be the centre of
like parallel forces km l9 km 2 , km n acting at A ls A 2, ,An ,
the magnitudes of these parallel forces being proportional to the
respective masses. Hence the co-ordinates (x 9 y) of their centre of
mass , briefly called C. M., are given by
- km Y x x +km 2 x2 + ... + kmnxn
X
km x + km 2 + + kmn
n
2 mT xT
2 mr
r= 1
and similarly
n
2 mryr
2 mT
r= 1
If the particles are all of the same mass their centre of

mass has co-ordinates
these being the co-ordinates of the centre of mean position of the

points (#!, y x )> (x 2 , y 2 )> , (xn , y).
The centre of mass of three equal particles placed at the

corners of a triangle is> thus, the centroid of the triangle.
m
2. Centre of mass of a rigid body. A body can be

divided into an indefinitely large number w, say, of constituent
particles such that the distance between any two consecutive
particles can be made as small as we like and such that the mass
of the largest of these particles shall tend to zero. Thus let a
body, which will be assumed to be a plane lamina, be so divided
into n particles of masses 8m l9 8m a ,..., 8m situated at the points
(*i> ^ 1)9 (* 2 > ^ 2 )* > ( *n yn )

9 The centre of mass of the system
of particles will have co-ordinates (x, y) given by
n n
E x r Sntf 2 yr 8 r
- r 1 r 1
x = y = n
2 8 mr S 8 mr
r= 1 r=l
The limiting position of this centre of mass as n tends to
infinity, subject to the above conditions, is known as the centre
of mass or centre of inertia of the body and will be given by
Lt 2 xr 8m r
n-+co r= 1 J x dm
*= ^
Lt 2 8 mr
n-too r 1
Lt S yr 8m,
n-*co r= 1 J y dm
Lt 2 8 Ttif
r= 1
the limits of integration in each case being so chosen as to
include the whole mass of the body. In these formulae dm is
an element of mass of the body at the point (x, y) ; or alter-
natively (*, y) is the centre of mass of the element of mass dm .
If the body considered were three-dimensional, its centre
of mass will be likewise (x, y, z) where

CENTRE OF GRAVITY 141
3, Centre of Gravity.
Every particle of matter is attracted towards the centre of
the Earth, the force of attraction being called the weight of the
particle. If Wbe the weight of a particle of mass m we have
W = mg, g being the acceleration due to gravity.
A body may be regarded as made up of a very large number

of particles as in the foregoing article. If the linear dimensions
of the body be negligible in comparison with the radius of the
Earth, g will be the same for each of the constituent particles
and hence the forces on them, i. e. their weights, will be practi-
cally a set of parallel forces, proportional to their masses. The
centre of these parallel forces, which will be the same as their
centre of mass, is called the centre of gravity of the body or of
the constituent particles.
4. Centre of gravity of a rigid body.

In the case of a rigid body, the relative positions of the
which are held together by cohesive forces,
constituent particles,
remain invariable and hence the centre of gravity of a rigid
body is a point fixed in relation to the body.
Let some definite point O, say, of the rigid body, which
we take to be a plane lamina, be
taken as origin and let two mutually
perpendicular lines Ox, y, fixed in O
the body , be taken as the axes of
reference. Divide the body into a
very large number of particles of
masses Sm l9 m 2 , , as in
Art. 2, their co-ordinates of position
being (xu j^), (*2 , yt ), (*, J>).
Fig. 59. Now each 8m r is fixed and so also

are (* yr ), for r =
1,2, 3, n. Hence, the centre of gravity
of this rigid body, given by
n
Lt 2 x, 8mr x dm
n-frOO r= 1 J
x = 1

Lt 2 8m, Jim
n-+ oo r= 1 +

n
Lt jyy r 8m r fydm
~ * 9
f dm
.
Lt. 2 8 mT J
->oo r= 1
is a point fixed in relation to the body.
Thus, the centre of gravity of a rigid body is a point, fixed in rela
tion to the body , through which the line of action of the weight of the body
always passes, in whatever manner the body may be displaced . As will

be seen later, however, the centre of gravity of the body, briefly
called its C. G., may not be a point of the body.
5. Distinction between the centre of mass and the

centre of gravity of a body.
The weight of a rigid body passes through a fixed point in
relation to the body only on the assumption that the weights of
its constituent particles may be regarded as a set of parallel forces
proportional to their masses. This assumption, however, can be

justified only if the rigid body is small in comparison with the
Earth. A very large body, or a body removed from the field
of the Earths attraction, has no centre of gravity.
Whenever a rigid body has a centre of gravity, it coincides

with its centre of mass which always exists.
6. The determination of the centre of gravity of a body
usually requires the use of integral calculus. In some simple
cases, the centre of gravity can be determined by elementary
considerations.
1 Centre of gravity of a thin uniform rod.

The rod being uniform, equal lengths of it, however small,
will have the same weight.
Let AB represent a uniform rod and let G be its mid-point.
Fig. 60.
Take any point P between G and A and a point P' between G

and B such that GP = GP'.
.
The centre of gravity of equal particles at P and P' will

evidently be G, since the resultant of two equal like parallel
forces at P and P' must pass through fe, the mid-point of PP\
Also, for every particle such as at P, between G and A, there
isan equal particle, say at P', between G and B, at an equal
distance from G.
But the centre of gravity of all such pairs of particles is
at G. Hence the centre of gravity of the whole rod is at its
mid-point G.
8. Centre of gravity of a thin uniform plate or lamina

in the shape of a parallelogram.
Let ABCD be the given parallelogram. Divide it into a
very large number of thin uniform strips such as PQ, parallel

to AB.
Each of these thin strips, such as PQ,, can be regarded as
a thin uniform rod and so its centre of gravity will be at its
mid-point Gv
Hence the centre of gravity of the whole lamina will lie
on the line EF joining the mid-points of its opposite sides AB
and DC.
by dividing the lamina into a large number of
Similarly,
its centre of gravity can be shown to
thin strips parallel to AD,
lie ontheHK, joining the mid- points of the opposite sides AD
and BG.
Hence the centre of gravity of the lamina will be at G
where these lines intersect, this point G being also the point of
intersection of its diagonals.
9. Centre of gravity of a thin uniform triangular

plate or lamina.
Let ABC be a triangular lamina. Divide it into a very

large number of thin strips,
such as PQ,, parallel to BC.
The C. G. of each such strip
will be at its middle point.
Hence the centre of gravity
of the lamina will lie in the
median AD which is the
line joining the mid-points
of all the thin strips.
Similarly, by supposing the lamina to be divided into thin

strips parallel to CA, its centre of gravity can be shown to lie
in the median BE,
Hence the centre of gravity of the lamina is at G the point

of intersection of its medians.
We have seen in Art. 1 that the centre of mass, and hence

the centre of gravity, of three equal particles placed at thq
points A, B, G is at the centroid of the triangle ABC.
Hence,
if we replace the lamina of mass m say, ,
by three equal par-
ticles each of mass \m at A, B, C, the centre of gravity of
the two systems, viz. the triangular lamina and the system of
particles, will be the same, viz. the centroid of the triangle;
and the masses of the two systems will also be equal. Two
such systems having the same C. G. and the same mass are
said to be equivalent .
Since the triangle formed by joining the middle points of

the sides of a given triangle has the same medians, it follows
that three equal particles placed
at the mid-points of the sides
of a uniform triangular lamina will have the same centre of
gravity as that of the lamina.
NOTE : A thin uniform lamina in the shape of any plane

figure is often described as the plane figure itself. Thus, the
centre of gravity of a plane quadrilateral means the centre of
CENTRE OF GRAVITY 14S
gravity of a thin uniform lamina of the shape and size of the

quadrilateral. Similarly, the centre of gravity of a solid
sphere means the centre of gravity of a homogeneous solid
spherical body.
10. Centre of gravity of a compound body.

Given the centre of gravity and the weights of two
parts of a body, we can
find the centre of gra-
vity of the whole body
as follows.
Let G x and G 2 be
the centres of gravity of
the two parts and let W 1#
W 2 be their weights.
Then the weight of the
whole body is Wj+W,.
The two weights W x and W 2 are like parallel forces acting
at G2 and G 2 and hence their resultant W a + W 2 acts at a point
G in the line G1 G 2 such that
WiGjG = W GG 2 2.
G X G _ GG _ Gfi 2 2
W2 W V^+W,
GjG = W 2
*GiG 2
W +W
x 2
;
and G G=
fl

W l+ W
*
GiG 2
2
Either of these two equations determines G, the centre of

gravity of the body.
Cor. If two of the points G, Gj, G a coincide, all the three
must be coincident.
11. Centre of gravity of a body, a portion of which

has been removed.
If we know the centre of gravity and the weight of a body
and the centre of gravity and the weight of a portion of it
E. M, ...10
W W
which is removed, the centre of gravity of the remainder can

be determined as follows.
In the figure let G be the centre
of the last of article,
gravity of the whole body, weight and let G 2 and 2W its W

be the centre of gravity and the weight of the portion that is
removed. The weight of the remainder is then (W 2)
W
and its centre of gravity will be at some point Gx in the line
GG 2 produced.
Since the resultant of the weights (W 2) and W 2 acting

At G x and G 2 respectively acts at G, we have
(W 2)

G G = W GG
X 2
-
2,
GGi = W 2
.gg 9
W- W 2
which determines Gx ,
the centre of gravity of the remainder.
Ex. 1. Find the centre of gravity of a thin uniform lamina in the form of
a trapezium.
Let ABCD be the given lamina in which the sides AD and BC are
parallel and of lengths 2 a
A l?
and 2b respectively. Let E
and F be the mid-points of
AD and BC. Join AF, DF
and EF.
The given lamina is
now divided into three tri-
angles ABF, AFD and DFC,

between the same parallels AD and BC. Hence their areas, and consequently
their weights, are proportional to their bases BF, AD and FC, i. e. propor-
tional to b , 2 a and b respectively.
If, therefore, w, w' and w be their respective weights, we have

w
T
= 3k, wy.
w * 3 kb and w f
= 6ha.
We shall now replace
each of the triangular laminae by three equivalent
particles at itseach particle being of weight equal to 1 of the weight
vertices,
<of the corresponding triangular lamina.
;
Thus A ABF is equivalent to particles each of weight kb at A, B and F.

A AFD equivalent to 3 particles each of weight 2 ka at A, F
is
and D.
A DFG is equivalent to 3 particles each of weight kb at D, F
and C.
Thus the lamina ABCD is equivalent to
(1) 2 particles each of weight k (2a 6) at + A and D, i. e. to a single

particle of weight 2k (2 a b) at E; +
(2) 2 particles each of weight kb at B and C, i. e. to a single particle
of weight 2kb at F
(3) a particle of weight 2 k (

a 4- b) at F.
Therefore, the lamina ABCD is equivalent to a particle of weight

2k (2 a+b) at E together with a particle of weight 2k {a+2b) at F. The centre
of gravity of the lamina ABCD will, therefore, be at the point G in the line
EF such that
2k (2 a + b). EG =2 k (a + 2b).GF.
EG _ a + 2b
' GF ~ 2 a + b'
*'
Ex. 2. Find the centre of gravity of a uniform wire bent into the form of a
triangle .
Let the wire be bent into the form of a triangle ABC where BC = a.
/l
CA = b and AB = c. Let D, E, F be
the mid-points of BC, CA and AB.
Join DE, EF and FD.
The wire being uniform, the weights
of the portions AB, BC, CA will be
proportional to their lengths and will act
at their mid-points.
Hence the C. G. of AB and AC whose

weights act at F and E will be at a
point K in FE such that
ABFK = AC*KE.
But AB - 2DE and AC = 2DF.
DE _ AB EK
DF AC KF
DK bisects the angle EDF.
Hence the centre of gravity of the bent wire ABC lies on the bisector
of the angle EDF.
In the same manner the centre of gravity can be shown to lie on the
bisector of the angle DEF,
' .
Hence the centre of gravity of the bent wire is at the in-centre of the

triangle DEF.
Cor. The centre of gravity of three uniform rods, of the same thick*
ness and density, forming a triangle is at the in-centre of the triangle formed
by joining their mid-points.
Ex. 3. From a thin uniform circular plate of radius a, a circular portion of

H, drawn on a radius of the given plate as diameter is removed Find the ,
, centre of
gravity of the remainder and also its locus for different positions of the portion removed.
Let OA be a radius of the given circular plate and let the circular
portion removed have as diameter. Let G be OA
the centre of this circular portion.
The area of the given plate and the portion
removed, and hence their weights, are as 4 : 1.
Hence if G, in CO produced, be the C. G. of
the remainder _ *
(4- D-GO = I OC, v ^

3go = 4- ;

2
This gives the position of the G. G. of the remainder.
The locus of G, therefore, is a circle with O as centre and radius =

Ex. An PAB is described
P on one side
4.
AB of a
equilateral triangle
square ABCD externally Find the .
centre of gravity of the area of the figure so formed.

Let G1 and G2 be the centres of gravity of
the square ABCD and the triangle PAB. The
points P, G 2 and G x are then collinear and the line
PG i G 1 will bisect AB at right angles at M say- ,
Let a be the side of the square, so that its

area is a2 and the area of the triangle PAB
^ a2 V?
4
*
Further
PG,--1 PM 2 _ a V? = a
T ~2 V3
a-/3 a (V*+D **
and PG 1 - PM + MGi ~2~ +
T 2
Hence if G be the centre of gravity of the whole figure of area
we have
*
(a*
N
+&)
4
PG- *
a*-
2 4
.
V3
*
PG *[2V? (V3 + D + V3]

V^ + 3
6 + 5V*
15

13. Centre of gravity of symmetrical bodies.
(a) Bodies having a centre of symmetry .
A body is said to have a centre of symmetry at the point

0, say, if for every point P of the
body there is another point P of it
such that PP' is A

bisected at 0 .
uniform body having a centre of

symmetry at 0 can be imagined to be
made up of a large number of pairs
of equal particles, such as the pair
of equal particles at P and P', so that
Fig. 68 each pair will have its centre of gra-
vity at 0. Hence the centre of gravity of such a body will be
at its centre of symmetry. The centre of symmetry of a body,
when it exists, is, of course, its geometric centre.
Thus the centre of gravity of a uniform circular wire, a

uniform circular ring and a uniform sphere (hollow or solid)
will be at the centre of the wire, the ring and the sphere re-
spectively. Similarly, the centre of gravity of a rectangle will
be at the centre of the rectangle.
(A) Bodies having a geometrical axis of symmetry .
A body is said to have a line XX ', say, as the axis c#

symmetry, if for every point
P of the body there is another
point P' of it, such that PP'
isbisected at right angles by
XX*. A uniform body having
an axis of symmetry can be
imagined to be made up of
an infinite number of pairs
of equal particles such as at P and P', each pair having its centre
of gravity on the axis of symmetry. Hence the centre of gravity
of such a body lies on its axis of symmetry.
Thus the centre of gravity of a uniform right circular cone

(hollow or solid) lies on its axis. Similarly the centre of gravity
of any uniform surface (or solid) of revolution lies on the axis
of revolution.
If a uniform body possesses more than one axis of symmetry*

its centre of gravity will be at the point of intersection of the
axes of symmetry.
(c) zBodies having a statical axis of symmetry .
Some bodies, which have no geometrical axis of symmetry,

can be divided into small elements, the centre of gravity of
each of these lying on a str aight line. Thus a uniform triangular
lamina ABO can be divided mto~ a number of strips parallel
to BG and the centres of gravity of these will be on the median
AD. Thus a median of a triangle is its statical axis of symmetry;
and since the G. G. of a triangle is unique, we have, here, a
statical proof of the geometrical result the medians of a tri- :
angle are concurrent.
Example : If a uniform solid body has a plane of symmetry, then its

centre of gravity lies on this plane and that if it has three planes of symmetry
p
they must meet in a point which is the C. G. of the body.
14. Determination of the C. G. of some simple bodies by

Integral Calculus.
Ex. 1. Find the centre of gravity

of (i) a piece of uniform wire in the form
of a circular arc of radius a , subtending
an angle 2 < at its centre ; (it) a uni-
form lamina in the form of a sectorof a
circle of radius a, subtending an angle
2 eC at the centre.
Let ABC be the circular arc
(i)
with centre at O. Take as the O

origin and the x-axis along the radius
OC bisecting the arc AB. The axis
ofjis the line through O perpendi-
cular to OC. Let (x, y) be the
centre of gravity of the arc AB;
then by symmetry the C. G. lies op
Ox, i.e.^y = 0.
Let OP and OQ, be the two radii of $ie circle such that POx*0,
QP* = 0 + 00. If p be the line-density of the uniform wire, i. e. the weight

of the wire per unit length, the weight of the element PQ==pa80 and, when
00 is extremely small, the centre o f gravity of the element will be ultimately
at P. Hence the x-co-ordinate of the G. G. is given by
0<
sm5
(a cos 0) p adQ
1
;- <\
y
_ a <
* - 7*
(ii) To find the centre of gravity of a uniform lamina in the form of

the sector AOB we , have, by symmetry, the result that the G. G. must lie on
the radius OC which is the line of symmetry. Hence if (x, y) denote the
co-ordinates of the C. G., y = 0.
Let p denote the density, i. e. weight per unit area of the uniform
lamina. The weight of the sectorial element P0Q_ = p. (area of the sector
POQJ) = p i a00; alio the C. G. of this
* element when 00 - 0 will be ulti-
mately at the point G1 in OP such that 0G 1 = fa. Hence the x-co-ordinate
of the C. G. of the lamina is given by
2
f a cos 0 p fa rf0
J ^
* " 7<
/ - Pi
c ed0
2a /_* 2 amn<
3 f o<
3 <<
Cor. 1. From (i), the centre of gravity of a uniform wire in the

form of a quadrant of a circle lies on the radius bisecting the quadrant and
a sin et n 2 a
is at a distance = where K = i.
.
,
e. at the distance -
0< 4 7C
from the centre.
Similarly, writing in the result of ex. (i), the C. G. of a
uniform thin semi-circular wire of radius a can be seen to lie on the radius
bisecting the wire, and at a distance

2a
from the centre.
Gor. 2. By putting in ex. (ii), the G. G. of a uniform
semi-circular lamina can be seen to lie on the radius bisecting the lamina to
A be at a distance = from the centre

3k
where a is the radius of the lamina.
Ex. 2. Find the centre of gravity of a

uniform thm hemispherical shell of radius a %
Let O be the centre of the plane
base of the shell and OA
be its radius
perpendicular to the base. OA being
a line of symmetry of the shell, its G.G.
will lie on OA at distance x, say, from
O. We want to determine x .
Divide the shell into a large number of thin circular strips by planes
parallel to its base. Let x be the distance of one such strip of thickness 8*
from Oand let 0 be the angle subtended by a radius r a sin 0, of one base =
of this strip, at the centre of the shell, and 0 + 80, the angle subtended at O
by a radius of its other base. The area of this thin circular strip = 27tr*a80
2na2 sin 0 80; hence, if p be the density of the shell, the weight of this
circular strip = 2 ka a p sin 0 8 0 and when 80 -> 0 the centre of gravity of this
element will ultimately be at the centre of its base at distance x =a cos 0
from O. Hence we have
*/ 2
2ka 2 p sin 0 a cos 0

d0 sin 0 cos 0 d0
JJ /0 a
/?** din 0t/0 r"P

J 0
sin 0 dd
Ex. 3. Find the centre of gravity of a unform solid right circular cone of
height h.
Let V be the vertex of the right circular
V cone of vertical semi-angle K and be its alti-VO
tude. VO being evidently the line of symmetry
of the cone, its centre of gravity will lie on VO
at distance x , say, from V. We want to deter-
mine x.
Divide the cone into a very large number of
thin circular laminae by planes parallel to its base.
Let x and x -+ 8x be the distances of the bases of
one such thin lamina from V. Then, if p be the

density of the cone, the weight of this thin lamina
will be k (x tajt},< ) 2 p8* and its centre of gravity
when 8x 0 will be ultimately at its centre at
distance x from V. Hence we have
Fig. 72
x
7c ( tan <) 2 px dx
* = *
~7h
"x (x taxi K) a p(fe
j q
S>* (t) '

4
15. Two important applications*
(i) If a heavy body freely suspended from a point be in

equilibrium the line joining the point of suspension to the centre
of gravity of the body will be vertical.
For, the body is maintained in equilibrium by only two

forces, viz. the reaction at the point of support and the weight
of the body acting vertically at
its C. G., and since these two
forcesmust be equal and opposite, the line joining the point of

support and the C. G. must be vertical.
(in practice, this result is availed of in determining the

G. G. of a body. Thus if we suspend the body from two of its
points in succession and mark the vertical lines through the
two points when the body is in equilibrium, their point of inter-
section will give the G. G. of the body. 1 f|.\)

(ii) If a body be placed with its oase in contact with a

smooth horizontal plane, the body will remain at rest only if the
vertical through its centre of gravity cuts the plane within its base*
Fig. 73 Fig. 74
For, the body is in equilibrium under the action of only

two forces, viz. its weight W acting vertically downwards through
its centre of gravity G, say, and the resultant of the reactions

of the plane (
all acting vertically upwards ) with which the
base of the body is in contact, acting at the various points of
its base. Now the resultant of all these reactions, which act
verticallyupwards, will be acting at some point of the base
of the body, and since this must be exactly equal and opposite
to the weight of the body acting vertically downwards through
its G. G., it follows, that if the body is in equilibrium, the
vertical C. G. must cut its base in contact with the
through its
plane at a. point with it or in the extreme case, at a point on

the base-boundary.
If the base of the body, in contact with the plane, has a
re-entrant angle as in Fig. 74, the base of the body must be
taken to mean the area ABCD, included in the figure obtained
by tying a piece of thread tightly round its geometrical base.
Similarly if a body rests with its base in contact with a
rough horizontal plane, the its centre of
vertical line through
gravity will cut its base in a point lying within the base.
16. Illustrative Examples s
Ex. 1. A uniform wire CA is bent at B into two straight portions CB and

BA , inclined at an angle 0, and of lengths a and b respectively. If BA is horizontal
when the wire is suspended from C, prove that
cos 0 = b2
.
a (a + 2b)
Let L and N be the mid-points of CB and BA. Then if w be the weight

of the wire per unit length
the weights aw and bw of the
portions CB and BA act verti-
cally at L and N. Let the
vertical through C cut BA in Af.
Then,
MN=BN BM= ^ -a cos 0.

2
Taking moments about
a cos e).
a 2 cos 0 = b2 lab cos 0.

b2
cos 0
a (a -f 2b)
Ex* % A card-board is cut in the shape of a convex pentagon ABODE, three

of its sides viz AB, BC and CD being the sides of a square of side a, the remaining
:
two sides DE, EA being the equal sides of an isosceles triangle of height ay/ 3 The
card-board is suspended from the comer A. Prove that in equilibrium the side AB of
the card-board must be horizontal
Let M be the mid-point of AD. Join EM. Then if G 1 be the G. G.

of the triangular portion ADE, G. lies
1
on EM and MG,=*
1
ME
3
- r *',s
a
=
V3
Let G 2 be the centre of the square
Fig. 76 portion ABCD; then G2 is the centre
of gravity of this portion and MG 2 =
Also MGjE and MG 2 are both perpendicular to AD at M an d hence

G 2 MGXE is a straight line.
The weights of the square portion ABCD and the triangular portion
ADE are proportional to their areas, i. e. to a 2 and

a 2 y/3
respectively, and
act at G 2 and G r
Further
G2M 2 a2 VJI2
MGj = 2 a2
V3
G 2M wt. of the triangular portion ADE
MGf wt. of the square portion ABCD
M is the centre of gravity of the card-board.
Now in equilibrium the line joining A, the point of suspension, to the

centre of gravity M, i. e. the line AM (which lies along the line AD) must
be vertical.
Hence AB, which is at right angles to AD, must be horizontal.
Ex. 3. A solid uniform right circular cylinder , of height h and base-radius a

is placed on a perfectly rough inclined plane. The inclination of the plane to the
horizon is then gradually increased. Find the inclination when the cylinder topples over .

Let < be the inclination of the inclined plane when the cylindex
ABCD about to topple over. Then
is
the vertical line through the centre

of gravity G of the cylinder which
is the point of intersection of AC and
DBwill just pass through the end A
of its base. Hence CGA must be
vertical and the angle DAC must be
equal to the inclination < of the in-
clined plane to the horizon.
Hence, tan
,
<
= DC =
DA
2a
h
Examples VIII
1. Weights of 1, 4, 9, 16, and 25 lbs. are placed in order in a straight
line so that the distances between consecutive weights arc equal. Find the
position of their centre of gravity,
2. A uniform rod AB is 4 ft. in length and weighs 3 lbs. A weight

of 1 lb. isthen attached to the end A , a weight of 2 lbs. to a point distant
1 ft. from A, a weight of 3 lbs. at 2 ft. from A , a weight of 4 lbs. at 3 ft. from
A and a weight of 5 lbs. at the end B. Find the distance from A of the C. G.
of the system.
Weights of 12, 14 and 16 lbs. are placed at the corners A, B, C of

3.
a ABC in which AB = 3 inches, BC = 4 inches and GA 5 inches.
triangle =
Find the distances of their G. G. from the three sides.
4. Weights of 1,2, 3 and 4 lbs. are placed at the angular points A,

B, G, D respectively of a square ABCD. Find the distance of the G. G. of
the system from the centre of the square.
5. Weights of 5, 6, 9 and 7 lbs. are hung from the comers of a

weightless horizontal square of side 27 inches. Find the point where a single
force must be applied to the square to balance the effect of the four weights.
6. and 6 lbs. are placed at the comers A,

Particles of weight 3, 4, 5
B, C, D and particles of weight 1, 2, 7 and 8 lbs. are
respectively of a square
placed at the mid-points of OA, OB, OG and OD respectively, where O is
the centre of the square. Find the C. G. of the eight particles.
7. Five masses of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ounces are placed on a square table.

Their distances from one edge of the table are 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 inches respe-
tivelyand from the adjacent edge are 3, 5, 7, 9 and 1 1 inches respectively.
Prove that the distances of their centre of mass from the two edges are and
8i inches respectively.
.
8. Weights of 6, 4, 6, 2, 7 and 3 ozs. are placed at the angular points

of a regular hexagon, taken in order. Show that their centre of gravity coin-
cides with the centre of the hexagon. *
9. AB is a rod of length n inches and mass (n + 1) lbs. To the rod

are attached masses of 1, 2, 3, . . . ., n lbs. at distances of 1, 2, 3, . . . , , n inches
respectively from A. Find the distance from A of the centre of gravity of the
rod and the masses.
10. A heavy rod AB, 3 ft. long, has a weight 3 lbs. attached to B.
The rod balances about a point distant from the end A when a body 1 foot
of weight 15 lbs. is suspended from that end. It balances about a point distant
1 1 inches from the same end when an additional weight of 3 lbs. is suspended
from that end. Find the weight of the rod and also the position of its centre
of gravity.
11. Two uniform rods AB, BG

same material and of lengths a
of the
and b respectively are rigidly jointed at B. ABC is a right angle, If the angle
prove that the line joining the centre of gravity of the system to B makes an
angle tan" 1 with BG.

^
12. G is the centre of mass of three particles of masses mv m 2 m , a

placed at the points Av A a A3 , respectively. If P is any point in the plane
of the triangle ABC, prove that
m1 + fw
2
PA 2 + m 2 PA 3 = (m 1 + m2 + nz )
a PG.
Generalise the result for a system of n particles.
13.
16.
G is the centre of mass of two particles of masses m1 and m2 placed
at the points Ax and Aa . If P be any other point, show that
ffij PA^ + 77i

2
PA 2 (ffij + rn 2 )
PG -f- tfijA^G + m 2 A 2 GP.
Generalise the result for a system of n particles.
17.
14. On the base of an isosceles triangle of height 3 ft. and ba se 2 ft.
is described an equilateral triangle externally. Find the position of the C. G

of the figure formed by the two triangles.
15. ABC is ah equilateral triangle of side 6 inches and O is its centre

of gravity. If the triangle OBC be removed, find the distance from A of the
C. G. of the remainder.
A thin uniform piece of paper in the shape of an equilateral tri-
angle ABC, side I foot in length, is folded so as to make the vertex A coin-
cide with the mid-point of the side BG. Show that the distance of the centre of
gravity of the folded paper is

a/3 . ....
inches from the original position of A.
From a uniform triangular lamina, whose sides are 3, 4, 5 inches 9

a portion in the form of its inscribed circle is removed. Find the distance of
the C. G. of the remainder from the greater side.
18.
A triangular lamina ABC, whose medians AD, BE, CF meet in Gl,

is cut along the lines EGand FG. Find the C. G.s of the two portions
AFGE and FBCEG and show that they divide GA and GD respectively in the
same ratio.
19. Prove that the centre of gravity of a uniform lamina in the shape
of a plane quadrilateral is the same as that of a system of four particles of equal
mass placed at the vertices of the quadrilateral together with a fifth particle
of equal but negative mass placed at the intersection of its diagonals.
20. Show that if a circular hole be drilled into a uniform triangular

amina with its centre at the G. G. of the lamina, the centre of gravity of the
lamina will remain unaltered.
21. A square is divided into four equal squares and one of these is
removed. Find the distance of the centre of gravity of the remainder from the
centre of the original square.
22. A
uniform plate of metal, 10 inches square, has a hole 3 inches
square cut out of it, the centre of the hole being 2 inches distant from the
centre of the plate. Find the G. G. of the remainder of the plate.
23. From a parallelogram is cut off one of the four portions into which
it is divided by its diagonals. Find the centre of gravity of the remainder.
24. On one of the sides of a square metal plate is joined (externally

but in the same plane) a semi-circular sheet of the same material, their bases
being of equal length. Find the distance of the C. G. of the whole sheet, so
formed, from the common base.
25. If the G. G. of a uniform wire bent into the form of a triangle

coincides with the G. G. of the triangle, show that the triangle must be
equilateral.
26. A stiff thin uniform wire is bent to form three sides AB, BC, CD
of a square. If it is suspended so as to hang freely from D, find the angle
which DG makes with the vertical.
27. A triangle ABC made of uniform wire has the side CA removed
and is hung by the point A. If in the position of equilibrium BC is horizontal
show that
b % (e + 2a) =* c (c + a) 2 .
28. A uniform wire of length 30 inches is bent into the form of a

triangle ABC with AB = 12, BC = 5 and CA = 13 inches and is then freely
hung from the vertex A . In the position of equilibrium find the inclination of
AB to the vertical.
29. A thin uniform wire is bent into the form of two sides AB, BC of
an equilateral triangle ABC and a semicircle on the third side AC . Find the
distance of its C. G. from AC .
30. A
uniform solid circular cylinder of height h and a uniform solid
right circular cone of the same material and of height h' have their bases
which arc of the same size, joined together. Prove that if the C. G. cf the
31. body coincides with the centre of their common base, then
combined
A' 2 = 6A 2 .
32.
Find the centre of gravity of a uniform solid hemisphere of
radius a.
33.
A solid is made with the base of a right circular cone fitted exactly
on top of a right circular cylinder of the same material. If the height of the
cone equals that of the cylinder, find the G. G. of the solid.
A uniform triangular lamina is in the shape of a right-angled tri-

34.
angle and is such that one of the sides containing the right angle is three times
the other. It is suspended by a string attached to the right angle. Show
that in the position of equilibrium the hypotenuse is inclined at an angle
to the vertical.
From a piece of a card-board in the shape of a regular hexagon

ABCDEF (side AB = whose centre is at 0, the triangular portion AOB is
2')
cut off and the remainder is hung by a string tied at A, Show that, in the
position of equilibrium, AB makes with the vertical an angle equal to
37.
35. A
uniform bar of length 7 ft. 6 inches and weight 17 lbs. rests
on a horizontal table with one end projecting 2 ft. 6 inches over the edge*
Find the greatest weight that can be attached to its end without making the
bar topple over.
36. A circular table of weight W

is supported on three vertical legs
placed at equal intervals on the circumference. Find the body of least weight
which, when placed at an extremity of the diameter through one of the legs,
will cause the table to topple over.
ABC is a uniform isosceles triangular lamina of which the angle

A is 120 and the side^lB rests on a smooth horizontal table, the plane of the
lamina being vertical. Prove that if a weight w be hung at C, the lamina will
be on the point of toppling over, w being the weight of the lamina.
38. The side CD cf a uniform square plate ABCD of weight w is
bisected at E and the triangle AED is cut off. The plate ABCEA isplaced in
a vertical position with the side CE on a smooth horizontal table. What is the
greatest weight that can be placed at A without upsetting the plate ?
39. From a triangle ABC, a portion ADE, where DE is parallel to BC,

is removed. If a and from BC and DE respectively
b be the distances of A
show that the distance of the C. G. of the remainder from BC is
a2
~ + ah -2b*

"
3 (a + b)
CHAPTER IX
EQUILIBRIUM OF A RIGID BODY UNDER
COPLANAR FORGES
1. We considered in chapter II the equilibrium of a particle
under several coplanar forces. We shall now consider the equi-
libiium of a rigid body under the action of several coplanar
forces actiqg at its various points.
Since we are confining ourselves to only coplanar forces it
from the statical point of view to regard the body

is sufficient
as a rigid lamina movable in its own plane in which the given

forces act. The position of such a lamina is completely deter-
mined by specifying any two of its points, say, A and B by
means of their four co-ordinates. These co-ordinates, however,
are connected by a relation expressing the constancy of the
length AB. Hence only three independent co-ordinates are
necessary to specify the position of a rigid lamina; and we say
a rigid lamina has three degrees of freedom. Hence, the equi-
librium of a rigid body under coplanar forces will involve
three conditions of equilibrium fixing the three independent
co-ordinates for specifying the position of the body.
A body under a single force cannot evidently be in equi-

librium. If it is in equilibrium under two forces these must be
equal and opposite. We now consider the case of a body in
equilibrium under three coplanar forces.
2. Three coplanar forces in equilibrium.

If three coplanar forces acting on a body keep it in equilibrium
the forces must be either concurrent or parallel
Let the three forces be P, Q, and R. Since these are in

equilibrium, any one of them, say R, must be equal and opposite
to the resultant of the other two viz. P and Q,.
Now if P and Q, intersect in a point 0, say, their resultant

must pass through 0; and since R is equal and opposite to this
resultant, the third force R must also pass through 0. Thus, if
two of the three forces intersect, all the three are concurrent.

EQUILIBRIUM OF A RIGID BODY 161
Next, if P
and Q, be parallel to each other, their resultant
is parallel to either of them; but R is equal and opposite to this
resultant, hence R must be parallel to both P and Q,. Thus,
if two of the coplanar forces are parallel, all the three are
parallel to one another.
Conditions of equilibrium of a rigid body under
3.
three coplanar forces.
Case (I). Let the three co-
planar forces P, Q, P, which are ,
in equilibrium, be concurrent in O.
(a) By the principle of trans-
missibility of forces, P, ),, R may
be supposed to act at O. Since
they are in equilibrium, we have
by Lamis theorem,
p _ a
s\ s\
sin QK sin RP sin
(b) Alternatively, we can express the conditions as follows:

Since the resultant of the three forces acting at O is zero, the
resolved part of it along any two perpendicular directions Ox ,
Oy ,
must separately vanish. Hence, if X, Y be the sums
say,
of the resolved parts of P, Q, and R along Ox and Oy respec-
tively, we have
X = 0, Y = 0.
Case (II). (a) Let the three forces P, Q,, P, in equilibrium #
be parallel to one another and let

any transversal cut them in A, B and
C respectively. Then as in art. 13 of
chapter VII we have
p_ = _a = *
CB AC BA
(b) Alternatively, the conditions
of equilibrium may be expressed as
Fig. 79. follows :
E. M....11
; ,
(i) The algebraic sum of the forces P, (? ,

R (regard being
paid to their senses) must be zero.
(ii) The algebraic sum of the moments of P, Q,, R about

any point in their plane must be zero.
4. Useful Trigonometrical Results.
In solving problems on the equilibrium of a body, under

three coplanar forces which are concurrent, the followin g trigo-
nometrical" iesults are often of great use.
If in a triangle. ABC the line AO divides BC in the ratio

A BO OC = m n, and if OA
: : makes an
angle 0 with BC and ba6 = <
yS
/// \
\
O AC = p
(i)
then
(+) cot 0
o/\ e \C
= n cot B m cot G
m:n and (ii) (7W+n)cot0
Fig. 80 ^
= m cot o< cot (3.
For, we have m = BO
m
o
sin (0
sin
sin (180
sin
B)
B
G
- Q -C)
sin G' (sin 0 cos cos 0 sin B)

B
sin B (sin 0 cos G + cos 0 sin G)
cot 0 cot B
cot G + cot 0
m (cot C + cot 0) = n (cot B cot 0)
(m + ) cot 0 = n cot B m cot G.
Similarly, we have,
(m + n) cot 0 =s m cot < cot (3.

Ex* 1. A uniform rod of weight W, which can turn freely about a joint
at one end A , is supported in a horizontal
position by a string attached to the other
end B making an angle of 60 with the
rod . Find the tension in the string and
the stress at the joint.
Let T be the tension in the

string and R the stress at the joint
A. Let M be the mid-point of the
rod. Let the verlical through M meet
the string (produced) in 0.
The rod is in equilibrium under
the following three coplanar forces,
Fig. 81.
(i) the tension T in the string, (ii) JV 9
the weight of the rod, (iii) the stress R at the joint A. Two of these viz. T
and W meet in 0; hence R must pass through 0. Thus the stress R acts in
the direction OA.
Also C)BM = OAM = 60.
AOM = BOM = 30.
Hence applying Lamis theorem, wc get
T W R
sin wk sin jfj*" sin TW *
T W ~
R
sin 150 sin 60 sin 150
W
Ex. 2. A thin rod, whose centre of gravity divides it into two portions of
lengths a and b, rests inside a smooth sphere. If Q be its inclination to the horizontal
and 2 < be the angle subtended by it at the centre of the sphere, prove that
b a
(

b+ a
\
)
/
tan <*.
Let AB be the rod resting inside the smooth sphere of centre 0 and
let G be its centre of gravity so that AG = a and GB = b. The forces acting
on the rod are three viz. (i) the reaction R of the sphere acting normally to
the sphere at A, i. e. acting along AO; (ii) the reaction S of the sphere at B
acting along BO; (iii) the weight W, say, of the rod acting vertically at G.
Two of these forces viz. R and S meet in 0; hence the third force W must
pass through 0 ;
i. c. OG is the vertical through 0.
dG& 90-e.
Also AOB s 2 < f
OAB = 0BA = i (180 - 2 <)

Now from A OAB, we have
(AG + GB) cot OGB =
GB cot OAB AG cot <5bA;
A (a+ b) cot (90 - 0) =

b cot (90 - < - a cot (90 -
) < );
tan 0 = ( j ) tan .
\ b+a /
Ex. 3. A heavy uniform tod rests partly within and partly outside a smooth
hemispherical bowl which is kept fixed with its rim horizontal. The rod is inclined at
an angle of 30 to the forizontal. Find the ratio of the length of the rod to the radius
of the bowl.
Let the figure represent the vertical section of Ihs bowl through the rod.
AB is the rod, G its mid-

point and O the centre of the
bowl. The rod is resting on
the rim of the bowl at C.
The reaction R of the bowl

at A acts along the normal to
the bowl at A, i. e. along AO ;
and the reaction S of the bowl

at C acts along CL perpendi-
cular to the rod at C and meets
AO produced at L. Hence L
on the other half of the
lies
.circular section shown by the

Fig. 83. dotted line.
Join OC which is given to be horizontal. Let OC a and AB = 21.
The rod is in equilibrium

under three coplanar forces* viz. the reactions
R and S which L and
the weight W, say, of the rod acting verti-
intersect in
cally through G. Hence the vertical through L passes through G, the mid-point
of the rod. Let the vertical through L meet the horizontal through A at the
po'nt Af which thus lies on the circular section.
; ;
Now lÂfa = CA\1 = 30; A 60.
Now from A LAM, AM = AL cos 60 2a* i * a;
Vs
and from A GAM, AM * AG cos 30 =
Vs_
a ~
2
21
length of the rod 2l_
_
~
radius of the bowl a 1 V3/2 V3
Ex. 4. A uniform beam, 16 ft, long, rests with its one end against a smooth
vertical wall, and with a point of its length on a smooth horizontal rod parallel to the
wall at a distance oj one foot from it. Find the inclination of the beam to the horizontal.
Let the figure represent a section by the vertical plane through the
beam AB which is resting with its end A on
the wall XY and with the point G of its length
on a smooth horizontal rod, at distance
CM = 1 ft. from the wall.
Let G be the mid-point of the beam.
The beam is in equilibrium under 3 co

planar forces viz. (i) the reaction S of the rod
acting at C in the direction perpendicular to
the beam in the plane of the section, (ii) the
reaction R of the wall at A, in the direction
perpendicular to it; (iii) the weight W of the
beam acting vertically at G. R and S meet in
O, say; hence W must pass through O, i. e.
GO is vertical.
Let 6aO = 6, so that CAM = 90 0.
Then from A ACM,

AC = CM cosec (90 - 0) = sec 0.
Also fromA ACO,

AO = AC sec 0 = sec 2 0
and from A AGO,
AG = AO sec 0 sec 3.
But AG = 8 ft.
8 = sec 3 0; cos 0 =
6 = 60.
Hence the beam is inclined to the horizontal at 60.

1 66 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS
6. A rigid body under any number of coplanar forces.

The resultant of coplanar forces P and ), say, acting at
any two points A and B of a body can be always found, whether
P and Q intersect or are parallel, except when they form a pair
of equal and unlike parallel forces forming a couple. Thus if
P and Q, intersect, their resultant can be obtained by the
parallelogram law of forces; while if they are parallel (but not
equal and unlike) their resultant is a parallel force P Q,
(according as P and Q are like or unlike) acting at a point C
in AB such that P-AG = Qj GB.
Hence, given a system of coplanar forces, Pi> Pa> P :
say** we can combine them in suitable pairs, step by step,

avoiding a couple till possibly the last force is reached.
Finally, we shall either arrive at two equal and opposite forces,
in which case, the system of forces will be in equilibrium; or
we shall get a single non-zero force R, say, which will be the
resultant of the system of coplanar forces; or we may arrive
at a pair of equal and unlike parallel forces forming a couple,
in which case, the system of coplanar forces is reduced
to a couple.
Thus a system of coplanar forces acting on a body (i) will either

be in equilibrium; (ii) or will reduce to a resultant R, say; (Hi) or
will reduce to a couple of moment G , say.
7. Conditions of Equilibrium of a rigid body acted

on by a system of coplanar forces.
If the body, and hence the system of forces, be in equili-

brium, then evidently we must have, in the notation of the
last article, R= 0 and G = 0.
Now if R 0, then its resolved parts X", T, say, along

any two perpendicular 9 lines 0x of the Oy, in the plane
forces (and in fact the resolved part along every line in this
plane) will vanish separately. Also, considering magnitudes
and directions only, we can show as in art. 16 of Chapter II
that the resolved part of the resultant, along any direction, is
equal to the sum of the resolved parts of the forces along the
same direction.
.
Hence if X, T denote the sums of the resolved parts of the

forces along two mutually perpendicular lines in their plane then
it is necessary for equilibrium that
X=0, T= 0.
moment of the couple to which the system
Similarly G, the
may reduce,equal to the algebraic sum of the moments of
is
the forces about any point in their plane.
Hence another necessary condition of equilibrium is that the
algebraic sum of the moments of the forces about any point in their
plane should be zero
Conversely, if X= 0, T= 0, G = 0, we get R =0 and

G = 0; and the system will be in equilibrium.
Hence the necessary and sufficient conditions for the

equilibrium of a body under a system of coplanar forces
are three, viz. :
(i) X = 0, i. e. the algebraic sum of the resolved parts of the
forces along any line Ox, in their plane should be zero .
(ii) T= 0, i. e. the algebraic sum of the resolved parts of the

forces along another line Oy ,
in the same plane perpendicular to Ox,
,
should be zero .
(in) G = 0, i. e. the algebraic sum of the moments of the forces
about any point 0 in their plane should be zero.
Cor. 1. If the algebraic sum of moments of any number of

coplanar forces about a point in their plane be zero, then either the
forces are in equilibrium or they reduce to a single force passing

through that point.
Cor. 2. If the algebraic sum of moments of a set of coplanar

forces about each of three non-collin ear points in their plane be zero , the
system is in equilibrium .
8. Example. A ladder of length 2 a and weight W rests against a smooth

vertical wall and its lower end is prevented from slipping on the smooth floor by means
of a string of length b connecting it with the junction of the wall and the floor . If
a
a man of weight 2 W stands on a rung of the ladder distant
3
from its lower
end, find the reactions at the two ends of the ladder and the tension in the siring.
C
The figure represents a section by the vertical plane through the ladder.
AB is G its mid point, M the

the ladder,
a
man, so that AM = AG * a and AD is the ,
string fixed at the junction D so that AD = b.

We consider the equilibrium of the system of the
man and the ladder. The forces acting on
this system are (i) the weight W of the ladder
acting vertically at G; (ii) the weight of the
man, viz. 2W, acting vertically at M; (iii) the
tension Tin the string AD; (iv) the reaction
R of the wall acting horizontally at B; and (v)
the reaction S of the floor acting vertically at A.
Resolving horizontally, we get,

R-T= 0, i. e. R= T.
Similarly, resolving vertically, we get
S - W - 2W = 0, i. e. S = 3W.
Also writing DAB = 0, and taking moments about A, we get
2W- 3
cos 0 + W*a cos 0 R2fl*sin 0=0,
i. e. R= W 5
6
cos 0
5W
6 V4a 2
b
.
b2

5*W
~ =
Thus R =T = ?
and S 3W.
6\/ 4a 2 - b2
Examples IX
(1) A uniform rod AB is suspended by two strings A and BC from

a fixed point C. Prove that the tensions of the strings are proportional to
their lengths.
(2) A #
uniform rod of length 10 and weight is suspended from a W
point O by means of two strings OA and OB of lengths 6* and 8', respecti-
vely. Find the tensions in the strings and the inclination of the rod to the
vertical.
(3) A rod AB of length l is free to move about a hinge at A and is

supported at B by a horizontal string which is fastened to a point C verti-
cally above A. If BC = a, show that the reaction of the hinge makes an
angle tan" 1 [ f with the vertical.

\2 V/ /
a

(4)
A uniform rod AB, 6

ft. long and of wt. 3 lbs., is smoothly hinged
at A and weights of 7 and 3J lbs. are attached to the rod at distances 4 ft.
lbs.
and 1 ft., respectively, from A. The rod is held horizontally by a string from
B inclined
(5)
at an angle of 30 to the horizontal. Find the tension of the string
and the point where the line of reaction at A will intersect the string.
(6)
A uniform rod of weight W
and length 2 has one end against a
smooth vertical wall and rests, at an inclination of 45 with the vertical, upon
a smooth rail parallel to the wall. Find the distance of the rail from the
wall and the reactions.
One end of a uniform rod is movable about a hinge and the other
issupported by a string attached to it. The string is inclined at the same
angle 0, to the horizontal, as the rod. If be the weight of the rod, show W
W

that the reaction at the hinge is V9 2
-f cot .
(7) A small smooth ring of weight slides on a string the ends of W

which are tied to two fixed points A and B in the same horizontal.line. If
AB=2a, and the length of the string 21, find the tension of the string in the
position of equilibrium. (
l is greater than a ).
(8) A
uniform rod of weight , W
which can turn freely about a joint
at one end, supported in a horizontal position by a string, attached to the
is
other end, making an angle of 30 with the rod. Find the tension of the
string and the stress at the joint.
(9) A heavy rod of weight W

and length 10 ft. whose C. G. divides
its length in the suspended from a fixed point by two strings
ratio 2:3 is
attached to its ends, the lengths of the strings being 6 ft. and 8 ft. Find the
tensions of the strings.
(10) A heavy uniform rod rests partly within and partly outside a
smooth hemispherical bowl which is fixed with its rim horizontal. If the
inclination of the rod to the horizontal be 0, prove that the reaction of the
bowl at the rim is W cos 20 sec 0, where W is the weight of the rod.
(11) A uniform rod, 2 ft. in length, is in equilibrium with one end in

a smooth hemispherical bowl fixed with its axis vertical. The radius of the
bowl being i Vs ft., find the length of the rod projecting outside the bowl.
(12) A heavy carriage wheel of radius a is made to cross a barrier in

the form of a log of wood of height h (<a) by a horizontal force P applied at
its top-most point. Prove that the weight of the wheel must be less than
P (2a h)
Viah-H*
(13) A heavy uniform beam AB of weight W

x can turn freely
about a
hinge at A and to the end B is attached a string, which passes over a small
smooth pulley at a point C vertically above A and carries a weight W 2

which
hangs freely. If AC = AB t
.
prove that W2 = sin

0
, where 0 is the
inclination of the rod to the vertical.
(14) From a uniform horizontal rod 4 ft. long and weighing 1 lb., two
weights of 2 lbs. and 3 lbs. are suspended, the former at a point four inches
from the left-hand end, and the latter at a point six inches from the right-hand
end. Find (a) where the rod must be supported on a knife edge so as to
balance and (b) the pressure on the edge.
(15) One end of a light inextensible string of length / is fastened to

the highest point of a smooth circular wire of radius a, which is kept fixed in
a vertical plane. The other end of the string is attached to a small heavy
ring of weight w which slides on the wire. Find the tension of the string and
the reaction of the wire.
(16) A heavy bar rests on two smooth inclined planes whose intersection
is a horizontal line, the bar lying in a vertical plane perpendicular to this line.
Show that, in the position of equilibrium, the rod makes an angle 0 with the
horizon given by the equation
(a + b) tan 0 = a cot oC b cot (3,
where a and b are the segments into which the rod is divided by its centre of
gravity and *< 3 are the angles of inclination of the planes to the horizon.
(17) A uniform beam of weight W and length 21 rests with a point

of its length in contact with and with its
the top of a smooth vertical wall
lower end pressing against another smooth vertical wall distant d from the
first. Show that the inclination 0 of the beam to the vertical is given by
l sin 3 0 = d.
Also find the reactions at the walls.
(18) Prove that if the algebraic sum of moments of a system of

coplanar forces about each of two points A and B in their plane be zero, and
if the sum of their resolved parts in any direction not perpendicular to AB be
also zero, then the system must be in equilibrium.
any coplanar system of forces in equilibrium be reduced to

(19) If
three what simple geometrical relations must exist between their
forces,
magnitudes and directions?
(20) Two heavy uniform rods AB, AC, of equal length and each of
weight W, are smoothly hinged together at A and are connected by a light
string BC, of length equal to that of one of the rods. If the system is suspen-
ded from B, show that the inclination of AC to the vertical is tan-1 (3 V 3)

and that the tension in the string is
w.
14
[Hint : For the first part, consider the equilibrium of the system of
the two rods and the string; for the second part consider the equilibrium of
(21)
the rod AC and take moments about A.]
Two uniform rods AB, BC rigidly jointed at B, so that the angle

ABC is a hang freely in equilibrium from a fixed point at A. The
right angle,
lengths of the rods AB and BC are a and b respectively and their respective
weights are x
andW 2 W
Prove that the inclination 6 of AB to the vertical
.
is given by
(22)
tan 6
Wb %
(H^~+ 2 W2 ) a
A turns on two hinges, 5 ft. apart, in a

gate of weight 150 lbs.
vertical(23)
line whose distance from the G. G. of the gate. Find the
is 3 ft.
magnitude of the reaction at each hinge assuming that the lower hinge sustains
the whole weight of the gate.
(Note : The reaction at the upper hinge is
horizontal.)
(24)
A heavy uniform rod, 4 ft. long, rests horizontally on two pegs
which are one foot apart. A weight of 10 lbs. suspended from one end, or
a weight of 4 lbs. suspended from the other end, will just tilt the rod up.
Find the weight of the rod and the distances of the pegs from the centre
of the rod.
AB is a uniform beam of weight W

resting on supports at A and
B. Another uniform beam CD of weight w and half as long as AB rests on
the top of AB , with D above B and C above the middle point of AB. A force
of magnitude acts vertically upwards on the upper beam at D. Calculate
the forces exerted on the lower beam by the supports at A and B and deter-
mine the line of action of the resultant reaction between AB and CD.
(25) Three equal weightless rods are freely jointed together to form
an equilateral triangle ABC and two weights, each equal to lbs., W are
attached to the joints B and C. The triangle and the weights are suspended
from A by means of a string. Find the stresses in the rods and the reac-
tions at the joints.
(26) A step ladder has its two legs equally inclined at an angle < to
the horizontal and is resting on a smooth floor, being held by a light cord
joining the mid-points of its legs. Show that if a weight W
be placed on one
of its steps, at a height from the floor equal to one-fourth the height of the
ladder, the tension in the cord is increased by W cot o< .
(27) beads, P and Q., of weights

Two and w respectively, can W
slide on a smooth circular wire in a vertical plane. O is the centre
fixed
of the circle. The beads are connected by a light string and are in equili-
brium, so that AB is above O and the angle AOB = 2 < Prove that AB .
is inclined to the horizontal at an angle
W- w
^n <
777 ~,
[ IV+ w
~
(28) Show that it is impossible for a heavy rod to rest in equilibrium

with its two ends on two smooth planes, one of which is horizontal and the
other inclined to the horizon at any angle.
(29) A smooth sphere is supported in contact with a smooth vertical

wall by a string fastened to a point on its surface, the other end being
attached to a point in the wall; if the length of the string be equal to the
radius of the sphere, find the inclination of the string to the vertical, the
tension in the string, and the reaction of the wall.
(30) If for a system of coplanar forces, the algebraic sums of moments

about three points A, B, G, are 1, 6,-3 foot-pounds respectively, show that
the system is equivalent to a single force which acts along a line cutting the
(31)
sides BC, GA, AB in points A', B', C', respectively, such that
BA' BC'
= 3 and 6 .
A/C AC7
A smooth hemispherical bowl of diameter a is placed so that its
edge touches a vertical wall. A uniform rod AB of weight W is in equilibrium,

inclined at an angle of 60 to the horizon, with one end A resting on the
inner surface of the bowl and the other end B resting against the wall.
Show that the length of the rod must be a +

a
.
(32) V 13
[ Hint: Let
AB be the rod with the end A on the wall and the end
B in the bowl. Let the reaction at A and that at B (passing through the
centre C of the bowl) meet in O. Then the vertical through O bisects AB
at G, say. Then if 0 be the angle between OG and OC
2 cot 30 = cot 0 cot 90 = cot 0.]
Show that the greatest inclination to the horizontal at which a
uniform rod can rest partly within and partly without a fixed smooth hemi-
spherical bowl, with the plane of its rim horizontal, is sin 1 (

\V3
[ Hint: Let the rod AB ( = 21 ) rest with the end A in the bowl and
a point Cofit on its rim. Let the reaction at A and that at C (perpendicular
to the rod) meet in A '
so that AA' = 2r = diameter of the bowl. If the
vertical through A '
meets the horizontal through
point on the A at Af, a.
bowl, and if 0 be the inclination of the rod to the horizontal we have

AM = 2r cos 2 0 =
/ cos0, and by the condition of the problem AC AB, <
9
This gives cos 0 > or 0 < sin* l
J 3
,
CHAPTER X
MOTION OF A PROJECTILE
1. We now proceed to consider the motion of a particle
describing a plane curve viz. a parabola. This occurs when a
particle is projected under gravity with a velocity in a direction
other than the vertical. The principle of the physical indepen -
dence of forces , given in chapter V, Art. 11, states that every
force produces its own effect in its own direction independently
of all Thus, it is possible to consider motions,
other forces.
along perpendicular independently of each other. For a
lines,
particle moving under gravity, the weight of the particle is a
force constant in magnitude and direction, there being no other
force acting on the particle. Thus the motion of the particle
can be considered as the combination of (i) a vertical motion
with constant acceleration and (ii) a horizontal motion with
zero acceleration. This presumes that we are neglecting forces
like air-resistance, etc.
2. Definitions.
A particle projected in any direction and moving under

gravity is called a projectile.
The velocity with which the particle is projected is called

the velocity of projection and the angle which the direction of
projection makes with the horizontal plane through the point of
projection is called the angle of projection .
The path described by the particle, which is evidently a

curve, is called its trajectory .
The horizontal range of a projectile is the distance between

the point of projection and the point where the projectile strikes
the horizontal plane through the point of projection. The
time taken to describe the horizontal range, i. e. to return to
the horizontal plane through the point of projection, is called its
time of flight .
If instead of the horizontal plane, any other inclined plane

istaken through the ppint of projection, the distance between
the point of projection and the point where the particle meets
this plane is called the range on that inclined plane .
3. Motion of a particle projected with a velocity u in

a direction making an angle K with the horizontal.
Let O, the point of projection, be taken as the origin,

and the horizontal and the vertical lines through O be taken
as the axes of x and y respectively. The positive directions
of the axes are for *, towards the right, and for y vertically 9
upwards.
Let u be the velocity of projection and < be the angle of
projection.
Let P ( x, y )
be the position of the moving particle at
time t.
The only force acting on the particle is its weight mg acting

downwards, m being the mass of the particle.
The equations of motion, therefore, are
d*x
. * .
MOTION OF A PROJECTILE 175
d*x
Hence 0, .
it
and = -g-
It*
\ (
i ) The horizontal motion
Since there is no force acting in the horizontal direction,
the^ horizontal velocity of the particle, according to the Second
Law of Motion, remains unaltered throughout.
Hence the horizontal velocity at time t is the same as the

horizontal velocity at the instant of projection and is, therefore
u cos o< . The horizontal distance traversed in time t is, there-*
fore,
X =U CO'S < /.
( ii ) The vertical motion.
The component of the initial velocity is u sin o<

vertical
and the acceleration vertically downwards is g. This gives the
vertical velocity at time t as u sin o< gt and the vertical height
attained in time / as y = u sin < *
t \ gt*.
We can derive the same results by integrating the equa-
tions of motion.
Thu,
$= 0. (D
= A, where A is a constant.
dx
But at time / = 0, = u cos << . A = u cos <<
=
dx
dt
u cos ( 2)
Integrating again, we get
x = u cos + B, c<
Z B being a constant.
But at time / = 0, x = 0. B = 0.
x = u cos o<
( 3)
Also ( 4)
.
+C, C being a constant.

dt
But at time t = 0, =
dt
u sin o< . C = u sin o<
.*. =
dy
dt
sin *< gt. (
5)
Integrating, again, we get
y = u sin * t
\ gt 2 + D, D being a constant.
But at time = 0,t

y = 0. D = 0.
y = u sin k -gt .t
2
.
(6)
2
Equations (2) and (5) give the components of the velocity
of the particle at time t and equations (3) and (6) give its
position, i. e. the co-ordinates of the particle at time U
Equations (1) to (6) are enough to describe the motion
completely.
4. Greatest Height, Time of Flight, and Range on

the Horizontal Plane.
The projectile moves upwards, until the vertical velocity

vanishes. Thus at the highest point, the vertical velocity
is zero; *
dv
i. c.
0 , , u sin
gt 55sc 0 j
i. e. the particle attains the maximum height at time

u sin o<
g
The maximum height k is given by
= w sin n
h o< . t gt
2
y where t = - ? s*
.
g
u 2 sin 2 c<
.
.
.
,
ft = .
2g
This can also be deduced from the relation
w* sin* << 2 g h = 0.
.
At the end of the flight, the vertical distance travelled by

the particle is zero, i, e. y = 0.
asin < 't $gt% = 0.
Hence 1 = 0, or 1=
g
Now t =0 corresponds to the instant of projection.
Hence the time = *n

of flight
g
It may be noted that this is equal to twice the time to
reach the highest point.
The horizontal range, OO' in fig, 86, is the horizontal
distance described in time t =

2 u sin *<
OO == R ,
say, = u cos << -t
A
= u cos <
g
2 u 2 sin
cos u 2 sin 2
R=
< <<
*<

5
. m 2 sin 2 ^
. . The horizontal range is .
The greatest value of the range R , for a given velocity u of

projection, occurs when sin 2 e( is greatest, i. e. when
sin 2 < = 1, i. e. 2 C = 90 or << = 45, i. e. <<= ~ and
the greatest range is *

Hence , the maximum horizontal range is and this occurs when
g
the particle is projected at an angle of 45 to the horizontal .
To reach a given range R the velocity of projection being ,
u, the angle of projection < is given by

g&
sm 2 .
u2
This equation has only tv/o roots, such that 0 < * < 90.
If these are <<i and < 2
then 2 ,
= 180 2 Ci < 2 i- c*
45 0^= 2 - 45 p<
0
.
E, M....12
)
Hcncc for a given range R , there are two possible directions of

projection and these are equally inclined to the direction of projection for
the maximum range .
5. The Path of a projectile is a Parabola.
The equations
=ux cos <

t,
y = u sin c< t %gt 2
give the co-ordinates (x,y) of the projectile P at time t. These

give the parametric equations of the trajectory. Eliminating t
we have
g*
2
y = x tan K 2
2u cos 2 <
as the cartesian equation to the path of the projectile.
This equation can be written as

2 2
n u sin cos 2 <
x2
9
2x
oc cos <
= 2u y;
1. e.
(
-
u 2 sin oC
c cos c<
g
\2
2 u 2 cos 2 <<
g
m 4 sin 2 < cos 2 <

+
.
y -t ;
g
M 2 sin o< cos 2 m 2 cos 2 sm 2 < ^
.
f^ < <
(
\ g / g V
\ 2
2gg /
2
sin o< cos o< u 2 sin*
Transferring the origin to f -
)
the equation reduces to
== 4 ay,
2 u2 cos* s2 cos 2 <
where
r .
4a
<
, i. e. = .
g 2g
The path of the particle, therefore, is a parabola with its
axis along the downward vertical.

MOTION OF PROJECTILE 179
The latus-rectum of the parabola is
2
2u cos 2 4 .
g
The vertex of the parabola

is
sin < cos < u 2 sin? <\

g 2 g ~~r
which is the point A of maximum height, i. e. the particle
reaches its maximum height at the vertex of the parabola which
is reached at time = u sin K

t
g
The focus of the parabola is
'u 2 sir
sin < cos < u 2 sin2 *< u 2 cos 2 <
^ g 2g 2g >
2 2
u sin 2 oc u cos 2 <<
i. e.
( 2g 2g >
since the focus is situated vertically below the vertex at a
distance one quarter of the latus-rectum.
The directrix is situated at a distance one quarter of the

latus-rectum above the vertex of the parabola; hence the height
of the directrix above the point of projection is
2 2
m 2 sin2 < u 1
cos * _ u
2
g~ ~2g
=
2g
which is independent of the angle of projection.
Thus the equation to the directrix is y =

2g
The position of the directrix depends only on the magnitude*

and not on the direction, of the velocity of projection.
6 Velocity of the projectile.
The components of the velocity v of the projectile, at time t *

being u cos < and u sin <
g t the velocity, at time t, of the-
,
projectile is given by
,
180 ELEMENTARY MIGHANZGB
v2= u2 cos 2 + (u sin gt)

< <
2
= u 2 2u sin .gt + gH2 o<
= u 2g (u sin < Jgf2

2 .t )
= 2y,
2
y = n sin * J ^
2
nee .t .
The direction of this velocity is given by

n
tan 0 = m sin o<

g t
U COS 0<
^vhere 0 is the angle which the velocity at time t makes with

the horizontal.
If MPN is the vertical through P meeting the directrix in
M and the horizontal through O in N, then
v2 = u2 2gy, where y = PN.

Let V be the velocity due to a free fall under gravity from
M to P; then
V = 2g MP = 2g (MN -
2 m
PN)
= 2s - y )~'-
Tg
Hence the velocity of the projectile at any point of its path
is equal in magnitude to that due to a free fallfrom rest, under
gravity, from the directrix to the point.
7. Range on an Inclined Plane.

y Let the inclination of
the inclined plane to the
horizontal be p. Then
the particle is on the
inclined plane when
y = x tan (J.
If P (x, y\ is the
point
where the trajectory
meets the inclined plane,
we have
y = x tan <<
2 u2 cos 2 K
and y =x tan p, where ON = x, NP =y.
;
8
x tan =x g*
(5 tan *
2 u\ cos* <
Hence x =0 or x = (tan < tan P)

_ 2m2 sin ( < p ) cos <
COS p
Now the range on the inclined plane is OP.
The range OP
Q 2m 2 sin ( << B ) cos <<
2
g cos P
__
2 sin (2 < P )
sin p
g COS 2 P
The maximum range on the inclined plane
__
m2 1 sin p
g cos 2 p
M2
_
g (1 + sin P)
and this occurs when sin (2 < P) = 1
i. e. when 2 << p = 90,

90 -
i. e. c< - p = o< .
Therefore, the direction of projection will bisect the angle

between the inclined plane and the vertical when the range
on the inclined plane is maximum.
Ex. 1. A ball is thrown from ths top of a tower 200 ft. high with a velocity
0
of 80 ft. per sec. at an elevation of 30 above the horizon Find the horizontal
distance .
from the foot of the tower to the point where it hits the ground.
The distance described vertically by the ball at time t is given by

y
y * u sin < *1 b gt*.
Here u = 80, 30 j
y - 40* - 161
The ball meets the horizotal plane through the foot of the tower where
y - - 200;
)
hence - 200 - - 16*2;

40*
2* 1 - 5* - 25 - 0;
i. e. (2* + 5) - 5) =- 0.
( *
Rejecting the negative value, and accepting the value * a 5, the

horizontal distance moved in 5 secs., with the constant horizontal velocity
u cos (= 80. V3/2, is given by
x
80 V3
2
*
5 200 V3
346*4 ft. approx.
Ex. 2. A particle is projected at an elevation o( and after t seconds

appears to have an elevation 3 as seen from the point of projection . Prove that the
initial velocity is
gt cos 3
2 sin ( ; - p
Here, if u is the velocity of projection, the position at time t is given by

X U COS o< /,
y u sin o< *
2
i gt .
But the elevation, as seen form the point of projection, is 3.
lienee y__ tan 3.

X
11 sin o( * J gf
2
tan 3
U COS o( *
tan o< - v
2u cos o<
2 cos o< (tan << tan 3)
gt cos p
" 2 sin ( * - 3)
Ex. 3. If * x and *
2
are the two times of flight with which a given range
i n a horizontal plane can he reached by a particle projected with a velocity u, prove
do 1 tând * 2 satisfy the equation
g
2tl - 4a 8 * 2 -f 4R* = 0.
t
If K
is the angle of projection, the horizontal and vertical distances
described by the particle in time t are given by
x u cos at -t
y = u sin < -t
Hence as the range on the horizontal plane is R, we have

x= R, y 0.
R = u cos oC
,
and 0 = u sin < gt 2 *

t .
Eliminating e< , we get the time of flight t, for a given range R, satis-
fying the equation,
R2 + i g
2t 4 = u2 2 t 9
i. e. g
2t4 4m 2 / 2 + 4/2 a = 0,
which is a quadratic in 2 and satisfied by die two times of flight.

f ,
is t
v t
2
Examples X
(1) The time of flight of a projectile on a horizontal plane is 8
seconds and the range is maximum. Find the velocity of projection.
(2) A particle, projected at an angle tan"" 1 4 with the horizontal
has a horizontal range of 1200 ft. Find the velocity of projection and the
velocity at the highest point.
(3) At what angle should a shot be fired with a velocity of 320 ft.
per second to hit an object on the top of a tower 92 ft. high and 2560 ft.
away ?
(4) A bird is sitting on the top of a tree 26 ft. high. At what angle
of elevation should a person standing at a distance of 100 ft. from the tree
throw a stone with a velocity of 80 ft. per sec. so as to hit the bird as soon
as possible?
(5) Prove that the equation to the path of a projectile may be written
in the form
y = * tan < (l-
where R is the horizontal range.
(6) A particle is projected with a velocity u at an angle e( with the

horizontal. If R be the horizontal range and be the time of flight, T
show that
2
gj
tan < 2R *
.
(7) If R be the horizontal range of a projectile and h be the greatest

height attained, show that tbp initial velocity v of projection is given by
R*_
2*
h + I6h*
A body projected with the same velocity at two different angles

covers the same horizontal range R If V be the two times of flight, prove
.
that R =3 $ gtt\
a shot, fired from the ground level, just clears a wall of height b
at a horizontal'
(10) distance a and reaches the ground at a distance c from the
starting point, prove that the angle of projection

-1
is tan
( - a)
J
If R be the maximum
range fora horizontal projectile, show
that the greatest height attained by the projectile is R/4.
The greatest horizontal distance to which a boy can throw a cricket

ball is 48 yards. How long is the ball in the air and what height does it
attain when it is so thrown ?
(11) Show up an inclined plane through the

that the greatest range
point of projection equal to the distance through which a particle could
is
fall freely during the time of flight.

(13)
(12) A particle is projected with a velocity u at an elevation c<
<
2
Prove that, if h -
^ the particle will be again at a height h after a
,
2g
2
time- V ii
2 sin 2
e< 2 gh a
^ter being at the same height for the first time.
A projectile just passes over the top of a vertical wall of height

b at distance a from the point of projection. If the horizontal range of the
projectile is c, prove that the velocity of projection, u t is given by
(c a) 2 -f b c 2
2
2k* g
ab (T- a)
(14) A particle is projected under gravity in a vertical plane at an

inclination o< to the vertical. Show that it appears to the observer stand-
ing at the point of projection to fall, past a vertical plane, with a constant
velocity.
(15) A projectile takes seconds to reach a point P in its path and

an additional f
a seconds to reach the ground again. Show that the height
of P above the ground is i gfjfg feet.
any number of particles be projected from a point at the

(16) If
same time and in the same direction, with different speeds, show that, at any
subsequent instant, they will all lie on a straight line.
(17) A particle is projected with a velocity 2 V

ag so that it just clears
two walls of equal height a , which are at a distance 2a apart from each
other. Show that the time for passing between the walls is 2 Vajg.
(18) A thrown over a triangle from one end of a horizontal
particle is
base and, grazing the vertex, falls on the other end of the base. If 6 and
0 are the base angles and e< the angle of projection, prove that
tan o< = tan 6 + tan 0.
(19) If the focus of a trajectory lies as much below the horizontal

plane through the point of projection as the vertex is above, prove that the
angle of projection o< is given by sin o< = 1/V3.

(20) Show that a given gun will shoot three times as high, when
elevated at an angle of 60 as when fired at an angle of 30, but will throw
the shell the same distance on a horizontal plane.
(21) A ball is hit from a point 7 feet above the level of the ground.
It rises to a maximum height of 16 feet above the ground and strikes the ground
at a horizontal distance of 105 feet from the point of projection. Find the
horizontal component of the velocity with which is was hit.
(22) A tennis ball is struck with a horizontal velocity from a height

of 7 ft. so as to pass just over the net, 3 ft. high, which ft. away from
is 20
the striker. What is the velocity with which it is struck and at what distance
from the net will it strike the ground?
(23) If a particle is projected inside a horizontal mine 36 ft. high with
a velocity of 80 ft. per sec., find the greatest possible range.
(24) O is the foot of a tower 200 ft. high. A patricleis projected from
O in a direction making an angle of 45 with the horizontal and reaches the
ground at a distance of 100 feet from O. Find at what distance from O the
particle would reach the ground if it was projected from the top of the tower
with the same velocity and in the same direction as in the former case.
(25) Shots, fired simultaneously from the top and bottom of a vertical
cliff with angles of projection and respectively, strike an object simultane-
ously at the same point. Show that if a is the horizontal distance of the
object from the cliff, the height of the cliff is a (tan fi
tan C).
(26) A shot with a velocity v ft. per sec. from the top of a
is fired
cliff h ft. high and a distance d ft. from the foot of the cliff.
strikes the sea at
Show that the possible times of flight are the roots of the equation
i 2,4 _ (gh + v 2) f% + d2 + h2 = 0 .
Find the greatest value of d for given values of v and h.
(27) The horizontal range of a rifle bullet is 1200 yards when the
angle of projection is < . If the rifle is fired with the same elevation from a
car, travelling 15 miles per hour towards the target, show that its range is
increased by 330 Vtan < feet.

(28)
A ship is moving with a velocity of 16 feet per second, and a

body is let go from the top qf its mast which is 144 ft. high. Find the velo-
city and
(29)the direction of motion of the body (i) at the end of two seconds,
(ii) when it hits the deck.
A particle is projected with a velocity u and elevation o< . Prove

that when it traverses a height ht its direction of motion makes with the
sec2
horizon an angle whose tangent is < tan* <
u*
(30) The angular elevation of a fort on a hill h feet high is 6. Show

that in order to hit the fort, the initial velocity of a projectile must not be less
than Vgh (1 -fcosec 0).
(31) If the angle of projection gives a range R x, instead of R , +

where x is small compared to R, find the necessary correction in the angle of
projection.
(32) A shot is fired, at an angle o< to the horizontal, up a hill of

inclination (3 to the horizontal. Show that it strikes the hill
(i) horizontally if tan << = 2 tan (3,
(ii) normally if tan = 2 tan |3 + cot (3.
(33) A particle projected with a velocity u from a point on an inclined

plane, whose inclination to the horizontal plane is (3, strikes it at right angles.
Show that the range of the particle on the inclined plane is
2 2 sin (3
*
g 1+3 sin 2 (3
ANSWERS
Examples 11 (b) Pages 24-25
1* (i) 13 at tan" 1
^ ~ ^with P.
( ii) V 89 + 40
V2 at tan" 1 A- ^ witik
(iii) 13 at tan" 1 ~ ^
with P.
(iv) 51 at tan" 1
2. Note : Read 0 in place of 0 in this example.
JL7 21.
(i) p e= Q B=44. (ii) P
V 3 V3*
(iii) P-4V3, Q. = 12.
2oy2
(iv) P ~ Ve), Q.
V**
3* 120. 4. 60. 6. 60.
10 . The perpendicular bisector of the line representing the resultant.
Examples II (c) Pages 33-35
1. (b) (i) If P =o Q., R bisects the angle e< and R = 2P cos .
(ii) If R vanishes, P and Q, are equal in magnitude, act along the same line
and are opposite in sense, (iii) If P =

3
Q,
7
= R5
,
then the angle bet
ween P and Q,is cos" 1 ^

\

11
)
14 /
and that between P and R is
2ir
3

4. Maximum and minimum magnitudes of the resultant are P + Q

and P Q, respectively.
16. 0; the forces are in equilibrium.

19. 2AG along AC.
21. Magnitude is P\/3 >

direction is at right angles to BC; line of
action of the resultant meets BC produced in X such that BC 2 CX.
> sin G sin B

22. Direction makes, an angle tan*" 1
^ 1 with BC.
cos B cos Ci*
26 Magnitude: 2\/l. Direction makes an angle tan 1 ^-^- \ with AB.
'v 3 *
Examples 111. Pages 43-46
2. and 2^/3 lbs. wt.
10 . P V 3 making an angle of 150 with each one of the equal fore es.
11 . 10 and 10V5.
12 .
W
and
WVTJ
. 13.
W ; W .
x/\ 5 2x/T^ V3 2
16. 120, 90 and 150.
19.
25. The point O is such that
sin BOC : sin COA : sin A^B 4 : 6 : 7.
20 .
W sec 0
22. The middle point of the line joining the middle points of either
27.
pair of opposite sides or of the diagonals.
If W be the weight, the least force will be W sin d where < is
the inclination of the plane to the horizon and will act along the plane up-
wards. When the thrust on the plane is double of that in the first case, the
angle made by the force with the horizontal will be 2 .
26.
W sin
i
sin y W sin
"
o< sin
.
sin (P+y) sin (P + y)

cos -1 a ).
29. The other two equal forces are each of magnitude 10^3 lbs. wt.
and the angle between them is 120.
31. The tensions in the strings are 9^/2, x/T$2, and 9 x/V lbs. wt.
and the angle made by BG with the vertical istan" 1 9.
Examples IV a. Pages 60-62
1. The angle between u and v is 150 and v : u 2^3.

2. 9 miles per hour. 5. 10\/3 m. p. h. due N. .
ANSWERS 189
5-3^2 V
( + V y
to the east of south.
7. Velocity is 3 Vll 20 \/2 m. p. h. making an angle of
tan'i (V2+ with the east.

[\ 5)
]
8. True velocity of B is 2\/TX) knots at an angle cos" 1
(-hs>
with the north. Apparent velocity of B makes an angle tan*" 1 with
^ ^
*he south.
10. Direction from N. W.; velocity 4\/2 m. p. h.
11 . 8\/(2 \/2) m. p. h. at tan" 1 (v'S l) to the south of east.
14. Rate at which B is sailing is 10 coscc 20 30'.

Rate of increase of distance = 10 cos 20 30'.
15. 220 ft 16. Closest after 37

91
257
minutes.
17. 10 m. p. h. from the south.
-1
18. 15\/1 0 m. p. h. at tan with the train.
5 i /3 \
19. Velocity of A relative to B is 20 - -
ft./sec. at an angle tan" 1 j
y
23
with the initial line AB. Shoriest distance between them = 30 ft. after
,
1
seconds.
20. (i) minutes;

u
1
1 feet.
(ii) - minutes; angle cos" 1 ( '\ with the bank.

' u
Examples IV b. Pages 76-79
19
6. 144 ft. 7. 1 min. 9. 15 secs.
26
10. 192 ft.; 80 ft./sec. 12. 32 ft./sec.
14. 3 secs, after the first was thrown up; at a height of 336 ft.
16. 6 secs. 17. li secs. 18. 1176 ft./sec.

I
elementary mechanics
19. 240 ft. /sec.; 900 ft. 20. If secs.

10
22. 4it ft./sec.; 2n \/3 ft./sec. 23. 2 sees. 21 .
26. O' 789 ft. 5 0*293 sec. 27. 9-15 P. M.
28. 54*14. 29. 2 n j HL.

\ *
Examples V a. Pages 91 -93
1 7
1. lbs. wt.; 21$ lbs. 2. - ft./sec 2 . 3. pel'.
75
4. 32 pdl.; 4 lbs. wt. 5. 2 ft./sec 2 .
6. 850 cm./sec 2 . at 30 38' to the downward vertical.
7
7. 4
,
tons wt. 8. 2 *56 ft./sec 2 . 9. 55 lbs ./ wt.
10. 12-5 ft. 11. 21$ ft./sec 2 .
12. (i) 4800, (ii) 5100, (iii) 4500, (iv) 4800, pdls.
n 121

13. 4 ft./sec 2 . 14. t0nS W *' 5 - tons wt.
60 225
15. 3 h. 51 m. 16. i
64 ft. 17. 120 pdls.
18. 2 secs.; 32 ft./sec. 21. 11- lbs. wt. per ton; 7561
22. 88 ft. 23. 1~ miles; 373 1 secs.
Examples V b. Pages 99-100
1. 32 m poundals; 16 ft./sec 2 . 2. 15 lbs. 3. 24f lbs.
g[M m sin < )

4 40 Acceleration
ft. 5. :
M + m
mMg respectively.
Tensions
2m M and 2 M -
m
8. 2$ ft./sec 2 .; 5J ft. 9. 3 sees. 11. 1 sec. later. 12. 5oz
13. If T be the tension in the string we have as in 17, chapter V
also W = 2T W remains if at rest. Hence -^* aB -+
ANSWERS 19!
1.
Examples VI. Pages 115-118
9f lbs. wt. 2. 5*5 sees. 3. 8 ft. /sec.
4. 7 pdl. sec.; 175 pdls. 5. 6 pdl. sec.; 60 pdls. 6. 11:9.

7. 2*55 secs. 8 . 24 ft. /see. 9. 17-05 lbs. wt.
10 . 4J ft. /sec. ; 853 J ft. pdl. 11 . 2*5 ft./sec.
23
12 . If fl./scc.; 700 lbs. wt. 13 . 3f ft./sec.; 2 ft./sec.
23
15. 268*8 H. P.; 2 ft./sec. 16 . 11*3 ibs. wt. per ton.
2
17 . 7 ft. /sec. ; 6$ ft./sec. 18 . - ft./sec. 19 . 1344 ft. lbs
20 . 8 H. P. 21 . 193-48 lbs. wt. 22 . 480 H. P.
4
23 . 2- H. P. 24 .
18 J ft./sec. 25 .
2f H. P. 26. 56 H. P.
5
37
27 . 10 4 gm. cms.; 3*304 X 10 4 dvnesec. 28 . 12 ft./sec.
49
29 . 49
S
11
II. P. 33. 43 37
41
ft./sec. ; 2 1095- 12 ft. lbs.
37 . 14080 ft. pdl. 39 . 17 lbs. wt. per ton.
40 . 198f H. P. 41 . i m. p. h. backwards; 27 ton-miles per hour.
42 . 896000 pdl-sec.; 4 ft.
Examples VII. Pages 135-138
1. (i) 25 AC 7-8*. (ii) 20

lbs. wt.; lbs. wt.; AC 7-2*.
(iii) 33 lbs. wt.; AC :CB = 20:13.
2. (i) 8 lbs. wt.; AC CB = - 15 23. : : (ii) 17 lbs. wt.;

AC CB : = 9 : 26. (iii) 7 lbs. wt.; AC CB =: 15 : 22 -
3. (a) (i) 32 lbs. wt.; 10 ft. (ii) 18 lbs. wt.; 18 lbs. w.;
3 1 6
( b) (i) 50 lbs. wt.;
6*25 ft- (Ii) 5 lbs. wt.; 6 lbs. wt.
4. 331 ft- or Of ft. according as the forces are like or unlike.
5. 18 lbs. wt.; 6 lbs/wt. 6. 2 ft. from the stronger man.
9. 8J lbs. wt. 10 . 5 ft. from the heavier boy.

.
6 7
11. 1 ft. from 1 lb. wt. 13. 2
36
ft. from the left hand end.
7
14. 0; 380 lbs. wt. 13. 12 lbs. wt. ; mid-point of the rod.
16. 116} lbs. wt. 17. 3} lbs. wt.; 8}' from 5 lbs. wt.
18
W
1
- w
;
W |
w
acts at F where AF = } AB .
2 4 2 2
19. 4P at the centre.
7
20. Resultant cuts BA and BC at a distance AB from B.
2
3
26. Take D on BC such that BD BQ and then G in AD so tha
5 t
5
AG =- AD. G is then the required point.
27. 75^/3 lbs. wt. 31. .
V2
Examples VIII. Pages 156-159

3
1- C. G. divides the line joining the wts. 16 lbs. and 25 lbs. in the
ratio 1 : 10.
5 11 6 4
2- 2 - ft. 3. 1 ,
anc*
Y
inches from AB, BC, and CA
respectively. of the side of the square.

5
5. 16 and 15 inches respectively from the sides passing through the

23
first weight. 6. -
36
and } times the side of the square from
AB and AD respectively.
2n
9. inches. 10. 15 lbs.; 1 - ft. from A.
5
14. On the altitude of the original triangle at a distance

V3 ft.
from the base. 15.

3
in. it
17.
29
50

in.
21.
fl\/2
.
12
where a is a side of the square.
M 22.
45
182
- in. from the
centre of the plate on the line of centres produced.

ANSWERS 193
23. On the line joining the centre to the middle point of the side oppo-
site to that cut off and dividing if in the ratio 2 : 7.
24. 10 .
times the common base. 26. tan -1 3 .
24+ oit 4
28. tan 1 -.
3
29.
V3 1
AB 31. from the base.
.
j a
14 6 + it
32. downwards from the centre of the common base, h being

16
w
the common height. 35. 8*5 lbs. 36. IV. 38. *
Examples IX. Pages 168-172
2.
3 W and AW
--5 2 sin
.
.
1
3
4. 13 lbs. wt.
5 3 5
5. __ Reaction of the rail = W\/ 2; Reaction of the wall W.

2V 2
7. V/*-a /
8. W; W. 9
9 W 8W
2
2
V 145 *
V 145
II. 6 inches. 14. At a distance of 26J inches from the left-hand
end. Pressure on the edge 6 lbs. wt. =
15. Tension = a
w; Reaction = w. 17. W cot 65 W cosec 6 .
22 . Reaction at the upper hinge is horizontal and 90 lbs. wt. ; reaction

5
at the lower hinge is30\/3 4 lbs. wt. at an angle tan" 1 to
the horizontal. 23. 20 lbs. ; 8 in. and 4 in.
24. Force at A :
2 W+w ; at

B :
W+w
; reaction on AB acts at a
4 2
4a
distance from A. 25. Tension in the rods AB and AG is
3
2 W thrust in BG is
W
r-z . Reaction at the joints : W, W.
V* v 3
Examples X. Pages 183-186
I. 128 VS ft./sec. 2. 200 ft./sec.} 120 ft./sec.
J.
9
tan" 1
31
. 4, tan' 1
3
10. 3 secs; 36 ft.
21. 60 ft. /see. 22. 401t./scc.S 10(V^-2) ft. 23. 192 ft.
24. 200 ft.

26. Vv*+2gk.
j
28. (i) 16*\/TT ft./sec. at tan' 1 ( 4 )
to the h >rizontal.
(ii) ft./sec. at tan' 1 ( 6 )

to the horizontal.
1719
31. tan 2 minutes approximately.

Elementary Mechanics Text

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Elementary Mechanics Text

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ELEMENTARY

VAKILS, FEFFER and SIMONS PRIVATE LTD.

First Edition : 1953

Published by Rashtni Mehta for Vakils. Feffer

fundamentals of Mechanics, sufficiently rigorously while laying

Some of the examples are taken from the examination

We offer our thanks to Mr. V. G. Kelkar, b. a., dip. tech,

Our thanks are also due to the authorities of the Aryabhushan

Finally we wish to say that we shall be very grateful for

fundamentals of Mechanics, sufficiently rigorously while laying

Some of the examples are taken from the examination

We offer our thanks to Mr. V. G. Kelkar, b. a., dip. tech,

Our thanks are also due to the authorities of the Aryabhushan

Finally we wish to say that we shall be very grateful for

I Introductory ... ... ... 1

II Vectors and Concurrent Forces ... 10

III Statics of a Particle... ... ... 36

IV Velocity and Acceleration

V Laws of Motion ... ... ... * 80

VI Impulse, Work, Energy, Power ... 101

VII Moments : Parallel Forces ... ... 119

VIII Centre of Gravity ... ... ... 139

IX Equilibrium of a Rigid Body

X Motion of a Projectile ... ... 173

Answers ... ... ... 187

2. Divisions of Mechanics. The two important aspects

Dynamics we consider bodies in motion. That

3. Space and Time. The idea of rest* or motion contains

two fundamental concepts, those of Space and Time. Space

As regards time, we have the following postulate : Time is

be said to have occurred five seconds, say, before another event

The unit generally chosen is the Mean Solar Second, derived

4 . Before considering the motion of material objects we

Every material object occupies some space and is perceived

we are mainly concerned with three properties of a material body,

by its inertia. Of course, matter possesses a number of other

Every material body in nature occupies a certain? region of

In an elementary study of the subject of Mechanics, we are

sufficiently strong influences. A rigid body is, therefore, a

Every material body, if left to itself, does not change its

to body. The mass of a body is defined to be a measure of

This property of inertia is contained in what is commonly

Every body continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in

This intensity of inertia naturally depends on the amount

5. A Material Particle. A body can be divided into a

Sometimes a body of finite size may be regarded as a

6. Location of a Particle. In order to consider the

directed from 0 to P. This distance OP, taken with the proper

(or the particle at P) and is denoted by OP, the arrow indica-

It should be noted that if the origin 0 is not a fixed

7. Force. We have seen that matter possesses the property

Force is that which changes or tends to change the state of rest

Force manifests itself to our senses in a variety of ways. If

the effect they produce, the actual measure depending on the

These facts illustrate Newtons 2nd law of motion which

The change of motion is proportional to the impressed force and

Further, every force has a definite point of application. If

(1) It has a definite magnitude;

(2) It acts in a definite direction and sense;

(3) It has a point of application.

The line drawn through the point of application of the

A further effect of force on matterchange its shape

strain is generally proportional to the force and hence gives

8. Classification of Forces. Forces are of three kinds :