QT00129 Vol4 Final PDF

State of Qatar - Public Works Authority
Drainage Affairs
Contents
1.0 General ................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Standards .................................................................................................................................. 1
1.3 Master Planning of Landscape and TSE Irrigation Systems ..................................................... 1
1.3.1 Landscape Development Master Plan ....................................................................................... 1
1.3.2 Irrigation Budgets ....................................................................................................................... 1
1.3.3 Irrigation Master Plan ................................................................................................................. 2
1.4 Irrigation Water Quality.............................................................................................................. 2
1.4.1 General ....................................................................................................................................... 2
1.4.2 Public Health Factors in Effluent Use ......................................................................................... 2
1.4.3 Quality of TSE for Landscape Irrigation ..................................................................................... 3
1.4.4 Recommended TSE Quality for Landscape Irrigation ................................................................ 4
1.5 Documentation .......................................................................................................................... 4
1.6 Environmental Impact Assessment ........................................................................................... 4
1.7 Building Permit .......................................................................................................................... 4
2.0 Design of TSE Transmission and Distribution System ..................................................... 7
2.1 Definitions.................................................................................................................................. 7
2.2 Standards and Sources of Information ...................................................................................... 7
2.3 Principles of Design................................................................................................................... 8
2.4 Sizing and Flow Estimation ....................................................................................................... 8
2.5 Pipeline Materials .................................................................................................................... 14
2.5.1 Ductile Iron Pipes ..................................................................................................................... 14
2.5.2 Polyethylene Pipes ................................................................................................................... 14
2.5.3 GRP Pipes ................................................................................................................................ 15
2.5.4 Asbestos Cement Pipes (Safety Note) ..................................................................................... 15
2.6 Hydraulic Analysis ................................................................................................................... 15
2.7 General Design Considerations .............................................................................................. 20
2.7.1 Pipeline Horizontal Alignment .................................................................................................. 20
2.7.2 Pipeline Vertical Alignment ....................................................................................................... 21
2.7.3 Internal Pipe Pressures and Restraint of Thrust ...................................................................... 21
2.7.4 Air Release ............................................................................................................................... 22
2.7.5 Pipeline Maintenance Draining.............................................................................................. 22
2.7.6 Isolation Valves ........................................................................................................................ 22
2.7.7 Flow Metering and Remote Sensing ........................................................................................ 23
2.8 Pumping Installations .............................................................................................................. 25
2.8.1 Pumping Plant .......................................................................................................................... 25
2.8.2 Plant Layout.............................................................................................................................. 28
2.8.3 Primary Movers ........................................................................................................................ 29
2.8.4 Variable Speed Drives (VSD) ................................................................................................... 30
2.8.5 Motor Control Centre (MCC) .................................................................................................... 31
2.8.6 Instrumentation and Control ..................................................................................................... 33
Volume 4 TSE System Design Page i

1st Edition June 2005 - Copyright Ashghal
Drainage Affairs
2.8.7 Pump Suction and Delivery Design ......................................................................................... 37

2.8.8 Surge Protection ...................................................................................................................... 38
2.8.9 Air Valves ................................................................................................................................. 40
2.8.10 Filtration ................................................................................................................................... 40
2.8.11 Ventilation and Air Conditioning ............................................................................................... 41
2.8.12 Standby Generation ................................................................................................................. 43
2.8.13 Maintenance Access and Lifting Gear ..................................................................................... 43
2.8.14 Geotechnical Information ......................................................................................................... 44
2.8.15 Sub- and Superstructure Design.............................................................................................. 45
2.9 TSE Towers ............................................................................................................................ 47
2.10 TSE Ground Tanks ................................................................................................................. 47
2.11 Site Facilities ........................................................................................................................... 49
3.0 Design of Irrigation Systems ..............................................................................................50
3.1 Definition and Scope ............................................................................................................... 50

3.1.1 System Layouts ....................................................................................................................... 50
3.1.2 Pipework Materials ................................................................................................................... 52
3.1.3 Pipework Sizing ....................................................................................................................... 52
3.1.4 Minimum and Maximum Pressures.......................................................................................... 52
3.1.5 Irrigation Rates ......................................................................................................................... 54
3.1.6 Irrigation Equipment ................................................................................................................. 54
3.1.7 Control Systems ....................................................................................................................... 58
3.1.8 Co-ordination of Irrigation and Landscape Design .................................................................. 58
3.1.9 Under-Drainage ....................................................................................................................... 58
3.2 Landscape and Irrigation Management ................................................................................... 59
3.2.1 Irrigation Management ............................................................................................................. 59
3.2.2 Maintenance of Irrigation Systems........................................................................................... 59
3.2.3 Planting Management .............................................................................................................. 59
4.0 Health & Safety ....................................................................................................................60
4.1 General Guidelines ................................................................................................................. 60

4.2 Reference Documents ............................................................................................................ 60
5.0 References ...........................................................................................................................62
Page ii Volume 4 TSE System Design

Drainage Affairs
applications of irrigation water for these areas, so

1.0 General that the necessary infrastructure can be provided.
In this respect, knowledge of landscape planning is
necessary for TSE engineers.
1.1 Introduction
A landscape master plan provides a strategic
This volume covers the engineering planning and framework for development within the urban and
design of treated sewage effluent (TSE) systems for surrounding environment. Preparation of a
irrigation use in the urban environment. TSE may landscape master plan is a significant step to
have other uses, e.g. in certain industrial ensuring that the finished development will be fit for
applications, but for Qatar, irrigation is likely to be the purpose. It enables co-ordination of the physical
primary use. As such, an overview of the broader built environment, with human recreational and
issues involved in the use of TSE for irrigation is amenity needs, climatic and environmental
covered before discussion of engineering planning considerations, and a broader concept of the urban
and design of these systems. landscape structure. It is also one of the most
important inputs in the establishment of irrigation
budgets and will be the basis for planning and
1.2 Standards engineering of the irrigation distribution networks
A full list of standards used in all of the manuals for and associated equipment.
design purposes is included in Volume 1, Foreword.
References used in this Volume are also included in 1.3.2 Irrigation Budgets
Sections 2.2, 4.2 and at the end of the text. The purpose of establishing irrigation budgets is to
ensure that the available resources of irrigation
water are apportioned so that the needs of future
1.3 Master Planning of and existing landscape areas can be satisfied. The
Landscape and TSE objective is to avoid both shortages and wastage,
so that the water needs of the vegetation can be
Irrigation Systems assured.
1.3.1 Landscape Development The starting point for setting the irrigation budgets
Master Plan is to consider the total available quantity of
The following sections deal with the planning and irrigation water, and also, the Landscape
Development Master Plan that defines the overall
design of treated sewage effluent (TSE) distribution
distribution of land use. Division of the Landscape
networks including pumping stations and reservoirs,
for ultimate use in downstream irrigation systems. Development Master Plan into irrigation sectors is
necessary so that budget irrigation quantities can
The only purpose of this infrastructure and the related
be allocated to each sector. Irrigation sectors will
irrigation installations discussed here, is the supply of
TSE for application to vegetation. Therefore, it is not necessarily correspond to town planning
sectors. In case there is already an adequate
necessary to provide an overview of the broader
existing infrastructure for effluent distribution, this
landscape and planning context that the TSE
distribution infrastructure will serve. will help to define a sectors extent and water
allocation. Hydraulic capacity of the existing
Assessing the requirement for amenity landscape, networks affecting the available water flows and
planning and design are the concern of other pressures may be constraints on water availability
professions. This is undertaken by town planners, within a sector, and therefore these need careful
landscape architects and urban designers working analysis.
within their own professional fields, following client
requirements and design guidelines that are outside The irrigation budgets therefore simply provide a
peak daily irrigation volume for each sector over
the scope of a sewerage and drainage manual.
time. They may be adjusted from time to time as
However, the utilities engineers and their teams are
very much concerned with quantity, quality and necessary within the overall TSE availability, and
according to any hydraulic and storage constraints.
Volume 4 TSE System Design Page 1

Drainage Affairs
The irrigation budgets may highlight issues related to 1.4 Irrigation Water
supply that will be dealt with by the Irrigation Master
Plan (see section 1.3.3), and they will also provide Quality
essential guidance to the landscape designers for the
1.4.1 General
quantities and types of vegetation that can be
sustained within each budget sector. Irrigation water quality is an issue of primary
concern wherever TSE is the source of irrigation
1.3.3 Irrigation Master Plan water for public amenity landscape. There are two
main areas of concern. Firstly, the chemical and
The Irrigation Master Plan derives from the
biological properties of the irrigation water must be
Landscape Development Master Plan and the
such that its application on areas of publicly
irrigation budgets, but needs to address a broader
accessible landscape presents negligible health
range of issues concerning irrigation supply. The
risk to members of the public, and in particular
objective of the irrigation master plan is to study and
those who by reasons of health or age may be
identify specific issues related to the supply and
more susceptible to pathogens or chemical
distribution of irrigation water. It will also make
contaminants. Secondly, the chemical, physical
recommendations, for example regarding future
and biological properties of the irrigation water
infrastructure requirements, or matters related to
should be entirely suitable for plant growth and for
irrigation water quality (refer to.1.4 below). The
the irrigation system through which the water will
Irrigation Master Plan should also contain a time-
be applied, or at least do not impose undue
scale or outline programme for execution of any
constraints on the type of landscaping possible.
proposed projects, co-ordinated with expected urban
growth, future effluent availability, and the proposed
1.4.2 Public Health Factors in
implementation of landscape projects.
Effluent Use
Examples of typical recommendations that will be
The potential risk to public health from wastewater
made in the Irrigation Master Plan may include the
is generally assessed in terms of biological quality,
following:
expressed as the ratio between biological oxygen
Requirements for new irrigation infrastructure; demand and total suspended solids (BOD:SS), and
also measured directly in terms of most probable
Recommendations for upgrading or number of coliform organisms. Although there are
refurbishing of existing effluent distribution no internationally applicable standards for these
networks, storage reservoirs, pumping parameters, the World Health Organisation (WHO)
stations etc.; has recommended BOD and SS less than 10mg/l
Proposals for control and telemetry and most probable number of coliform organisms
installations (e.g. SCADA); not to exceed 100/100ml.
Proposed measures related to irrigation water Qatar proposes to adopt a standard of 5:5 for
quality (salinity, chemical quality, and BOD:SS. This standard would ensure minimal risk
filtration); to public health from TSE irrigation water.
Recommendations related to existing use of However, although the final effluent from Doha
irrigation water, e.g. for improving efficiency, West STW is generally achieving 5:5, the final
or upgrading the irrigation systems; effluent from Doha South STW has not been able
to achieve this standard. It may therefore be some
Operational issues related to existing time before this could consistently be achieved in
irrigation infrastructure. practice.
Apart from biological impurities, chemical

contaminants in TSE can also affect human health.
The commonest chemical contaminants include
lead, nitrates, and carcinogenic organic
compounds. Since the problem is usually
Page 2 Volume 4 TSE System Design

Drainage Affairs
associated with heavy industry, health issues related salinity can restrict quite severely the range of
to chemical contamination are less likely to be of plants that may be used, with consequences for the
significance where the principal source of TSE is landscape character and variety of landscape
domestic sewage. design options. Furthermore, the problem of salt
accumulation in the soil is exacerbated by the high
The likelihood of human contact with irrigation water water-table and poor drainage in many parts of
can not be practically avoided in amenity landscape Doha.
areas. There are several possible means by which
pathogenic organisms from irrigation water could be Qatar proposes to adopt a standard for Total
transferred to humans. The three most likely Dissolved Solids (TDS) not to exceed 2,000mg/l
methods are as follows: (equivalent to 3,500mhos/cm). However, this
level of salinity is still sufficiently high to be
Bodily contact with irrigation water or soil; detrimental to many salt-sensitive plant species
Breathing of air that contains fine droplets of and it would be highly beneficial if a lower figure
irrigation water; could be achieved. In fact, irrigation water having
TDS as low as 500-1,000mg/l is harmful to salt-
Consumption of contaminated food or drinks
sensitive plant species. Actual TDS figures for
sourced from TSE irrigated crops.
Doha West STW (for the period 21st 28th Sept
Picnicking on grass shortly after it has been irrigated, 2003) range from 1,311 to 1,411mg/l. On the other
or being in the immediate vicinity when sprinkler hand, TDS levels for Doha South STW were rather
systems are in operation are the most likely means higher over this period, ranging from 1,372 to
by which pathogens could be ingested. Bacteria may 2,492mg/l. Therefore in order to achieve a target
survive in the soil for two months or even one year in TDS of better than 2,000mg/l it will be necessary to
some cases, although sandy soils and high address the underlying problem of salinity in the
temperatures tend to decrease survival times. incoming sewage.
Ensuring that lawn sprinkler systems are scheduled
to operate in the early morning hours is a necessary The suitability of TSE for irrigation purposes also
depends upon its chemical properties, including
precaution. Exposure to irrigation water is less likely
sodium hazard, usually expressed as sodium
with drip irrigation and bubblers as compared to
spray sprinklers. absorption ratio (SAR), and the levels of harmful
ions. SAR is calculated from the ratio of sodium to
It should be noted that specific health risk is related calcium and magnesium. Continued use of
to an individuals threshold of susceptibility, and that irrigation water having a high SAR leads to the
infants, elderly persons, and those having weakened sodium being absorbed, causing the soil to become
immune systems are the most susceptible. Even hard and compact, and increasingly impervious to
with irrigation water of good biological quality, some water penetration. Leaching and soil additives,
degree of health risk cannot be entirely eliminated, particularly gypsum, are used to counter these
and it is essential that special attention be given to affects. Sandy soils with a low content of clay
protecting those members of the public who may be particles are less likely to be affected by high SAR.
vulnerable. For this reason, the grounds of hospitals Figures for SAR of Doha South TSE are available
should be irrigated with potable water, particularly in from the recent sampling analysis presented by the
those areas accessible to patients. For the same Quality and Safety Division. The analysis results
reason, vegetation within the grounds of nursery indicate that the SAR values for the TSE from Doha
schools and primary schools needs also to be South are in the range of 4.5 to 5.0, which is 50%
irrigated with potable water. of the acceptable long term limit for irrigation
(please refer to Table 1.4.1).
1.4.3 Quality of TSE for
The effect upon plant growth of the levels of
Landscape Irrigation different chemical constituents in irrigation water is
Salinity is the single factor most commonly affecting a complex subject and dependent upon a number
the suitability of TSE for use as irrigation water. Salt of variable factors. Each plant species has its own
is poisonous to plants. Even relatively low levels of tolerance threshold for each anion or cation, often

Drainage Affairs
varying widely between species of the same genus. Guidance on typical content and requirements of
Furthermore, sensitivity depends upon other factors screening, scoping, EIA analysis, reports and data
such as the nature of the soil. The pH and overall collection is given in Volume 1, Sections 2.7, 3.7
chemical balance of the irrigation water also affect and 4.7. This guidance should be referred to for
the availability of different ions such as heavy metal any environmental studies associated with TSE
cations, which become more available to plants at system projects. Volume 5, Section 1.10 also
lower pH, i.e. at higher acidity levels. It can generally provides useful guidance information on the reuse
be expected that the levels of heavy metal cations in of treated sewage effluent.
TSE from domestic sewage will be below toxic
thresholds.
1.7 Building Permit
1.4.4 Recommended TSE
The requirements for application for building
Quality for Landscape permits are described fully in Volume 1 Section 4.6.
Irrigation
Table 1.4.1 provides interim recommendations for
TSE water quality criteria to be used for landscape
irrigation in Qatar. Proposed current and future
effluent discharge standards for Doha sewage
treatment works are provided in Table 1.4.2.
Contents of this table should be considered as
temporary standards, which will be modified by the
Environmental Section (ES) within Q&SD during
2004.
1.5 Documentation
Documentation required by the DA to be prepared by
consultants in relation to TSE system design is
described in Volume 1 Section 5.
1.6 Environmental Impact

Assessment
The State of Qatar policy on sustainable
development and subsequent environmental
legislation (Law 30)1 requires that an environmental
impact assessment (EIA) process be followed in
planning, designing and implementing TSE system
projects. Consultation with the regulator, SCENR,
the Planning Department, and the Department of
Agriculture and Water Resources, throughout the
process, is a critically important activity.
Initial screening and scoping of potential

environmental impacts should be reviewed by the DA
before submitting to SCENR, the Planning
Department and the Department of Agriculture and
Water Resources.

Drainage Affairs
Table 1.4.1 - Recommended Quality Standards for TSE Irrigation Water in Qatar (Interim)
Recommended
Limit for Irrigation
Parameter Units Remarks
Long Short
Term Term
Lower than the standard of 2000mg/l proposed
TDS mg/l 500 2000
for Doha - see text above
EC mho/cm 1500 - As for TDS
PH units 6.0 - 7.0 - Significant indirect effects on plant growth
SAR ratio 10.0 - See text above
BOD (5d @
mg/l 5.0 5.0 According to proposed new standard for Doha
20C)
SS mg/l 5.0 5.0 According to proposed new standard for Doha
Total coliforms No/100ml 100 100 Based on WHO recommendation
Ca mg/l - - No recommended limit, toxic to calcifuge plants

Mg mg/l 150.0 - Minor plant nutrient

Na mg/l 400.0 - Major component of salinity
K mg/l - - Essential plant nutrient, no recommended limit

Total P mg/l 30.0 - Essential plant nutrient
N (as NH3) mg/l 1.0 - According to proposed new standard for Doha

N (as NO3) mg/l 50.0 - Nitrogen is essential plant nutrient
Alkalinity
mg/l 200.0 - Affects soil pH
(HCO3 + CO3)

SO4 mg/l 400.0 - Not toxic to plants

Cl mg/l 650.0 - Major component of salinity
F mg/l 1.0 * 15.0 * Inactivated by neutral and alkaline soils
Al mg/l 5.0 * 20.0 * Only toxic in very acid soils
As mg/l 0.1 * 2.0 * Toxic to many plants at varying concentrations
B mg/l 0.75 * 2.0 * Essential nutrient, but toxic if too high
Fe mg/l 5.0 * 20.0 * Nutrient but at high levels affects soil chemistry
Cd mg/l 0.01 * 0.05 * Toxic to some plants at low concentrations
Co mg/l 0.05 * 5.0 * Toxic to some plants in acid soils
Be mg/l 0.1 * 0.5 * Toxic to many plants at varying concentrations
Cr mg/l 0.1 * 1.0 * Toxicity to plants is not well established
Cu mg/l 0.2 * 5.0 * Toxic to a number of plants

Cn mg/l 0.05 0.1
Mn mg/l 0.02 * 10.0 * Toxic to some plants at low concentrations
Se mg/l 0.02 * 0.02 * Toxic to plants at low concentrations
Pb mg/l 5.0 * 10.0 * Can be toxic to plants at high concentrations
V mg/l 0.1 * 1.0 * Toxic to many plants at low concentrations
Mo mg/l 0.01 * 0.05 * Not normally toxic to plants
Ni mg/l 0.2 * 2.0 * Toxic to some plants in acid soils
Zn mg/l 2.0 * 10.0 * Toxic to many plants at varying concentrations
Source: Based on wastewater quality limits adopted by Sultanate of Oman
* USEPA guidelines, cited by Rowe and Abdul-Magid in Wastewater Reclamation and
Reuse

Drainage Affairs
Table 1.4.2 - Effluent Discharge Standards Available in Doha

Current Basis of
Standard Effluent Criteria Future Standard
Standard Compliance
Suspended solids (SS) 5mg/l 5mg/l 90 %ile
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) 5mg/l 5mg/l 90 %ile
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) 50mg/l 50mg/l 90 %ile
Faecal Coliforms (MPN) None Detected None Detected 90 %ile

/100ml /100ml
PH 6-9 6-9 90 %ile
Ammonia (NH3N) 1mg/l 1mg/l 90 %ile
Phosphate (PO4) 1mg/l 1mg/l 90 %ile
Total Nitrogen (N) 10mg/l 5mg/l 50 %ile
Dissolved Oxygen 2mg/l (min) 2mg/l (min) 90 %ile
Chlorine (Free Residual) 0.5 1mg/l 0.5 1mg/l 90 %ile
Turbidity 2NTU 2NTU 90 %ile
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) <2,000mg/l <500mg/l 90 %ile
Intestinal Nematodes <1.0 per litre 0.0 95 %ile
Enteric Viruses <1.0 PFU/40 litre <1.0 PFU/40 litre 90 %ile
Giardia <1.0 cysts per 40 <1.0 cysts per 40 90 %ile

litre litre

Drainage Affairs
potable water system and, therefore, the same

2.0 Design of TSE standards and guidelines are applicable.
Transmission and A list of general standards and references
Distribution System pertaining to design is set out below but is not
limited to:
British Standards Institution, 1989, BS

2.1 Definitions 8010-1:1989 - Code of practice for
A TSE transmission and distribution system Pipelines, Part 1: Pipelines on land:
comprises: TSE storage reservoirs at the source; general, London BSI.
pumping stations; transmission and distribution British Standards Institution, 2000, BS
mains; and chambers. EN 805:2000, Water supply -
Requirements for systems and
A TSE storage reservoir is a covered reservoir of
components outside buildings, London,
relatively large capacity and can be at ground level,
BSI.
underground or elevated (water towers).
British Standards Institution, 1998, BS
A pumping station is an installation designed to EN 1508:1998, Water supply -
provide adequate pressure and flow within the Requirements for systems and
transmission and distribution system. A transmission components for the storage of water,
main (or trunk main) is used to convey the majority of London, BSI.
the flow from the source, treatment and/or storage
facility to the distribution system. Tyson A., and Harrison K, Irrigation for
Lawns and Gardens, Extension
A transmission main may have a small number of Agricultural Engineers, The University
connections on it, but in general, is intended to of Georgia College of Agricultural &
deliver water to the distribution mains where the Environmental Sciences.
majority of distribution points are located. In the Doha
Water Authorities Association/Water
irrigation system, a transmission main is usually a
Research Centre, 1989, Network
large diameter pipe of 600mm diameter and above.
analysis - A code of practice,
Examples of transmission mains in Doha are the
Swindon,UK, published by WRC.
800mm diameter main from Doha West to TSE2 and
the twin 800mm diameter mains from Doha South to Water Research Centre, 1995, Pipe
Al Rakhia Farm. materials selection manual - water
supply, 2nd edition, UK, Water
A distribution main is the delivery system to the main Research Centre.
distribution chambers located at certain intervals
along main roads, and giving feed directly to irrigation Construction Industry Research and
systems or to local reservoirs feeding such systems, Information Association, 1994, Guide to
if applicable. In the Doha irrigation system, a the Design of thrust blocks for buried
distribution main is usually a pipeline of 200mm pressure pipelines, Report 128, London
diameter and above. CIRIA.
HR Wallingford and DIH Barr, 2000,
A transmission main or a distribution main can be
Tables for the Hydraulic Design of
either pressurised under gravity or pumped.
Pipes, Sewers and Channels, 7th
Edition, Trowbridge, Wiltshire, UK
2.2 Standards and Sources Redwood Books.
of Information T.M. Walski, D.V. Chase, D.A. Savic,

2001, Water Distribution Modelling, 1st
In general the TSE transmission and distribution edition, Waterbury USA, Haestad Press
system should be considered in the same way as any Inc.

Drainage Affairs
A.C. Twort, D.D. Ratnayaka, M.J. Brandt, be recognised. As a whole, transmission and
2000, Water Supply, 5th edition, UK, Arnold distribution mains, TSE sources, pumping
and IWA Publishing. facilities, and storage facilities must be
designed so that, in combination, they will
Washington State Department of Health,
optimize the TSE system.
2001,Water System Design Manual,
Washington, State Department of Health.
Standards and manuals pertaining to specific pipe
materials and construction issues are quoted in the
relevant sections of this volume.
2.3 Principles of Design

In general, the Doha Irrigation System is evolving
towards a system of pressurised ring mains, whereby
irrigation water feeds the secondary and tertiary
(application) system directly without recourse to
intermediate storage and/or booster pumping
stations. However, there are cases where local
reservoirs and booster pumping stations would be
necessary. This would mainly be in areas having
specific landscape and irrigation requirements like
golf courses, university campuses, parks and other
amenity areas. In all such cases, it is reasonable to
provide a suitable feed off the distribution system and
leave the downstream arrangements, including local
storage and pumping facilities, to the
owner/developer of the land. Effluent allocation for all
such specific places should be established in
conjunction with: the overall irrigation strategy for the
city; assessment of available resources; and the
irrigation water budget established by the DA in
particular. In order to ensure that only the allocated
amount of TSE is used, the inflow rate should be
monitored by flow meter and controlled by a
motorised valve installed on the inlet to each local
reservoir. All proposed extensions to the irrigation
transmission and distribution system should be
designed in a way that the system provides for the
demand and pressure conditions anticipated at any
given time in all parts of the system.
2.4 Sizing and Flow

Estimation
Sizing of irrigation mains should consider a number
of factors including pumping cost, land use, system
demand, friction losses, and flow velocities. These
factors are interrelated and their relative influences in
the selection of optimum piping arrangements should

Drainage Affairs
Hydraulic calculation should be carried out in order to design manuals. There are also many
demonstrate that the system will: computer software packages readily available
to aid in the design of complex systems. Apart
Satisfy the estimated demand; from the above mentioned SynerGEE
Operate within the required pressure range; (Advantica) other reputable software include
InfoWorks (Wallingford Software), InfoWater
Operate at acceptable velocities.
(MWH) and WaterCAD (Haestad Methods). It is
Network analysis by a computerbased mathematical expected that the design procedures used for
model should be used to analyse the performance of the irrigation system of Doha will be consistent
the existing system and proposed extensions to that with those widely applied and accepted by
system. Models representing both transmission and professionals world-wide as good engineering
distribution mains are required to assess system practice.
performance under a variety of supply and operating
conditions. A model would include elements The sizing procedure shall include the following
steps:
representing physical components of the irrigation
system like pipes, pumps, valves, regulators and 1. Establish demands and flows
tanks that make up the actual network. The usual
input data for any hydraulic model includes: pipe 2. Assume pipe diameters
diameter and length; friction factor according to the
formula which is applied; node elevation; ground 3. Carry out hydraulic analysis
elevation; pump curve or pump energy if the curve is 4. Correct the assumed pipe diameters,
unknown; pump speed; tank profiles; upstream and
as necessary
downstream pressure for regulators; valve status;
and flow coefficients. As an output, the model will 5. Carry out final hydraulic check
produce predicted flows, velocities, pressures and
head losses, which will indicate the network
performance. The results are then a basis for either
Minimum Size
increasing or decreasing pipe diameters, adding new
pipelines or replacing pumps etc.. Hydraulic analysis The minimum size for a transmission or
and computer models are discussed in Section 2.6. distribution main should be determined by
hydraulic analysis. In general, the minimum
The latest hydraulic model of the Doha irrigation
diameter of all distribution mains should not be
system was created using SynerGEE, and that model
less than 200mm internal bore. All sizes are to
should be referred to before starting any further
be metric sizes. Recommended flow rates,
analysis.
velocities and corresponding head losses for
Sizing Procedure different pipe diameters are shown in Tables
2.4.1. and 2.4.2. These examples are for pipes
Procedures for sizing distribution and transmission with an assumed hydraulic roughness factor ks
mains for irrigation systems have been established in of 0.15mm and 0.06mm.
many engineering textbooks, reference books, and
Table 2.4.1 - Recommended Flows, Velocities and Resulting Head Losses for Various Pipe Diameters (ks
0.15 mm)
Diameter Flow (l/s) Velocity (m/s) Head loss (m/km)
(mm) From To From To From To
200 16 29 0.5 0.9 1.3 4.1
250 29 48 0.6 1.0 1.3 3.5
300 48 72 0.7 1.0 1.3 3.1

Drainage Affairs
400 99 137 0.8 1.1 1.3 2.5
450 137 177 0.9 1.1 1.3 2.2
500 177 252 0.9 1.3 1.3 2.6
600 252 357 0.9 1.3 1.0 2.0
800 524 707 1.0 1.4 1.0 1.8
900 707 900 1.1 1.4 1.0 1.6
1,000 900 1,200 1.1 1.5 0.9 1.6
1,200 1,200 1,800 1.1 1.6 0.7 1.4
Table 2.4.2 - Recommended Flows, Velocities and Resulting Head Losses for Various Pipe Diameters (ks
0.06 mm)
Diameter Flow (l/s) Velocity (m/s) Head loss (m/km)
(mm)
From To From To From To
200 16 29 0.5 0.9 1.1 3.5
250 29 48 0.6 1.0 1.1 3.0
300 48 72 0.7 1.0 1.2 2.6
400 99 137 0.8 1.1 1.1 2.1
450 137 177 0.9 1.1 1.2 1.9
500 177 252 0.9 1.3 1.1 2.2
600 252 357 0.9 1.3 0.9 1.7
800 524 707 1.0 1.4 0.8 1.5
900 707 900 1.1 1.4 0.8 1.3
1,000 900 1,200 1.1 1.5 0.8 1.4
1,200 1,200 1,800 1.1 1.6 0.5 1.2

Drainage Affairs
Sizing of Gravity Mains critical point, providing that adequate air

release facilities are available to assist in
While sizing gravity mains, one must consider the the air evacuation and pipe self-priming.
actual hydraulic gradient and the pipeline profile, and Such a gravity main will then work under a
make sure that the hydraulic gradient does not fall at siphon condition. Refer to the attached
any point below the crown of the pipe. In certain Figures 2.4.1 and 2.4.2 from the
circumstances, the hydraulic gradient may be below Rationalisation of the TSE system report2
that level. In theory, up to 7m would be acceptable, for examples of land elevation versus
but it is recommended not to exceed 2 - 3m at the hydraulic grade (HGL).
Figure 2.4.1 Example of land elevation versus hydraulic grade (HGL) where HGL cuts the land elevation
under a flow of 650L/s due to high losses not desirable.

Drainage Affairs
Figure 2.4.2 Example of land elevation versus hydraulic grade (HGL), where HGL lies above the land
elevation under a flow of 550L/s - acceptable.

Drainage Affairs
Peak Demands resulting velocity will normally lie in the range of

0.8m/s to 1.4m/s. An important consideration is
The peak demands in an irrigation water system are surge, which becomes more problematic at
directly related to the type of landscape and irrigation higher velocities.
pattern. The irrigation pattern includes the irrigation
timing and irrigation rates. They are both subject to a Excess Pressure
seasonal variation, meaning that more irrigation
water will be required in summer than in winter. The The type of pipe used and the pressure
irrigation scheduling should aim to achieve a requirements of the system are significant factors
reasonably constant demand over the operating cycle to take into account when designing an irrigation
of each irrigation system. main. Excessive pressure in a system can lead to
wasted water, and increase the risk of pipe
It has been established in the Rationalisation of the failure. In general, the pressure in the system
TSE system report2 that in the time of the peak should not exceed 600-700kPa (60-70m water
summer demand, the system would work for 12 to 16 head).
hours and that the peak hourly demands should not
exceed 2000-2200l/s. Otherwise, the level of service Surge and Transient Controls
and pump efficiency would be compromised. The Hydraulic surges and transients (water hammer)
maximum flows given above are based on the
are dependent on a number of factors, including
assumption that the new pumping and storage
main size, length, profile, and materials of
facilities PS TSE1 and PS TSE2, as proposed in the construction. Analysis of transient conditions is
conceptual design report, are in place.
discussed in section 2.8.8. Pipe pressure tests
Distribution pipelines should be able to sufficiently and thrust restraint should be based on the
deliver water to meet worst case peak hourly maximum transient conditions, including an
demands at the required water head. appropriate factor of safety.
Minimum Distribution System Pressure There are a variety of ways to provide surge
control. Methods include:
The distribution system should, in general, be able to
provide peak flows at no less than 30m water head Open surge tanks;
(300kPa), as agreed with the DA in the course of Pressurised surge tanks;
writing the Rationalisation of the TSE system report
Surge anticipator valves;
2. As various types of sprinklers and drip emitters
require different pressures, the actual requirements Vacuum relief valves;
for a given landscape area should be provided by the
Regulated air-release valves;
designer of the downstream irrigation system. In case
the irrigation water is discharged into a local irrigation Optimising main size and alignment;
reservoir, then the required pressure would be
Electric soft start/stop and variable speed
governed by the level of the inlet pipe.
drives for pumps;
Maximum and Minimum Flow Velocity Electric interlocks to prevent more than
one pump from starting at the same time;
In normal circumstances it will be desirable to avoid
unduly high or low velocities. A range from 0.5m/s to Slow opening and closing valves; and
2.0m/s under hourly peak demands may be
Increasing the polar moment of inertia of
considered appropriate. However, in special
the rotating pump/motor assembly.
circumstances, velocities up to 2.5m/s may be
acceptable in the main trunk and distribution A combination of methods may be necessary and
pipelines. For pumping mains, a financial appraisal care must be taken in the design so that the
should be undertaken to determine the most addition of a protection device does not cause a
economic diameter of pumping main, to minimise the secondary water hammer equal to or worse than
capital cost and discounted pumping cost. The the original design could cause.

Drainage Affairs
Reliability of the surge protection facility is important. Ductile iron pipes should be protected externally
Where appropriate, redundancy should be provided in accordance with QCS. Internally as a
for essential equipment such as vacuum relief valves. minimum cement mortar lining should be
Adequate alarms should be provided on surge tanks provided. Fusion bonded epoxy, ceramic epoxy
and similar components to give operators early and polyurethane are also suitable for internal
warning. Consideration should be given to protection.
preventing the pumping system from operating if the
surge protection facilities are not operable. Ductile iron pipes can be considered as semi-
rigid. Bedding design should be in accordance
Surge suppression should always be provided where with the manufacturers recommendations.
modelling predicts negative pressure in excess of the
following: Ductile iron pipes have flexible joints and require
thrust restraint at bends.
GRP, cement lined DI -1metre
Recommended Use
Fusion bonded epoxy, ceramic epoxy or
polyurethane lined DI -3 metres DI pipes shall, in general, be used for
constructing transmission and distribution mains
HDPE, MDPE -3 metres of DN 400 up to DN 1600, for underground and
above ground applications. DI pipes smaller than
DN 400 are perfectly acceptable from the
2.5 Pipeline Materials technical point of view, however, may prove to be
less economical than their plastic equivalents. DI
The existing TSE transmission and distribution
pipes are also recommended for all pumping
system consists mainly of ductile iron (DI), glass
stations regardless of the manifold diameter.
reinforced plastic (GRP), asbestos cement (AC) and
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipes. Preferred materials 2.5.2 Polyethylene Pipes
for new pipelines are DI or polyethylene (PE). PVC
should not be used on account of its susceptibility to Polyethylene pipes are covered by BS EN
UV damage. It is known that PE is also susceptible to 12201(Draft European Standard)5, WIS 4-37-176
UV damage, but to a lesser degree, and it is also and a comprehensive reference is included in the
more generally robust AC is not permitted to be used Manual for PE Pipe Systems, 2002 edition, by
for new pipes on account of health risks. Water Research Centre and British Plastics
Federations Pipes Group7.
Due consideration should be given to internal and
external corrosion. Protection from external corrosion The material used for their production shall be in
should be employed in areas where corrosive or accordance with QCS. They are classified by
contaminated soils are prevalent, or when pipelines nominal outside diameter and Standard
leave the soil environment. This is especially true in Dimensional Ratio (SDR),which represents the
the coastal environment or other harsh environments. ratio between the nominal outside diameter and
Metal pipes should be evaluated for, and, if the minimum wall thickness (SDR=OD/e). For
appropriate, be protected against corrosion due to pressure applications and Doha climatic
stray electrical currents in the soil. This is most often conditions, a minimum of SDR 17 Class PE 100
found when such pipes are near, or cross other only shall be considered. The nominal pipe size
pipelines that are protected by impressed current. range is from DN 90 to DN 1000.
The various materials used in the TSE systems are The approved jointing method for PE is fusion
discussed more fully in Volume 1 Section 4.3. jointing (electrofusion and butt-welding). Fusion
jointing of PE pipes produces a fully restrained
2.5.1 Ductile Iron Pipes pipeline string and therefore thrust blocks and
anchorages are normally not required. A typical
Ductile iron pipes and fittings up to DN 2000 are
self bending radius for SDR 17 is 25 times the
covered under BS EN 5453. Installation of DI pipes is
pipe OD.
covered by BS 80104 Section 2.1.

Drainage Affairs
With the safety factor of 1.25 commonly accepted in Recommended use

the water industry, the maximum continuous pressure
for a 50-year service life, and at 20C, is 16 bar for GRP pipes are suitable for transmission
SDR11 pipes and 10 bar for SDR 17 pipes. Where a mains. They are available in diameters
system is to be operated at temperatures in excess of from 80mm to 2.5m but for TSE should
20C, then it must be de-rated in respect of the be considered from 1000mm dia
maximum operating pressure or service life, or a upwards.
combination of both. For Doha conditions, the median
GRP pipes should not be installed in
(TSE) temperature of 35C has been adopted, and in
areas where there is likely to be ground
order to maintain the service life of 50 years, the
disturbance in the future as this could
maximum continuous operating pressure has been
lead to failure of the pipe surround.
reduced to 12.8 bar for SDR 11 pipes and 8 bar for
GRP pipes are easily damaged by
SDR 17 pipes.
machinery such as diggers and jack
Polyethylene pipes are flexible. They rely on the hammers therefore if future construction
bedding and surround for structural support and this work nearby is envisaged caution should
must be designed in accordance with the be exercised in their use.
manufacturers recommendations.
2.5.4 Asbestos Cement Pipes
Recommended Use (Safety Note)
In general, PE pipes shall be used for transmission As stated in Volume 1, AC is no longer
and distribution mains buried in the ground. acceptable for use in Qatar. However, workers
Maximum recommended pipe size is 710mm OD. may encounter existing AC pipes when making
The determining factor for recommending this modifications to the system. Wherever this is
maximum size is the availability of electrofusion likely, the designer must include the handling of
couplings, which not always can be substituted with these pipes in the design HARAS, and make not
but welding. This may change in future thus allowing in the Health and Safety Plan for the project in
larger pipe diameters to be used. A large selection of order to protect the workers from associated
HDPE fittings, injection moulded in particular, exists health risks.
for pipes of 315mm OD and smaller. For pipes above
450mm OD, the choice is limited and the available
fittings are only segment welded and machined. 2.6 Hydraulic Analysis
PE pipes should not be installed in areas where there Facilities are usually sized using a hydraulic
is likely to be ground disturbance in the future as this analysis to evaluate the design under various
could lead to failure of the pipe surround. flow regimes. It is expected that a computer
software package will be used for distribution
2.5.3 GRP Pipes systems with more than two loops. Manual
calculations are adequate for simpler analyses.
GRP pipes shall comply with the QCS specification.
The design of the pipe will be undertaken by the pipe Energy losses, also called head losses, are
manufacturer in accordance with the particular generally the result of friction along the pipe walls
requirements and the general specification. and turbulence due to changes in streamlines
through fittings and appurtenances. There are
GRP pipes are flexible. They rely on the bedding and two head loss equations that are in common use:
surround for structural support and this must be Colebrook and Hazen-Williams.
designed in accordance with the manufacturers
recommendations.
GRP pipes have flexible joints and require thrust

restraint at bends.

Drainage Affairs
Colebrook-White equation Hazen-Williams equation

1 2.51 ks 6.78L
= -2 log ( + ) HL = (V/C) 1.85
Re 3.71 D D1.165
Equation 2.6.1 Equation 2.6.2
Re - Reynolds number HL - friction loss (m of liquid)
ks - roughness coefficient (mm) C - coefficient
- Darcy-Weisbach non-dimensional friction factor L - length of pipe (m)
D - pipe diameter (m) V - average fluid velocity (m/s)
For ks values for various pipe materials refer to Table D - pipe diameter (m)
2.6.1.
For C values for various pipe materials refer to
Table 2.6.2.
First estimates of pipe friction values are

obtained directly from standard tables using all
readily available information on pipe material,
size, age and internal bore condition. These pipe
friction values are refined during the model
calibration process.
Head losses also occur at valves, tees, bends,

and other appurtenances within the piping
system. These losses, called local head losses or
minor head losses, are calculated using the
following equation:
HL = KV2/2g
Equation 2.6.3
For typical values of K coefficient refer to Table

2.6.3.

Drainage Affairs
Table 2.6.1 - Colebrook-White KS-Factors for Various Pipe Materials

Ks (mm)
Type of Pipe
Good Normal Poor
Old tuberculated irrigation main
Slight degree of attack 0.6 1.5 3
Moderate degree of attack 1.5 3 6
Appreciable degree of attack 6 15 30
Severe degree of attack 15 30 60
Galvanised iron 0.06 0.15 0.3
Epoxy or polyutherane coated ductile iron 0.03 0.06 0.15
Asbestos cement 0.015 0.03
Spun cement-lined (e.g. cement-lined DI) 0.03 0.1
MDPE or HDPE 0.06
Glass reinforced plastic (GRP) 0.06
PVC (with spigot-socket joints @6-9 metres 0.06
intervals
Table 2.6.2 - Hazen Williams C-Factors for Various Pipe Materials

Pipe diameter(mm)
Type of Pipe
25 150 300 600 1200
Coated cast iron (smooth and new) 133 138 140 141
30 years old
Slight degree of attack 106 112 117 120
Moderate degree of attack 90 97 102 107
Appreciable degree of attack 70 78 83 89
Severe degree of attack 50 58 66 73
60 years old
Slight degree of attack 97 102 107 112
Moderate degree of attack 79 85 92 96
Appreciable degree of attack 58 66 72 78
Severe degree of attack 39 48 56 62
Galvanised iron (smooth and new) 120 133
Epoxy or polyutherane coated ductile iron 129 142 145 148 148
Coated asbestos cement (smooth and new) 149 150 152
Spun cement-lined (clean) 149 150 152 153
Smooth pipe (including lead, copper, PE and 140 149 150 152 153
PVC; clean)

Drainage Affairs
Table 2.6.3 - Local Loss Coefficient for Common Fittings

Type of Fitting K value
Entrances
Standard bellmouth 0.1
Pipe flush with entrance 1
Pipe protruding 1.5
Sluice gated or square entrance 1.5
Bends 90
Medium radius (R/D=2 or 3) 0.5
Medium radius (mitred) 0.8
Elbow or sharp angled 1.5
Bends 45
Medium radius (R/D=2 or 3) 0.25
Medium radius (mitred) 0.4
Elbow or sharp angled 0.75
Tees 90
In-line flow 0.4
Branch to line or reverse 1.5
Contraction-sudden
D2/D1=0.8 0.18
D2/D1=0.5 0.37
D2/D1=0.2 0.49
Contraction-conical
D2/D1=0.8 0.05
D2/D1=0.5 0.07
D2/D1=0.2 0.08
Expansion-sudden
D2/D1=0.8 0.16
D2/D1=0.5 0.57
D2/D1=0.2 0.92
Expansion-conical
D2/D1=0.8 0.03
D2/D1=0.5 0.08
D2/D1=0.2 0.13
Gate valve fully open 0.25
Gate valve 3/4 open 1
Gate valve 1/2 open 5.6
Gate valve 1/4 open 24
Butterfly fully open 0.5
Swing non return valve fully open 2.5
Globe valve fully open 10
Angle valve fully open 4.3

Drainage Affairs
Computer Modelling of Irrigation A computer model of the Doha irrigation system was
Networks originally constructed using WATNET software and
then rebuilt using SynerGEE for Water, to suit the
The concept of the network model is fundamental to new concept of direct supply eliminating the need for
an irrigation distribution model. The network model water towers in the distribution system. The latter
contains all of the various components of the system model has not been calibrated as flow and pressure
and defines how those elements are interconnected. readings were not available. The type of simulation
Network models are comprised of nodes and node performed was a steady-state simulation. A demand
connecting elements (links). There are different types allocation was carried out for each node by assigning
of nodal elements, including junction nodes where relevant base flow (Q-base) for sprinklers and drip
pipes connect, tank nodes, pump nodes and control emitters and applying demand profiles. An
valve nodes. Models use link elements to describe assumption was made that the application system
the pipes connecting these nodes. Also, elements operates for 12 hrs with drip emitters operating for 12
such as valves, pumps and tanks are sometime hrs and sprinklers for 6 hrs. Places having their
classified as links rather than nodes. The most discrete irrigation systems, with service reservoirs
fundamental data requirement is to have an accurate and pumping stations, were assumed to be fed in the
representation of the network topology, which details off-peak time.
what the elements are and how they are
interconnected. While performing hydraulic analysis it is useful to
check the behaviour of the system by not only
A computer model is not necessarily an exact applying fixed demands but also allowing free
representation of all pipes in the distribution system. discharge at points where water is delivered e.g. at
For large systems in particular, simplification of the service reservoirs. That would allow identifying areas
system (skeleletonisation) may be undertaken. of starvation and proposing appropriate zoning. It is
Methods of reducing the size of the model via particularly important in areas of substantial ground
skeletonisation include: level variation.
(1) Consider only pipes above a certain size; Model Calibration
(2) Eliminate tree type pipe regions in the
If a hydraulic analysis is to be carried out on an
system;
existing system where values for pipe roughness are
(3) Replace series and parallel pipes with uncertain and/or the location and operation of valves
single equivalent pipes; and or pipes in a system are not clear, some adjustments
(4) Analyse distinct, separate pressure zones to a hydraulic model may be necessary. The model
should be calibrated, such that the system pressures
separately.
predicted for certain conditions are in general
In all cases, the demands to the regions not modelled agreement with field measurements. The calibration
can be shown at nodes (junctions) leading to the process is necessary if the computer model is
region eliminated. Skeletonisation shall by no means expected to provide accurate and reliable results.
result from limitations caused by computer hardware
or software. All major modelling packages are For simulations over extended periods, comparisons
suitable for analysing unlimited number of elements. are made between the predicted and observed flow
rates, pressures, and tank water levels.
There are two basic types of simulation: steady-state
simulation and extended period simulation (EPS). Deviations between the results of the model
The former computes the state of the system application and the field observations may be caused
assuming that hydraulic demands and boundary by several things, such as:
conditions do not change with respect to time, whilst
Erroneous model parameters (pipe
the latter determines the quasi-dynamic behaviour of
roughness values and node demand
the system over a period of time (a series of steady-
distribution);
state simulations in which hydraulic demands and
boundary conditions do change with respect to time). Erroneous network data (pipe diameters,
lengths, etc.);

Drainage Affairs
Incorrect network geometry (pipes connected (2) Modelled trunk main flows (where the flow
to the wrong nodes); is less than 10% of the total demand)
10% of measured flow.
Errors in boundary conditions (incorrect
pressure-regulating valve settings, tank water Pressure
levels, pump curves, and so on);
(1) 85% of field test measurement 0.5m or
Errors in historical operating records (pumps 5% of maximum head loss across system
starting and stopping at incorrect times); whichever is greater.
Equipment measurement errors (pressure (2) 95% of field test measurement 0.75m or
gauges not properly calibrated); 7.5% of maximum head loss across
Measurement error (reading the wrong values system whichever is greater.
from measurement instruments); and (3) 100% of field test measurement 2m or
Field data collection error (e.g. moving too 15% of maximum head loss across
quickly from one field point to another without system whichever is greater.
allowing the system to stabilize between If after detailed calibration, any points still do not
readings). conform to the stated flow and pressure calibration
Elimination of errors will frequently require an criteria, they should be reported as anomalies and
iterative process, especially for modelling larger investigated.
systems. Generally, very old and corroded
The elevation of points to be used for field pressure
distribution systems, and water systems with little or
measurement should be determined by a field
no information, particularly regarding water use, are
levelling exercise (to within accuracy of 25mm).
the most difficult to calibrate.
The number of nodes at which field measurements of

pressure are made to calibrate the model should be 2.7 General Design
at least 15% of the number of nodes in the network Considerations
model that may be progressively reduced to 10% for
models of 1000 nodes and more. This pressure 2.7.1 Pipeline Horizontal
monitoring is in addition to field measurements of Alignment
flow and pressure at all source and abstraction points
Whenever practical and economic, the preferred
to the system.
arrangements of ring systems with interconnected
Criteria for Model Calibration branches should be employed. The use of linear
main arrangements with individual branch mains
Models can be calibrated at one or more snapshot should be restricted to simple extensions or
conditions. For improved results, calibration can be connections. The right-of-way will have to be
for a 24-hour simulation period. established and confirmed by the respective
authorities (refer to Volume 1 Foreword). Alignment
The following guidelines (according to the WRc Code
within the road allowance is shown in Standard
of Practice for Network Analysis8) represent the
Details SR1 and SR2.
acceptable performance criteria against which
modelled flows and pressures should agree with In order to minimise head losses, water transmission
recorded field data. pipelines should ideally follow a direct route and have
the minimum number of bends. Pipeline horizontal
Flows
alignments are largely constrained by the need to lay
(1) Modelled trunk main flows (where the flow the pipes along allocated service reservations.
is more than 10% of the total demand) 5% Particularly at road interchanges, service
of measured flow. reservations will frequently deviate from the direct
route and additional bends may thus be required.
This is also applicable if avoidance of other

Drainage Affairs
conveyance systems or obstructions is necessary. need for dewatering, the maximum depth of cover will
Preferred angles for bends are 11 15, 22 30, 30, be limited to less than 3m wherever possible. This
45, and 90. will not apply to the non-disruptive road crossings
where a minimum cover of approximately 3m to the
Where pipelines must be laid around curves or small sleeve pipe will have to be maintained to avoid
changes of direction, the required alignment can be settlement.
achieved by angular deflection at joints or, if the pipe
is flexible, by bending the pipe itself. Product High and low points in the pipeline must be created to
standards, or the manufacturer, shall state the value encourage air to accumulate and to be released at
of allowable angular deflection at a joint, or pipe the higher points. The minimum recommended
minimum bending radius. The allowable angular gradients between air release valves and low points
deflection will depend on the type of joint and the are 1:250 (4mm/m) on descending pipeline sections,
pipe material. and 1:500 (2mm/m) on ascending pipeline sections.
The horizontal distance from foundations and other 2.7.3 Internal Pipe Pressures
pipeline or cable shall be not less than 0.40m in
and Restraint of Thrust
normal circumstances. At points of congestion, a
distance of at least 0.20m shall be maintained except Pipeline Design Pressure
where this distance cannot be achieved. In all cases,
suitable measures shall be taken to prevent direct In accordance with BS EN 805:20009 design
contact with obstructions. These measures shall be pressure (DP) is the maximum operating pressure of
agreed with the respective operators. There could be the system or of the pressure zone, fixed by the
cases where an operator has his own requirements designer considering future developments, but
and those will have to be confirmed during the design excluding surge.
stage. Maximum design pressure (MDP) is the maximum
operating pressure of the system or of the pressure
2.7.2 Pipeline Vertical Alignment zone, fixed by the designer considering future
The vertical alignment of transmission pipelines is developments, and including surge, where:
determined by a number of factors:
MDP is designated MDPa, when there is a
A minimum depth of cover; fixed allowance for surge;
Avoidance of other buried utilities and MDP is designated MDPc, when the surge is
underground structures; calculated.
A maximum depth of cover to limit the need For all pipelines, the system test pressure (STP) shall
for ground dewatering; be calculated from the maximum design pressure
(MDP).
The need to pass through road crossings;
To encourage the release of air liberated Surge calculated:
during operation. STP = MDPc +100 kPa
To provide protection to the transmission pipelines Equation 2.7.1
and to avoid minor buried utilities, the minimum depth Surge non calculated:
of cover adopted is generally 1.2m.
STP = MDPa x1.5
Wherever cables and pipelines cross, a clearance of Whichever is the least
at least 0.20m shall be maintained. If this is not STP = MDPa+500kPa
possible, measures shall be taken to prevent direct
Equation 2.7.2
contact.
The design pressure (DP) of the Doha TSE
The maximum depth of cover has been determined transmission and distribution system is 700kPa.
by the need to pass under existing large utilities, such
The fixed allowance for surge pressure included in
as surface water drains. However, to minimise the
the MDPa shall not be less than 200kPa. Using this

Drainage Affairs
figure the minimum system test pressure shall be Air valve Size DN
Pipe Size (mm)
1350kPa (13.5 bar) and all the pipeline components (mm)
like line anchors, thrust blocks and other restraining DN250 50, 65
structures and joints shall be designed accordingly. DN 250 to 600 80, 100
All flanges shall be rated to PN16. DN 600 to 900 150
DN 900 to 1200 200
Pipelines shall be designed to withstand a transient
DN 1400 to 1800 2x200
pressure of 80kPa below atmospheric pressure
(approximately 20kPa absolute pressure).
The air valve assembly shall be installed in a
Restraint of Thrust
concrete chamber. For chambers, general
Restraint shall be provided to prevent pipelines requirements, refer to section 2.7.6.
moving under thrust arising from test and operating
pressures, including an allowance for surge effects. 2.7.5 Pipeline Maintenance
The pipeline test pressure, being greater than any Draining
operating pressure, will normally determine the thrust
Appropriate washout facilities, depending upon local
restraint required as described above.
conditions, shall be provided according to operational
Out-of-balance thrusts, which must be restrained, requirements for draining and flushing. The size of
arise at bends in the pipelines, but there will also be a the washout shall be related to the volume of water to
requirement at other thrust points, such as closed be drained, the time available and the capacity of the
valves and branches, and blank ends. For pipelines receiving watercourse. The discharge diameter
with joints which are not anchored by welded or should not normally exceed DN 200.
bolted flanges, etc, thrust blocks must be used. The
The wash out assembly will include an invert-level
size and shape of a thrust block is decided by; the
tee and a gate valve housed in a chamber. The
force to be restrained, the size and type of the pipe
discharge should be connected to a drainage system.
fitting, and local ground conditions. If adequate space
For chambers, general requirements, refer to item
is not available, construction of piled thrust blocks, or
2.7.6.
use of restraint piping systems should be considered.
2.7.6 Isolation Valves
2.7.4 Air Release
General Requirements
Mains shall be provided with facilities to release air
when the pipeline is being filled and also during The location of isolating valves (shut-off valves) shall
normal operation. On the other hand, it should be be planned to facilitate shut-off in an emergency, for
possible to permit the entry of air during draining. At maintenance, repair, replacement, or additions.
each high point, a double-orifice air valve with a
separate isolating gate valve shall be installed. The Isolating valves should be installed on all branches,
size of the air valve will normally be from DN 50 to as close as possible to the through main.
DN 200, depending on the main diameter, the
The distance and location of isolation valves should
predicted flow rate of air, and the configuration of the
be fixed according to local conditions. In general, the
system. A general guideline for an air valve selection
intervals between isolation valves should not exceed:
is included in Table 2.7.1 below. The spacing of the
air valves should be such that it corresponds to a in trunk mains (transmission mains)- 5km
maximum pressure drop of 0.3 bar in mains for a flow
rate induced by free flow for a given slope (sudden in principal distribution mains - 2km
break of a main). Reference shall be made to the in secondary distribution mains - 0.5-1km
appropriate product standards for final valve
In general, on mains up to and including DN 600,
selection.
gate valves should be used for isolating purposes.
For mains larger than DN 600, butterfly valves should
Table 2.7.1 - Typical Double Orifice Air Valve
be considered. Gate valves larger than DN 400 must
Selection

Drainage Affairs
be equipped with a by-pass to overcome the problem to another should be made directly outside the valve
of opening a valve against unbalanced heads. It is chambers.
also acceptable for the gate valve to be between five-
eighths to three-quarters of the size of the pipeline. In Access Covers
such cases properly designed tapers should be used
Access covers should meet the requirements of BS
to minimise the head losses.
EN 12410. In general, the following classes of DI
Unlike butterfly valves, gate valves are not intended covers will be applicable:
for controlling the rate of flow of water through a pipe.
CLASS D400 - heavy duty, for streets and
Valve Operation roads;
For manually operated valves, extension spindles CLASS C250 - medium duty, for sidewalks,
must be arranged to run in brackets, rigidly attached gullies, parking areas accessible for lorries;
to the chamber walls. These extension spindles
CLASS B125 - light duty, for sidewalks,
should be fabricated to the exact length required to parking areas only accessible to passenger
allow easy operation from the top of the valve
cars.
chamber using a standard tee key. Clockwise rotation
of the tee key to close the valve is preferred. Where The covers should preferably be medium duty, unless
frequent opening and closing of a valve is required, they are subject to vehicular traffic. Wherever
such valves should be fitted with electric actuators. appropriate, Aluminium covers with locking devices
shall be used, e.g. in grassed areas.
Valve Chambers
All valves should be placed inside purpose built

2.7.7 Flow Metering and Remote
chambers. Siting of chambers in carriageways Sensing
should be avoided; they should be preferably in the Flow Instruments
road verge or in the footway.
For monitoring consumption and checking leakage
Two flexible joints, with a rocker pipe should be and system losses, it is desirable to install permanent
provided on either side of the chamber to avoid meters on the flows from sources, pumping stations
damaging pipework in case of differential settlement. and reservoirs, and on the flows to zones, direct feed
Such joints are not required in the case of PE pipe areas and local reservoirs. In general,
which is flexible in itself. electromagnetic flow meters should be used in the
In a stop valve chamber, the valve should be TSE transmission and distribution system. In some
anchored on the upstream side, having a flange circumstances, ultrasonic devices may be considered
adapter on the downstream side which permits the e.g. where a retrofit is required. Standard
valve to be removed. The chamber construction electromagnetic flow meters require pipes to run full
should facilitate lifting out the valve. bore and also require a specific straight length of pipe
downstream and upstream of the flow meter. Table
In cases where non-restrained pipe systems are 2.7.2 provides a summary of available flow
used, the chamber must be designed to take the full instruments and their basic parameters.
thrust when the valve is closed. There should be
sufficient working space and clearances inside valve In general, flow meter locations should facilitate day
chambers, proper access arrangements and gravity to day system monitoring, and network model
ventilation by employing vent pipes. Those general calibration, as discussed in section 2.6. Flow meters
requirements are applicable for all other valve outside pumping station buildings, and associated
chambers i.e. wash-out chambers, air valve data loggers, should be housed in suitable,
chambers and other valve chambers. underground concrete chambers.
All pipework within valve chambers should be ductile

iron and the transition from one type of pipe material

Drainage Affairs
Table 2.7.2 - Summary of Available Flow Metering Instruments and their Parameters
Power Straight Pipe Length
Instrument Accuracy Other Features
Supply Required
Magflow +/- 0.2 % External, 5 pipe diameters Can be direct buried

sizes upstream
>500mm.
Battery, sizes 3 pipe diameters
<500 mm downstream
Insertion +/- 2% Battery or 10 pipe diameters Good response on large

Magflow loop powered upstream flow ranges especially
(from data good at low flow rates
logger)
5 pipe diameters
downstream
Ultrasonic <2% External 10 pipe diameters Not suitable to be installed

(clamp on) upstream less than 20 pipe
diameters down stream of
a pump.
3 pipe diameters Not suitable to install in
downstream concrete pipes
Ultrasonic +/- 0.5% External 10 pipe diameters Not suitable to be installed

(hot tap) upstream less than 20 pipe
diameters down stream of
a pump.
3 pipe diameters Difficult to install in GRP
downstream pipes

Drainage Affairs
Pressure Instruments content, which if left unresolved, could be

detrimental to the growth of plants. This system
Pressure sensing instruments are required in would be in addition to any monitoring at the STW
pumping stations and across transmission and and would be purely for the protection of plants.
distribution networks in locations as outlined below:
On pump suction manifolds;

2.8 Pumping Installations
On pump delivery manifolds;
2.8.1 Pumping Plant
Upstream and downstream of control valves
(PSVs and PRVs); Pump Types
At major pipe junctions; The most suitable pumps for TSE are centrifugal
Along transmission/distribution mains at pumps as these are the only pumps which will
approximately 5km intervals. provide both the head and flow normally required.
In general, pressure transducer locations should Centrifugal pumps are available in a variety of
facilitate the day to day system monitoring and the configurations using the same principle; a centrifugal
network model calibration as discussed in section pump operates by passing the liquid through a
2.6. Pressure tappings outside buildings, and spinning impeller where energy is added to increase
associated data loggers, should be housed in the pressure and velocity of the liquid.
suitable concrete chambers. Refer to section 2.7.6.
For high head duties, a pump can be constructed
Level Instruments with multiple impellers on a common shaft. Internal
passages are provided to direct the discharge from
Level instruments are required for irrigation water each impeller to the inlet of the next; each impeller
balancing and storage reservoirs at sources. They increases the delivery head without increasing the
should also be located at local reservoirs fed off the flow. These pumps are known as multistage pumps.
primary distribution system.
In a similar manner, two impellers can be arranged
Residual Chlorine back to back on a common shaft, each with a
separate suction but with both discharging to the
In the TSE main pumping stations, the residual
same outlet. The flow from each impeller is
chlorine level should also be monitored. This can be
combined, with no increase in head. These pumps
achieved by sampling the TSE at the discharge from
are known as double entry pumps.
the pumping station. The local telemetry or SCADA
system should be programmed to raise an alarm if Due to the impeller configuration, double entry
the level drops too low. In some main pumping pumps have a casing constructed in two parts, split
stations, additional chlorine dosing equipment may along the shaft axis.
be required to increase the residual chlorine level
before the TSE enters the distribution system. It is Large multistage pumps are often constructed in a
good practice to leave a chlorine dosing connection similar manner but they can also be constructed with
point upstream of the residual chlorine monitor so solid stage casings which are assembled along the
that if a problem were to arise in the future, a shaft, this is the common arrangement for the
temporary chlorine dosing plant could be quickly smaller pumps. Other considerations include:
connected in an emergency.
Centrifugal pumps for TSE duties should
Salinity Meters have closed impellers with close fitting
suction neck ring seals to minimise
Salinity meters or conductivity meters are required discharge bypass;
on the main inlets to the distribution system. These
meters give an output which is directly proportional Single inlet pumps should have hydraulic
to the salinity of the TSE. This will be monitored by a balancing within the pump to remove end
telemetry system to warn of an increased salt thrust;

Drainage Affairs
Large centrifugal pumps should have a Fs = suction entry and friction losses.
maximum running speed of 1450rpm (4 pole
In order to avoid cavitation, the NPSH available
motor) while smaller low flow pumps
should be at least 1m greater than the NPSH
typically have an operating speed of
required by the selected pump.
2900rpm (2 pole motor).
Performance Characteristics When calculating NPSH, absolute values for
atmospheric and liquid vapour pressures are used.
Centrifugal pump performance will be dependant on
both the head and flow, as the head increases the Cavitation is the formation and collapse of vapour
flow will decrease, and vice-versa. bubbles in a liquid. Vapour bubbles are formed
when the static pressure at a point within a liquid
Each type of centrifugal pump will have a different falls below the pressure at which the liquid will
performance characteristic according to the design vaporise. When the bubbles are subjected to a
of the impeller and casing. Works testing of a pump higher pressure they collapse, causing local shock
by accurately measuring the delivery against various waves. If this happens near a surface, erosion can
heads will give a series of performance curves occur.
including absorbed power and efficiency.
Cavitation will typically occur in the impeller of a
When selecting any centrifugal pump for a specific centrifugal pump, where it can cause noise and
duty the performance curves should be examined vibration, as well as affecting the pump efficiency. If
closely for the power consumption and efficiency at allowed to persist it can lead to damage to the
both the designed duty and the operational pump, or even breaking away of foundations.
extremes.
Pump Duty Point
The selected centrifugal pumps should have a
performance curve as flat as possible in the duty Each pump has a performance curve where the flow
area with the minimum drop in head as the flow is plotted against head.
increases. Each pipework system has a friction curve where
NPSH, Vibration, Cavitation and Noise the friction head is plotted against flow.
Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) is the minimum The system curve is obtained by adding the static
total pressure head required in a pump at a head to the friction losses and plotting the total head
particular flow/head duty. It is normally shown as a against the flow.
curve on the pump performance sheet.
The pump duty point is where the pump
NPSH is used to check an installation for the risk of performance curve and the system curve cross. It
cavitation. shows the flow that a particular pump will deliver
through the pipework system, at a particular total
NPSH = Pa Vp + Hs Fs head at the pump duty level. For examples of pump
Equation 2.8.1 and systems curves refer to Figure 2.8.1.
Where: The duty point should be used when considering the
Pa = atmospheric pressure at liquid free surface suitability of alternative pumps for a particular duty
Vp = vapour pressure of liquid by comparing the efficiency and power requirements
for each pump at the duty point.
Hs = height of supply liquid free surface above eye
of pump impeller

Drainage Affairs
Figure 2.8.1 Characteristic Curve for Multiple Pumps

Drainage Affairs
2.8.2 Plant Layout Dry well design should incorporate the following
features:
TSE drywell pumping stations usually take their
suction from a storage tank. They do not need to be The pumps should be installed with sufficient
directly attached to a wet sump. space between them to allow access for
maintenance and repair (minimum of 1m);
The pumping station layout should be designed to
provide a flow route through the pumps and out to the The pumps should be arranged to draw from
TSE distribution system with the minimum number of and discharge to common manifolds;
bends and changes of direction. The common suction and discharge
manifolds should be located either side of the
The normal method of operation will be for the
pumps. The suction pipe should be recessed
storage tank to be filled at a steady rate, with the TSE
at a lower level and may require an open
pumps being run for extended periods discharging
mesh walkway over it at floor level with the
either directly to the TSE distribution system, filling
individual pump suction connections rising up
high level storage towers, or both.
through the covers. This solution is not
For distribution duty, the pumps should be operated practical in all situations, for example
under variable speed control to provide a constant hydraulic considerations such as NPSH
pressure under variable demands. available may require that the suction
pipework be as simple and as straight as
For storage tower filling, the pumps should be possible. Whatever design is implemented, a
operated at a constant speed, selected to fill the balance must be found between the
tower at a particular rate. competing factors in dry well design. Each
design is different and requires a bespoke
A flow meter and pressure sensor should be installed
solution;
in the discharge manifold to record the flow and
control the pressure. The common discharge manifold should be
designed to accommodate a magnetic flow
The pumps will usually be required to operate at meter, automatic filters and disinfection
particular times, rather than on storage tank level requirements;
control. Level sensors should be installed in the
suction storage tanks to ensure priming, and prevent Platforms and walkways should be provided
loss of suction of the pumps. Level sensors should to permit access to all equipment at a suitable
also be installed in all storage tanks to avoid over level for safe operation, maintenance and
filling and spillage. repair;
Craneage should be provided for the removal
All pumps should preferably have variable frequency
of all pumps, and valves 450mm dia and
drives and the control system should be designed to
over.
start/stop, ramp up/down, adjust and match the
speeds of all running pumps as required on changing Careful thought should also be given to the
demand, based on the system pressure. shipping route for removing equipment;
Fixed speed pumps utilising a smaller jockey pump Access to the dry well and machinery should
and bladder type pressure vessel are an alternative be by staircase so that tools and equipment
to the use of variable speed pumps particularly on can be carried in and out safely;
smaller systems. It is possible to omit the jockey The dry well floor should slope gently towards
pump for off peak network pressurisation duty if the one side wall and then to one end where a
pressure vessel volume is large enough to ensure the sump pump should be installed to keep the
main pumps do not repeatedly start and stop filling floor as dry as possible;
the vessel under low flow conditions.
The sump pump should be installed in a small
The control system should also be able to operate all well, large enough to accommodate the pump
pumps at constant speed for tower filling. and should discharge to the drainage system;

Drainage Affairs
A high level alarm should be installed in the Long drive shafts should have intermediate
dry well to give a warning of flooding before support bearings supported from concrete
damage to machinery occurs. beams spanning the dry well.
Pump Installation 2.8.3 Primary Movers
Double entry pumps have the suction in the centre on Electric Motors
one side of the pump, with the discharge directly
opposite on the other side. Care should be taken in selecting the type of electric
motor, with regard to the characteristics of the driven
Multistage pumps have the suction and discharge at load and the starting method. Where motors are to
the opposite ends of the pump. The suction can be be used in conjunction with variable frequency drives,
on the end or the side, the discharge is on the side they should be designed for such applications, or
but can be in any direction relative to the suction. suitably de-rated. The complete drive system should
Both pumps can be installed with the pump shaft be matched to ensure compatibility. Other
horizontal or vertical. considerations include:
The most compact footprint arrangement is for the All motors should be of the squirrel cage
pump to be installed with the shaft vertical and the induction type, suitable for operation with a
motor above, this allows the suction to be on one 415V, 690V or 3.3kV 3-phase, or 50Hz
side with the discharge on the other, but this will supply;
require an upper floor for the motors.
The continuous maximum rating of a motor
Pumps installed with the shaft horizontal will have a should be a minimum of 5% above the
longer footprint with the motor in the dry well and at calculated maximum power requirements
possible risk from flooding. Horizontal pumps are under all conditions of operation;
generally easier to maintain than vertical pumps.
Consideration should be given to providing
Pumps should generally be installed in a close- thermistors for temperature protection on all
coupled horizontal shaft configuration, unless the motors rated above 7.5kW;
drywell is deep or liable to flooding, when a vertical
Where the motors are installed vertically they
installation should be considered. Other
should be specifically designed for that
considerations include:
purpose with adequately rated end thrust
The pumps should be installed with sufficient bearings;
space between them to allow access for
Motors should be protected to IP55 class F.
maintenance and repair;
Standby Pumping
The pumps should be supplied with a mid-
range impeller, which will meet the design Standby pumping should normally be provided by
duty. However, the pump casing should be electric motor driven pumps as this allows a greater
sized to accept the maximum sized impeller degree of control. In the absence of any electrical
for that pump and the motor should be sized power, the use of diesel engine driven pumps should
to drive the maximum sized impeller; be considered.
Consideration should be given to fitting
When providing permanently installed diesel driven
temperature and vibration sensors to each
pumps where the reservoir is below ground,
pump set and connecting them to the station
consideration should be given to installing the engine
PLC;
at ground level with a 900 drive gearbox to a vertical
Pumps and motors installed with a drive shaft shaft pump installed below:
having universal joints should not be installed
directly in line; they should be slightly offset to Automatic start/stop diesel engines can be
provide movement to the universal joints; used for standby pumping;
Permanently installed diesel engines should
be located in a sound proofed enclosure;

Drainage Affairs
The diesel engine should be fixed speed; Torque is not controlled;

Pumps installed above the bottom water level Motor status is not considered.
should be fitted with an automatic vacuum
pump for priming. b AC drive flux vector control
using PWM
2.8.4 Variable Speed Drives
In this type, the speed and torque are controlled by
(VSD) the current, voltage, and frequency.
Variable speed drives are used in applications
requiring speed and torque control. This type of The advantages of the flux vector control are:
motor control is required in applications such as Good torque response;
pressurised irrigation networks, where the network
pressure is used as the control variable to modify the Accurate speed control;
speed of the pumps. The performance is very close to a DC drive;
Type of VSD Full torque / zero speed.
VSDs convert the incoming fixed frequency 3-phase The disadvantages of the flux vector control are:
AC power supply, into variable voltage and
Feedback required;
frequency, to control the speed of the motor.
Modulator required;
There are various types of variable speed drive in the
market. The main types can be categorised as High cost.
follows: Selection of VSDs
(1) DC motor drives;
The selection of the suitable VSD size should be
(2) AC drives - frequency control Pulse Width according to the following criteria:
Modulated (PWM);
Operating voltage (415V, 3.3kV, 6.6kV,11kV);
(3) AC drives - flux vector control (PWM).
Operating frequency (Operation range);
The construction of the above-mentioned
types varies from one to another according to Motor peak current;
the control process required as follows: Ambient temperature (site temperature).
For irrigation pumping applications the most suitable
type of VSD should give both variable torque and
a AC drives frequency control
variable speed. In normal applications, AC drives with
using (PWM)
PWM are recommended. The manufacturers
The speed control of the motor is achieved by guidance on the selection of the particular VSD
controlling both the voltage and frequency. should be sought for applications above 300kW for
LV applications, and for all sizes of HV application.
The advantage of the AC drive technology over DC HV applications should be avoided wherever
technology is that standard AC motors are less possible.
expensive.
Example of Control Philosophy with
The advantages of AC drive frequency control using VSDs
PWM are:
An example of a variable speed pump irrigation
Low cost; station can be seen in section 2.8.6.
No feedback required.
The disadvantages of AC drive frequency control
using PWM are:

Drainage Affairs
2.8.5 Motor Control Centre In case of multi incomer and outgoing

(starters/feeders), Form-4 should be
(MCC)
considered for ease of carrying out
The low voltage motor control centre (MCC) panel maintenance, without interruption to other
forms the link between the electrical loads, such as equipment in the case of isolation of a
motors and actuator valves, and the power particular feeder.
generation source (main authority supply, generator
set). Bus Bar Rating
The bus bar rating should be suitable to carry
The design of the MCC should take into
the total connected load as mentioned
consideration the following points:
previously. Consider any future loads, by
Total Connected Load increasing the size of the bus bars and also
consider the suitability of extension at both
The control panel sizing and design needs to ends.
cover the demand of the total load
connected, including the standby load as Type of Starter
well.
The designer should consider the following
Short Circuit Level points when choosing the starter type to be
used. The motor size (KW) will decide
The short circuit level calculation carried out whether a standard starter (direct on line,
according to the total connected load and DOL, star delta starter, Y/D) or more
power source from the local authority advanced type of starter (e.g. soft starter) is
electricity network. Care must be taken in the possible. The main issue to consider is the
design stage to control the fault level. If the starting current. The higher the (KW) rating
total connected load is too high then the load the more starting current required. The high
to the switchgear can be split into two or starting current has an effect on the system
more assemblies to reduce the fault level. stability and other equipment installed. The
Type of Co-ordination application of the motor or pumps should be
considered; e.g. for an irrigation system
Electrical components co-ordination where the network is always required to be
according to IEC 97-4-111 provides two types pressurised, a variable speed drive is often
of protection. Manufacturer tests components used to keep the network pressure constant
such as contactor, circuit breaker, undertaken and available all the time.
together, to confirm what will happen under
short circuit conditions.
According to IEC 947-4-1 the co-ordination Protection Device

between the electrical components can be The designer shall categorise the entire load
categorised into the following types: connected to the switchgear according to the
criticality of its status in the process, and its
Type -1 co-ordination (personal safety only);
effect on operator safety. Some of the
Type -2 co-ordination (personal/components protection types that can be used are as
safety). follows:
Form of Internal Separation 1) Short circuit protection
The form of separation should be according This type of protection is required to protect
to BSEN60439-112 or suitable equivalent. The the equipment against short circuit which can
designer should consider Form-4 in all be caused by insulation failure/damage, or by
designs for high personal safety and incorrect switching operation. Short circuits
equipment protection. are associated with electrical arcs.

Drainage Affairs
2) Overload protection due to the wrong direction of operation. This

type of protection can be applied at the main
This type of protection is required to protect incomers of the switchgear or motor feeder
the equipment against overload current. This by a special relay to sense the phase status
occurs due to operational over current (direction /availability) and trip the main
occurring for excessive periods of time. If the incomers/feeder if a fault occurs.
equipment (motor/cables) is incorrectly sized,
over current will also raise the (motor 5) Earth leakage protection
winding/cable) temperature above the
permissible level and shorten its service life. This type of protection is required to: protect
the equipment and personnel in the event of
The task of overload protection is to allow indirect contact; provide additional protection
normal operational overload such as starting in the event of single phase direct contact;
current to flow, but interrupt this flow where give earth fault protection; and protection
the permissible loading period is exceeded, against fires resulting from earth fault leakage
such as with a stalled motor. current.
3) Under/over voltage protection This type of protection can be applied at the

switchgear outgoing feeders
This type of protection is required to protect (motor/distribution board/other loads) by a
the equipment against over/under voltage special relay which senses the earth leakage
which is present due to: main power supply current through a summation current
instability (transformer taping change/load transformer. The unbalanced current from the
fluctuating); unstable supply from a standby transformer will release a mechanism that
generator due to a large load connected; will trip the breaker if a fault occurs.
faulty governors or voltage regulators.
Operation with an under-voltage condition will 6) Motor protection relay (electronic relay)
draw from the supply more current. This over
current will raise the motor winding or cable This type of protection is used to protect the
temperatures above the permissible level and motor against many faults that can affect the
shorten the service life of the insulation. The motor operation and safety. The required
same will be the case with over-voltage which protection type can vary according to the
will effect the insulation of the motor or cable, motor application (critical/normal) and size
and cause insulation failure. This type of (cost considerations). The following type of
protection can be applied at the main protection can be achieved by motor
incomers of the switchgear by special relay, protection relay:
to sense the voltage supply and trip the main -Over/Under current;
incomers if the set limits are exceeded.
-Phase losses/unbalance/reversal;
4) Phase losses/phase reversal protection
-Ground fault;
This type of protection is required to protect
the equipment against phase loss from the -Locked rotor;
main supply, or phase reversal, which can
happen in the event of main supply -Motor stall.
reconnection, or reconnection of the motor
This type of protection can be applied at the
after service. Operation with phase loss or
motor terminals. The fault signal from the
reversal will raise the motor winding
relay will release a mechanism that will trip
temperature due to unbalanced current in the
the breaker if a fault occurs. Fault indications
motor winding. In the case of phase reversal,
will appear on the relay LCD screen or
the motor direction will be reversed, which
indication LED, to diagnose the fault type.
will result in equipment damage or faulty
operation (pump vibration, high sound level) Interlocking Facility

Drainage Affairs
An Interlocking facility is required where more Wherever possible bottom access should be
than one incomer is used in the switchgear. provided with a man entry cable chamber
Some examples are as follows: extending under the entire control room.
1) Supply from two transformers/local 2.8.6 Instrumentation and

authority supply;
Control
2) Supply from two incomers, one from Pressure Sensors
transformer/local authority supply and
one from the standby generator(s) Pressure detection devices can be classified on the
panel; basis of the pressure ranges they can measure, on
the basis of the design principle involved in their
3) Supply from three incomers, two from operation, or on the basis of their application. This is
transformers/local authority supply and one of the most important instruments for irrigation
one from standby generator(s) panel. networks, which are usually controlled based on
pressure.
The interlock facility should guarantee the
safety of operation by not allowing, under any
conditions, the connection of two different Bellows-type Pressure Sensors
incomers to the same bus bar section Bellows are formed from seamless tubes
(transformer/transformer) or (transformer hydraulically or mechanically roll-formed. The main
/generator), or main bus bars with the bus advantages of bellows are their ability to provide
coupler closed. longer strokes and to handle higher forces. When
absolute pressure is to be sensed with bellows
Accessibility elements, it normally involves two bellows, one for
measuring and the other for reference. The
The panel access for cable termination and
compensating (reference) element is fully evacuated
maintenance can be arranged in the following
and sealed, while the sensing element is connected
format:
to the process. Basically, an increase in process
a) front access (suitable for installation pressure causes the measuring bellows to extend,
area with limited space at the back of which results in an increase of readout through the
the MCC); motion balance mechanism.
b) back access (suitable for installation Diaphragm or Capsule-type Sensors

area with available space at the back Among the electronic designs, the strain gauge,
side of the MCC, minimum 1m); capacitance, potentiometric, resonant wire,
c) front/back access. piezoelectric, inductive, reductive, and optical
transducers can all be provided with diaphragm
In all cases a minimum of 2m clear space elements. The full range deflection of a single
should be provided in front of the panel. diaphragm is usually limited to about 0.002in. and the
amount of deflection varies with the fourth power of
Cable Entry the diameter of the diaphragm. The total deflection
Cable entry to the MCC can be arranged in can also be increased by welding several diaphragms
the following format: into capsules. Diaphragm materials with good elastic
qualities and with very low temperature coefficients of
a) bottom entry (suitable for MCC fixed at elasticity are used. The diaphragm is a flexible disc,
the top of cable/MCC trench); either flat or with concentric corrugations, which is
made from sheet metal of precise dimensions. Some
b) top entry (suitable for MCC fixed in
instruments use the diaphragm as the pressure
below ground location with cables such
sensor; others use it as a component in a capsular
as feeders and incomers installed at
element.
ground level or above the MCC top level.

Drainage Affairs
Flow Meter Selection flow range. The repeatability of the result should be
within 0.2%.
Magnetic flow meters offer the designer the best
solution for TSE pumped flow. Magnetic-type flow In addition to the calibration certificate, the flow meter
meters use Faradays law of electromagnetic manufacturers should provide the following:
induction for making a flow measurement. That is,
when a conductor moves through a magnetic field of (1) Isolated 4-20mA DC and pulse outputs;
given field strength, a voltage level is produced in the (2) Programmable in-built alarm relays for
conductor that is dependent on the relative velocity empty pipe, low and reverse flows;
between the conductor and the field. Faraday
(3) In-built digital display for flow rate, total and
foresaw the practical application of the principle to
flow measurement, because many liquids are alarms;
adequate electrical conductors. So these meters (4) Transmitter enclosure shall be protecteto
measure the velocity of an electrically conductive IP67;
liquid as it cuts the magnetic field produced across
(5) Calibration and programming kit.
the metering tube. The principal advantages include
no moving components, no pressure loss, and no The earthing rings should be included according to
wear and tear in components. Magnetic flow meters the individual manufacturers instructions. The sensor
should always be installed with full pipe conditions. lining should be neoprene or an equivalent material
of similar or improved properties. In below-ground
Care should be taken during design to provide flow meter chamber installations, the installed
sufficient straight run, up-stream and down-stream of equipment should be submersible to the maximum
the flow meter in accordance with the manufacturers chamber depth.
installation instructions. As a general guideline, 12
pipe diameters of straight pipe on the inlet and 6 pipe Control Equipment
diameters on the outlet will ensure that the flow meter
is able to achieve the specified accuracy. If the PLC
amount of space available is restricted then the PLC stands for Programmable Logic Controller. The
minimum usually accepted by manufactures is inlet PLC is a microprocessor-based device which is
run > 5 pipe diameters and outlet run > 3 pipe programmed to perform certain controlling tasks. The
diameters. PLC is the brain of the overall process. It can receive
analogue and digital signals from the process
Refer to Volume 8 for standard installation details.
devices, analyse them and send digital and analogue
The installation should allow for the future removal
signals to control these devices or activate certain
and replacement of the flow meter. The
alarms.
manufacturers requirements should take
precedence. PLCs were originally used for controlling purposes.
Almost all PLCs are now equipped with signal
The following International and British Standards are
transmitters (i.e. they include some RTU features)
a good source of information on flow meter selection
that are capable of transmitting data to the network
and installation, and can be quoted in specifications:
operation centre.
BS EN ISO 6817: 1997: Measurement of
A redundant PLC system with hot standby
Conductive Liquid Flow in Closed Conduits13;
configuration is highly recommended for critical
BS 7405: 1991: Guide to Selection and applications where uninterrupted control is required.
Application of Flow meters for the The power Supply for a PLC system is usually 24Vdc
Measurement of Fluid Flow in Closed or 110Vac. In case of power failure, the equipment
Conduits14. should be backed up by a UPS system which can
supply the PLC with up to 8 hours of power
Flow meters should be pressure tested and
depending on the importance of the process.
calibrated by the manufacturer and certified to a
traceable international standard. As a minimum, the
overall accuracy should be better than 0.5% of the

Drainage Affairs
The modular type CPU (Central Processing Unit) in the failure of one pump which will be classed
the PLC is capable of: solving application logic; as the standby pump, and the other two
storing the application program; storing numerical pumps will continue to run normally.
values related to the application processes and logic;
and interfacing with the I/O systems. RTU
RTU stands for Remote Telemetry Unit. This unit
The PLC carries out a significant task which is PID delivers remote information back to network
control. PID (Proportional-Integral-Derivative) control operation centres. Operations staff can access
allows the process control to accurately maintain set- remote sites that have RTUs, via a web browser,
point by adjusting the control outputs. For example, SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)
pump flow rate set-point is maintained by the Manager, and XML (Extensible Markup Language). If
following: an ethernet connection is not available, then the
RTU's may be accessed via PSTN (Public Switched
Proportioning Band: is the area around the
Telephone Network), normal dialup and even SMS
set-point where the controller is actually
(Short Message Service) messaging.
controlling the process. The output is at some
level other than 100% or 0%. The band is Earlier generation RTUs were hardwired and
generally centred around the set-point (on supported limited functionalitys such as data transfer
single output controls) causing the output to and alarming. The new generation RTUs are
be at 50% when the set-point and the flow equipped with a powerful processor which allows the
rate are equal; RTU to control certain instruments/devices, and
Automatic Reset (Integral): corrects for any receive/transmit analogue and digital I/O
offset (between set-point and process (input/output) signals.
variable) automatically over time by shifting
The microprocessor-based RTU has a proven track
the proportioning band. Reset redefines the
record within the water and wastewater industry, a
output requirements at the set-point until the
robust modular construction, and is constructed for
process variable (flow rate) and the set-point
ease of maintenance and repair. These are intelligent
are equal;
devices capable of handling data collection, logging,
Rate (Derivative): Shifts the proportioning reporting by exception, current data retrieval and
band on a slope change of the process pump sequence control programs.
variable. Rate in effect applies the "brakes" in
an attempt to prevent overshoot (or RTUs equipped with RS232/485 links are
undershoot) on process upsets or start-up. recommended for interconnection to standalone
Unlike Reset, Rate operates anywhere within control systems, standard equipment packages and
the range of the instrument. Rate usually has PLCs (Programmable Logic Controller). A dedicated
an adjustable time constant and should be serial port should be provided for connecting a hand
set much shorter than Reset. The larger the held programming unit or the PC.
time constant, the more effect the Rate will
The RTU software enables the RTU to process
have; locally input equipment information before
Modulated Simplex I/O system: is the transmitting it to the master station to reduce
preferred solution for safe process since the transmission overheads. A report by exception
duplex (redundant) I/O system is usually operation is necessary for cost effective
expensive. The modulated simplex I/O communication. The report is triggered by change of
configuration guarantees that any failure of a state of digital values or analogues reaching
single I/O card will not cause the relevant I/O threshold values or varying by specified amounts.
rack to fail. For instance, if a rack contains The RTU also reports when polled and when the
three I/O cards which control three pumps (2 memory buffer is full.
duty, 1 standby), the failure of one card will
cause the whole pumping process to fail. In SCADA and Telemetry Systems
Modulated Simplex I/O systems, it will cause

Drainage Affairs
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) is background. As the data changes in the field, the
an industrial measurement and control system foreground is updated, e.g. a valve may be shown as
consisting of a central host or master (usually called open or closed. Analogue data can be shown either
a master station, master terminal unit or MTU); one as a number, or graphically. The system may have
or more field data gathering and control units or many such displays, and the operator can select from
remotes (RTUs); and a collection of standard and/or the relevant ones at any time.
custom software used to monitor and control
remotely located field data elements. Contemporary The SCADA control centre in Doha City is currently
SCADA systems exhibit predominantly open-loop using Intouch Wonderware as the main software for
control characteristics and utilise predominantly long- control and networking between the controlled sites
distance communications, although some elements and the central station.
of closed-loop control and/or short distance Control Philosophy
communications may also be present.
The control philosophy is the way the system will act
Systems similar to SCADA systems are routinely
to process changes to achieve the objective required.
seen in factories, treatment plants etc. These are For the control philosophy to function according to
often referred to as Distributed Control Systems
the client requirements several points should by
(DCS). They have similar functions to SCADA
taken into account:
systems, but the field data gathering or control units
are usually located within a more confined area. Overall controlling plan. This involves
Communications may be via a local area network preparing an overall plan of how the task
(LAN), and will normally be reliable and high speed. required will be achieved. In other words
A DCS system usually employs significant amounts stating the main tasks which will allow
of closed loop control. performance of the general task required;
SCADA systems on the other hand generally cover Realistic operational function. The sequence
larger geographic areas, and rely on a variety of and the functions of the operation should be
communications systems that are normally less realistic and achievable. This means all
reliable than a LAN. Closed-loop control in this process restrictions and conflicts should be
situation is less desirable. identified and avoided while producing the
control philosophy document;
The main use of SCADA is to monitor and control
Compatibility of products. This is about
plant or equipment. The control may be automatic, or
verifying that the control philosophy planned
initiated by operator commands. The data acquisition
is accomplished firstly by the RTUs scanning the field is achievable by existing industrial products;
inputs connected to the RTU (it may be also called a Cost effective. The choice of the products
PLC - programmable logic controller). This is usually should be cost effective. That means
at a fast rate. The central host will scan the RTUs unnecessary items should be taken out. At
(usually at a slower rate). The data is processed to this stage, it is possible to change the control
detect alarm conditions, and if an alarm is present, it philosophy slightly if it will decrease the
will be displayed on special alarm lists. Data can be overall cost of the project, on the condition
of three main types: Analogue data (i.e. real that the overall control philosophy will be
numbers) will be trended (i.e. placed in graphs); unaffected;
Digital data (on/off) may have alarms attached to one
Hazard awareness. When designing the
state or the other; and Pulse data (e.g. counting
control philosophy, we should take into
revolutions of a meter) is normally accumulated or
account that a failure in the devices or an
counted.
error in the process might appear. In this
The primary interface to the operator is a graphical process, all possible hazards should be
display (mimic) which shows a representation of the located and their effect on the control
plant or equipment in graphical form. Live data is philosophy should be cleared or at least
shown as graphical shapes (foreground) over a static minimised.

Drainage Affairs
Example Irrigation Station Control If three pumps are running and their speed has been
Philosophy Using VSDs reduced to the minimum operating set-point (default
70%) and the controller is still calling for the speed to
The main pump control shall be achieved using be reduced; the first pump to start (the duty 1 pump)
variable speed pumps controlled by a PID controller, should be stopped. The remaining two pumps should
usually resident in the PLC or RTU. The set-point then be controlled to allow the header pressure to
(SP), Proportional (P), Integral (I) and Derivative (D) equal the set-point value.
terms of the controller should be configurable locally
or be downloaded via the SCADA system. The Similarly, if two pumps are running and their speed
process variable (PV) shall be the discharge header has been reduced to the minimum operating set-point
pressure. and the controller is still calling for the speed to be
reduced, the pump that has been running the longest
Upon receipt of the pump permissive signal, the should be stopped and the remaining pump
control system shall start the duty 1 variable speed controlled until the pressure has reached the set-
drive and ramp its speed up to the 1 pump operation point value.
set-point (default 70%). A pre-determined
stabilisation period (default 30 seconds) should then 2.8.7 Pump Suction and
allow the pressure in the discharge header to settle.
Delivery Design
The PID controller should then alter the speed of the
pump to control the discharge header pressure to Pipework
equal the set-point pressure.
The pipework installation should incorporate the
The controller shall continue to modulate the speed following features:
of the variable speed drive based on changes in the
discharge header pressure. If the pressure rises The pipework should be designed to allow the
above the set point the pump speed shall be reduced pumps to draw from and discharge to
and if the pressure falls below the set-point, the pump common manifolds;
speed shall be increased. The common suction and discharge
manifolds should be located either side of the
When the duty pump reaches full speed and remains
pumps. The suction pipe should be recessed
at full speed for a pre-set time (Usually around 120
at a lower level and may require an open
seconds), the duty 2 pump should be started.
mesh walkway over it at floor level with the
The duty 2 pump should ramp up its speed to the 2 individual pump suction connections rising up
pump operational set-point (usually 75%), through the covers;
concurrently the duty 1 pump should be controlled to The pipework should be designed with
the same value. sufficient flange adapters or bends to allow
easy dismantling and removal of pumps, non-
Once both drives have reached the selected speed
return valves or other major items of
they shall be controlled together by the PID
equipment;
controller. With the speed being increased and
decreased based on changes in the discharge All flexible couplings will require restraint to
header pressure. prevent displacement under pressure. The
pipework design should allow the suction and
Similarly in the case of a three duty pump station the discharge pipework to and from the pumps to
third duty pump shall be started when two pumps are be completely bolted, with bends to allow
running and have reached maximum speed for the dismantling;
pre-set period (around 120 seconds). At this point the
duty 1 and duty 2 pumps shall be ramped down to Each pump should be installed with suction
the 3 pump operational speed set-point (usually 75%) and discharge isolating valves bolted directly
and concurrently the third pump ramped up to the to the common manifolds which permit
same set-point. isolation for maintenance, while allowing the
other pumps to continue operating normally;

Drainage Affairs
Each pump should also be fitted with a 2.8.8 Surge Protection

discharge non return valve to prevent reverse
flow through the pump and a suction strainer Surge (or water hammer) is an oscillating pressure
to prevent blockage of the impeller passages wave generated in a pipeline during changes in the
by debris; flow conditions.
Consideration should be given to providing an There are four common causes of surge in a pipeline:
isolating valve on the pumping main before
any over-pumping connection, to allow the pump starting;
pumping station to be fully isolated and the pump stopping/power failure;
fixed pipework drained for repair. valve action;
Consideration should also be given to improper operation of surge control devices.
providing a valved connection for draining the
discharge pipework. Suction velocities should The most likely one of these is the sudden stopping
not normally exceed 1.8m/s but should be as of all pumps caused by a power failure.
low as practical to improve the NPSH
An approximate calculation for a simple pipeline is:
available (see 2.8.1). Discharge velocities
should not normally exceed 2.5m/s; P = a x V
Sumps should be designed in accordance g
with the recommendations of the CIRIA guide
The hydraulic design of pump sumps and Equation 2.8.2
intakes15 which gives guidance on sump Where:
design, suction bellmouth clearances and P = Pressure change (m)
measures to avoid vortex formation.
a = pressure wave velocity (m/s)
Valves
V = flow velocity change in 1 cycle (m/s)
Valves should incorporate the following features:
Isolation valves for TSE should be of the g = acceleration of gravity (9.81m/s2)
double-flanged wedge-gate type with a bolt- The simple cycle time can be calculated with the
on bonnet. When fully open, the gate should formula:
be withdrawn completely from the flow. The
valve handwheel direction of operation should Cycle time = 2 x pipeline length
be clockwise to close. Station valves should Wave velocity
have metal seats;
All sluice valves above 500mm bore (300mm Equation 2.8.3
if power actuated) should be provided with
jacking screws; Table 2.8.1 below shows wave velocity in m/s for
Reflux valves for TSE should be of the double pipe materials.
flanged, quick action single door type,
Table 2.8.1 - Indicative Surge Wave Velocity
designed to minimise slam on closure by
Values for Selected Pipe Materials
means of heavy doors weighted as
Pipe Material Velocity (m/s)
necessary;
Ductile Iron 1000 1400
Reflux valves should be provided with covers
Reinforced Concrete 1000 1200
for maintenance without the need to remove
Plastics & GRP 300 500
the valve from the pipeline. The covers NOTE: As the wave velocity is partially dependent on
should be large enough to permit removal of the physical properties of the pipe, the wave velocity for
the flap and inspection of the seat. the particular pipe under consideration must be
assessed for each scheme.

Drainage Affairs
If the surge pressure approaches zero or the pipeline Refilling is usually from a high-pressure cylinder and
maximum pressure, a full surge analysis should be care should be taken to avoid over pressurisation of
carried out. the bladder. Bladders should not lose pressure in
normal operation, but they can fail, leading to
Surge Suppression Methods absorption of the gas into the liquid, and a drop in
pressure.
Surge suppression could be achieved using one of
the following devices. The most appropriate device Vessels without a bladder are charged with air
will depend on the individual circumstances of the pressure from an air compressor, either manually or
installation: automatically. There is therefore additional machinery
Flywheel; and an additional maintenance requirement. This
type of surge vessel is not recommended.
Pressure vessel with bladder;
On pump start-up, liquid enters the vessel,
Dip-tube surge vessel;
compressing the gas until it equals the liquid
Surge tower. pressure. When the pump stops, the gas pressure
forces liquid back out into the pipe system, both
Air valves should not be used as a method of surge
actions slow the rate of pressure change, which
control, but their operation under surge conditions
reduces the peak surge pressure.
should be carefully considered.
To dampen oscillations, a non-return valve may be
Flywheels
fitted to the surge vessel outlet pipe, to allow
Flywheels absorb energy on start-up, slowing the rate unrestricted flow into the pipeline, and a bypass
of velocity change in the pipeline. In reverse, when around the NRV fitted with an orifice plate to restrict
the pump is stopping, the flywheel releases energy the flow back into the vessel.
again, slowing the rate of velocity change. Together
these two actions reduce the peak surge pressure. Dip Tube Surge Vessels
A dip tube surge vessel is pressure vessel, the top
As the flywheel must be located on the drive shaft it
portion forming a compression chamber limited by a
is not suitable for submersible pumps or close-
dipping tube with a shut off float valve.
coupled pumps. However, they are simple devices
for wet well/dry well pumps and are preferred where This type of vessel is particularly appropriate for use
possible. on rising mains with flat profiles.
If submersible pumps have been chosen, a larger Surge Towers

pump running at a slower speed may have the effect
A surge tower is a vertical tank or pipe fitted into the
of a flywheel.
pipeline, open to atmosphere and the energy storage
Because the flow continues through the pump after is by the static head of the liquid in the tower.
the stop signal, the effect on the stop and start levels
Surge towers are only practical for systems with
should be carefully considered.
relatively low heads and surge pressures, but can
Pressure Vessels pose an odour risk.
Pressure vessels for surge suppression are tanks Due to the design of a surge tower, there is no
partially filled with a gas (air or nitrogen). Usually the routine maintenance required to ensure the surge
liquid is contained in a bladder with gas on the tower keeps operating correctly.
outside to prevent the liquid absorbing the gas or
coming into contact with the inside of the pressure It is unlikely that surge towers would be appropriate
vessel, and this is the preferred type. The bladder for use in Qatar.
material should be carefully selected for use in the
conditions experienced in Qatar.

Drainage Affairs
Air Valves irrigation in particular requires very clean water if

Air valves are required on the pumping mains to clogging is to be avoided. This can be achieved by
release air, but they should not be used as a surge either providing a very high standard of effluent for
protection measure. the sewage treatment works (5mg/l SS) or by
provision of filters at the tertiary pumping stations.
However, air valves, particularly if fitted with a vented
non-return valve or in-flow check valve, may assist in The filtration installation needs to suit the specific
surge control, and their operation must be carefully requirements of the downstream irrigation systems.
considered. In the case of a system such as that proposed for
Doha comprising pressurised primary transmission
Air valves require regular maintenance because if the and distribution pipelines feeding the irrigation
air valve does not function correctly, large or negative systems directly, the filtration system must be
surge pressures could result, with consequent provided at each main pumping station. The
damage to equipment or personnel. specified filtration must meet the highest filtration
requirements of any of the downstream irrigation
If air is allowed into the rising main on pump stop/trip systems and be effective at preventing clogging of
through an air valve, the pump control system should drip emitters, damage to the solenoid valves,
be designed to prevent a restart until the transient scouring, and wear or damage to the pumps. In
pressures have stabilised. order to satisfy these requirements and provide the
preferred level of protection, the filtration system will
Control of the pumps is usually by start/stop level
normally comprise the following elements:
signals, but where surge on start-up may have a
significant effect, the use of soft starters should be a Coarse Filtration
considered.
The primary purpose of coarse filtration is to provide
2.8.9 Air Valves protection to the pumps. From time to time, objects
such as grit, stones and pieces of wood etc. find their
Double orifice type air release valves should be
way into the irrigation water and can cause serious
installed on the pipeline at appropriate points in order
damage to the pumps. It is normal practice to include
to prevent air pockets from building up.
a large Y-strainer to ensure that such debris will not
As a minimum air valves should be provided at the enter the pumps, and to provide the first line of
following locations: defence in the overall irrigation filtration.
All high points The Y-strainers will be installed on the suction line
from the reservoir and will have a relatively coarse
At least every 1000m
screen of typically about 20-mesh, or as necessary to
The valves shall be capable of handling TSE water at suit the recommendations of the pump manufacturer.
40C without any adverse effects and have 316
b Main Pressure Filters
stainless steel or Ethylene Propylene Diene
Monomer (EPDM) coated float balls. The main pressure filters need to provide filtration
that meets the requirements of the downstream
All air valves should be fitted with an isolating gate
irrigation system. They must be able to remove
valve.
particulates (sand etc.), which will clog drip emitters
The manufacturers data sheets should be referred to and which will also damage the valve seats of
for the performance data to be included in any surge solenoid valves. It is also essential that they are able
analysis. to remove biological organisms (especially algae)
that build up and clog drip emitters.
2.8.10 Filtration
The degree of filtration depends upon the selection of
Clean irrigation water is an essential requirement for drip emitters and other application devices, but 150-
trouble-free operation of irrigation systems and for mesh (equivalent to about 100 microns) is
helping to minimise maintenance commitments. Drip

Drainage Affairs
recommended as a good specification that would spin round and release the filtered matter.
substantially reduce maintenance problems. They are relatively compact in size but should
be installed indoors, preferably in the
If there is algae growth in a TSE resevoir it can cause pumping station. Disc filters are well suited to
a particular problem with drip irrigation systems. medium-sized irrigation pumping stations but
Algae growth can be prevented by ensuring that light there is no technical reason why they should
does not enter the reservoir and also by chlorination. not be installed in a main centralised pumping
Algal slime or similar organic matter will readily facility.
squeeze through any type of filtration screen, even of
fine mesh, and it also attaches itself to the filter Irrespective of the type of filtration selected, the
screen where it will hold tiny particles that otherwise performance of the pump sets must take into account
would pass through. For these reasons, screen the head loss through the filtration system. Head
filters do not provide effective filtration against algae, loss through the filters increases with increased flow
and the overall effectiveness of filtration will also be as well as with the degree of filtration. The
reduced. The options for irrigation filtration that are requirements of the back-flushing cycle also need to
effective at removing algae as well as hard be taken into consideration in the specification of the
particulates are either media filters or disc filters. pump sets and design of the pumping station.
Selection of the most appropriate solution will depend
upon cost considerations, space availability, pump c Downstream Final Filtration
characteristics and pumping station configuration. Although not part of the pumping station installation,
The main characteristics of these two options are as
as a final line of defence, a Y-strainer should be
follows:
provided at the downstream end of the irrigation
Media Filters system in each solenoid valve. Refer to section
3.1.1.
Media filters work by forcing water through
large vessels containing uniform size crushed 2.8.11 Ventilation and Air
sand or similar medium. The sharp edges of Conditioning
the medium are able to trap organic matter
such as algae. Media filters are cleaned by a Ventilation systems should be designed so that in the
back-flushing process that lifts and separates event of a fire being detected in any area, all the air
the medium. A small amount of the medium conditioning equipment and ventilation systems are
escapes, and needs to be replenished from shut down. All supply and exhaust ventilation louvers
time to time. Media filters are less effective should shut automatically to compartmentalise the
for removing sand particles because these building to restrict the spread of the fire and smoke,
are not flushed out during back-flushing. and ensure effective use of automatic fire
Media filters are physically large in size and extinguishing systems.
therefore space availability may be an issue.
The air conditioning system and ventilation fans
It is necessary to place a screen filter on the
should be run together and ventilation fan louvers
outlet to trap the escaping particles of
should shut, when the fan stops.
medium. For optimal operation, media filters
need to be carefully matched to system flow Louvers should be sized to keep the air velocity
rates and do not work well with low flows; through them below 0.5m/s.
Disc Filters
Air ducts should be designed to ensure the velocity
Disc filters comprise stacks of plastic discs through them does exceed 6m/s in occupied areas.
with a special surface that catches both
inorganic and organic particles as the water is
forced between the discs. They are typically
factory-assembled into multiple batteries.
The back-flushing cycle pushes the discs
apart, loosening them and allowing them to

Drainage Affairs
Air Conditioning Systems and one unit fail, the other unit will provide 75% of the
Ventilation Capacities required air conditioning capacity.
The required air conditioning systems and The required thermal load should be calculated on
ventilation capacities are shown in Tables 2.8.2 and the basis of peak conditions.
2.8.3.
Ventilation
Table 2.8.2 - Air Conditioning Systems The required quantity of exhaust air should be
Location Air Condition system removed from electrical switch gear rooms to the
Electric Switch Dual Split AC unit pump room by a fan with an actuated louver.
Gear system
Control Room Split AC unit system Air inlet should be by natural supply through a
filtered and actuated louver.
Table 2.8.3 - Ventilation Capacities In the event of a fire, the electrically actuated
Location Approx. air louvers should be closed to seal electrical switch-
changes per
hour.* gear rooms during the use of any fire extinguishing
Electric 1 system.
Switchgear
Room Control Rooms, Kitchens and Toilets
Pump hall, 12
motor room
and control Air Conditioning
rooms A single split AC unit should be provided for air
Kitchen 12 conditioning the control room. No air conditioning
and Toilet should be provided for the kitchen or toilet.
The kitchen and toilet areas should be ventilated by

Electrical Switch Gear Rooms exhausting part of the control room air through them.
Electrical switch gear rooms should be completely
isolated from the remainder of the building for the Ventilation
following reasons: Exhaust air in the kitchen and toilet areas should be
discharged outside the building. The fans should be
The thermal loads are higher than elsewhere in run continuously for the following reasons:
the building;
Providing the required air changes for the
In the event of a fire being detected, the air control room and kitchen;
conditioning should be switched off to allow the
fire suppression equipment to operate Keeping the toilet and kitchen area
effectively. ventilated;
Air louvers should be fitted in the bottom of
Air Conditioning kitchen and toilet doors.
Two split AC units working independently
(mechanically and electrically) of each other should Pump Rooms
be used to air condition the room, with air diffusers
discharging horizontally towards the panels. Return Ventilation
air should be sucked back by the split unit, via Air supply should be provided by either two or three
receiving air diffusers located at evenly placed duty fans and one standby fan, depending on the
points between the supply air diffusers, and fixed to size of the pump room. The air extracted from any
the ceiling. electrical switch gear rooms should be included in
the air supply calculations.
Each split AC unit should be rated at 50% above the
required capacity (i.e. 150% total), so that should

Drainage Affairs
Exhaust air should be removed by either two or the generator must be capable of accepting the
three duty fans and one standby fan, depending on largest starting load last with all other loads
the size of the pump room. connected.
The exhaust fans should have approximately 5% Standby generators should have a fuel header tank
less flow capacity than the supply fans to keep the sized for a minimum of 24 hours running at full load.
building at a slight positive air pressure. This is to
avoid drawing unfiltered dust laden air into the pump A bulk fuel tank with a further 7 days fuel at full load
and MCC rooms. This reduces the amount of dust should also be provided on site.
in the rooms, which can enter electric motors and
The header tank size could be reduced if an
switchgear, drastically shortening the equipment life. automatic replenishment system from the bulk tank
Pump rooms should have 10 air changes an hour. is provided. The replenishment system should
The cable basement should also be ventilated as maintain the header tank contents at a level
part of the pump room ventilation system. providing sufficient time for someone to attend the
site in the event of failure.
2.8.12 Standby Generation
2.8.13 Maintenance Access and
Before selecting a generator, a list should be
compiled of all electrical loads which the generator Lifting Gear
will be required to support. There should be no Safe access should be provided to all equipment
diversity factor on the generator loads. Each load and local control panels at all times.
should have its maximum starting load calculated to
determine the largest starting load. Access walkways, platforms and stairs should be
designed so that no dismantling is required for
Standby generating sets with varying loads due to normal routine maintenance. Vertical access should
changes in pump numbers or speeds etc. should be be by staircase so that tools and equipment can be
rated for Prime Power (PRP) duty in accordance carried in and out safely. Ladder access should be
with BS 7698/ISO852816, taking into account the restricted to infrequent visual inspection points.
running and starting loads.
Access around equipment for operation should be
Where there is a requirement for continuous running installed at a level where all the controls can be
at high load for extended periods, Continuous reached and operated easily without excessive
Output (COP) duty rating should be considered. stretching or bending and where all indicators can
be seen.
Limited time running power (LTP) generating sets
should be avoided. LTP generators are unlikely to Access around equipment for maintenance and
have sufficient reserve power to handle the largest repair should be installed at a level where all the
starting load with all other loads connected. maintenance points can be reached, dismantled and
removed without excessive stretching or bending.
Standby generators should be sized to carry the full
Particular attention should be paid to lifting gear
load of all electrical equipment connected to it plus
access and operation where heavy equipment is
the largest starting load. Generators for high
involved.
starting load installations should be generously
sized. Access below ground to dry wells should be by
staircase so that tools and equipment can be carried
Electrical loads connected to a standby generator
in and out safely.
should include all pumps, compressors, ACUs and
controls essential for the operation of the pumping Permanent access to wet wells and screen
station. All other loads should be disconnected and chambers should be provided, using stainless steel
inhibited. or GRP to just above TWL to allow for cleaning. The
access arrangements should be designed such that
When loading a generator, it is preferable to connect
an operator could be rescued from the sump with a
the largest load first and the smallest load last, but
safety harness and man-winch.

Drainage Affairs
When designing access to equipment, careful Suitable for single heavy loads outdoors which must
thought should be given to shipping routes for be moved in all directions i.e. large submersible
removing equipment to a suitable position for further pumps.
work, or for removing from the pumping station
completely. Exit routes for equipment should not be Location of lifting equipment
the same as for personnel access unless there is an Lifting equipment should be provided
alternative escape route.
adjacent to all heavy items that require
When the lifting gear has taken the weight of lifting;
equipment and the equipment is released from its Lifting equipment should be positioned to
position, the clearance in the shipping route should provide a straight lift of the load and also be
be large enough for the equipment to pass through able to lower the load directly to a suitable
without rearrangement. setting down position;
Permanent or temporary lifting facilities should be Where lifting through openings in floors, the
provided for equipment that can not be easily lifted. lifting gear should be positioned to allow a
Consideration should be given to the weight, shape direct single lift up through all floors without
and position of the item to be lifted. As a guide lifting moving the lifting point or rearranging the
facilities should be provided for anything over 25kg. load.
For long or heavy lifts, gantry cranes should be Controls for Lifting Equipment
powered in all motions. Trolley cranes should
Overhead electric cranes and chain blocks
generally be power lift with manual motion, but small
should be provided with a low voltage
units should be manual on all motions. pendant control suspended from a glide
The following types of lifting equipment are track, independent of the lifting block. The
available: pendant control should extend to within
500mm of the operating floor, but not touch
Lifting Eye and Chain Block the floor;
Suitable for single straight lifts only inside a building Electric chain blocks should be provided with
or dry well. Not suitable for side forces, but may be a low voltage pendant control suspended
used in conjunction with other suitable lifting eyes to from the block. The pendant control should
swing a load sideways. extend to within 500mm of the operating
floor but not touch the floor;
Davit, Socket and Chain Block
Hand operating chains should extend to
Suitable for most small single lifts i.e. submersible within 500mm of the operating floor but not
pumps up to 250kg. Above this, the davit becomes touch the floor;
too heavy to be manhandled.
Long travel drive chains should be located to
Runway Beam, Trolley and Chain Block avoid snagging, and allow the operator safe
passage;
Suitable when there are a number of loads in a
straight line, or where a single load must be moved With the load hook in its highest position, if a
sideways. For heavy loads or long lifts, the chain load chain touches the operating floor or any
block and trolley should be electrically powered. item of plant, a chain collection box should
be fitted.
Overhead Gantry Crane
Suitable for installations where there are dispersed
2.8.14 Geotechnical Information
or heavy loads that must be moved in all directions. Geotechnical investigation must be completed
before any structural design can be undertaken. A
Mobile Crane
specialised geotechnical engineering firm shall be
employed to design, procure, and supervise the

Drainage Affairs
necessary field works, in-situ and laboratory testing Atterberg limits on fine grained fraction (less
works. than 425 microns);
For storage reservoirs at ground level or overhead Bulk density;

(water towers), bearing capacity and settlement are Chemical analysis to determine total
prime foundation considerations. For pumping sulphate, water soluble chloride and pH (BS
stations or underground storage reservoirs, bearing 137717, 1990 part 3);
capacity and settlement are of less concern, but
flotation, stability and methods of excavation for Uniaxial compressive stress.
temporary works are major considerations. Additional laboratory tests are often required to
provide geotechnical design parameters for bearing
The design of geotechnical investigations should
capacity, settlement, and stability assessment as
therefore be tailored to suit the type of structures to
appropriate to the structures.
be constructed, taking account of the expected
geology in the area concerned. Descriptions of the The field and laboratory works should be undertaken
regional geology of Qatar are given in Volume 1, by an approved site investigation contractor. All
Section 4.2 and Volume 5, Section 1.2.1. subsurface investigation, sampling, testing and
reporting shall be as required by BS 5930 - Code of
As part of the investigation stage it may be
practice for site investigation18 and BS 1377 - Soils
necessary to drill boreholes and excavate test pits to
for engineering purposesError! Bookmark not defined..
determine the nature of the subsurface. Site
Reporting requirements are described in Volume 1,
investigation (SI) information is essential for the
Section 3.1.
structural design and to reduce the tender risks.
Prior to deciding what SI is required, an examination 2.8.15 Sub- and Superstructure
should be made of all existing SI information
available for the site, as well as an understanding of
Design
the general geology of the site. The DA holds a General
library of documents on previous projects and this
should be the first source of information. The site for the future pumping station should be
carefully considered, bearing in mind the following:
The number of boreholes to be sunk will be
dependent on the size of the site. A minimum of two (1) Sufficient area to construct and maintain
is recommended for a single structure. For large the facility, as well as allowing for future
sites where there are numerous structures, expansion;
boreholes at between 50m to 100m centres are (2) Distance to the existing distribution and
recommended. In cases where existing information transmission system;
is available, additional boreholes are still likely to be
required in order to provide supplementary (3) Need for new distribution and transmission
information and confirmation of existing information. pipelines to meet pressure standards;
(4) Existing ground surface elevation and site
Trial pits should be dug adjacent to any structure
drainage;
that needs the foundations investigated and at one
or two miscellaneous locations to enable a visual (5) Site access;
examination of the subsoil.
(6) Geotechnical investigations;
All boreholes and trial pits should be logged by a (7) Availability of power.
competent person. The groundwater level should
be recorded. Falling head permeability tests should A pumping station usually consists of two main
be carried out on at least two boreholes. parts, a substructure below the ground level, on top
of which is a superstructure consisting of a building.
The following basic tests on the samples should be
carried out in the laboratory: The primary consideration while designing a
pumping station is to accommodate the plant
Particle size distribution; needed to meet the required duty. This would

Drainage Affairs
include: the type and number of pump sets; their Superstructure

drives, valves and pipework; power supplies;
method of starting and control; access for The design and construction of the pumping station
maintenance; and surge protection, if needed. Once is mainly related to engineering considerations,
the plant detailed requirements are decided, design however in the case of the building forming the
of the pumping station building can proceed. superstructure, the surrounding amenity has often to
be considered and attention to appearance may
Substructure therefore be important. Once the functional
requirements, including the leading dimensions have
In the case of an irrigation pumping station, the been established, the design should become the
substructure will usually consist of an underground responsibility of an architect.
compartment to house pumping plant, pipework and
control valves. The size of the superstructure should Structural Design
be sufficient to house the plant and pipework with an
adequate allowance of free floor space for Reinforced concrete shall be used in the
maintenance and running repairs. Allowance may construction of the substructure and is preferred in
also be required for the installation of future plant. In the construction of the superstructure. However, if
general, a cramped layout of plant and pipework is the pumping station is to be located in an industrial
to be avoided. The floor should fall to a drainage area, where the surrounding amenity is not so
sump, drained by a dedicated pump or to an important, a steel clad structure may be considered
adjacent drainage system, if feasible. Access to the for the superstructure.
substructure floor should be in the form of steel or
The Codes of Practice listed in Table 2.8.4 below
concrete stairways with landings, if the depth shall be used while preparing structural designs.
requires it.
Table 2.8.4 - Codes of Practice for use in Structural Designs

Item Standard/Code Description
1 BS 8110 Structural use of Concrete
Parts 1, 2 & 3
2 BS 5950 Structural use of steel work in building - code of practice for

Part 1 simple & continuous construction : hot rolled sections
3 BS 5628 Code of practice for use of Masonry

Part 1 Part 1 Structural use of unreinforced masonry
4 BS 8004 Foundations
5 BS 6399 Design loading for buildings
Part 1 Code of practice for dead & imposed loads
Part 2 Code of practice for wind loads
Part 3 Code of practice for imposed roof loads
6 BS 4449 Specification for carbon steel bars for reinforcement of concrete
7 BS 2573: Rules for the design of Cranes

Part 1: 1983 Part 1: Specification for classification, stress calculations and
design criteria for structure
8 BS 8007 Design of concrete structures for retaining aqueous liquids
9 BS 648 Schedule of weights of building materials

Drainage Affairs
2.9 TSE Towers 2.10 TSE Ground Tanks

Water towers are necessary in areas of flat General
topography in order to provide sufficient pressure for
delivery into the distribution system. Because of Ground tanks are either elevated reservoirs (located
construction constraints, they provide limited water on a high ground) or low level reservoirs with a
storage and do not provide an economical solution. pumping system. Depending on the requirements,
The designer should aim to produce a structure that low level reservoirs can be buried, partially buried or
is aesthetically acceptable to the DA and the above ground. Reservoirs should mainly be
planning authorities, bearing in mind that it will constructed from reinforced or pre-stressed
become a landmark in the area it serves. Ancillary concrete. In some circumstances, they may also be
equipment including pipework, ladders, constructed using steel or glass reinforced plastics.
instrumentation and booster pumps, if required, Regardless of the type of construction and materials
should be hidden in the shaft. The accepted used for construction, an irrigation water reservoir
construction materials are concrete and steel. The has the following functions:
optimum depth/diameter ratios should be
To equalise the difference between water
determined for each location having regard to the
intake and output, and to cover peaks in
pumping economy and a need to avoid large demand;
pressure fluctuations in distribution that may be
caused by drawdown or filling in excessively deep To maintain the required pressure in the
tanks. Typical dimensions adopted for design are water distribution system;
shown in Table 2.9.1. As for any other TSE tank, a To keep stocks in reserve in case of plant
TSE tower should be equipped with inlet, outlet, malfunctions and interruptions in the water
overflow/drain pipes, ventilation. There should also distribution system.
be proper access for maintenance and repair. In
addition, there should be a lightening arrester and Unlike a potable water service reservoir, an irrigation
aircraft warning lights in accordance with the civil water reservoir is not to provide water for fire
aviation authoritys requirements. fighting, unless specifically required.
The main design criteria are:

Table 2.9.1 - Typical Depth/Diameter Ratios of
Water Towers Security of supply and water quality;
Nominal Depth of Internal Overall cost of construction, operation and
3
Size (m ) Water (m) Diameter (m)
maintenance;
1200 7.5 17
Integration into the TSE supply system;
2000 9.1 19.4
Town and landscape planning.
3000 10.2 22.6 Reservoir Shape and Depth
Reservoirs should generally be built with two

In general, the Doha irrigation system is moving compartments so that one can be drained for
away from water towers in favour of a pressurised maintenance without having to put the whole
network fed directly from a central pumping station. reservoir out of service. A reservoir can either be
Therefore, it is unlikely that further water towers will circular or rectangular in plan. For a two-
be required. compartment rectangular reservoir the most
economical plan shape is when its length (measured
perpendicular to the division wall is) is 1.5 times its
breadth (measured parallel to the division wall).
These proportions may require alteration due to
actual site conditions.

Drainage Affairs
The economic depths for rectangular concrete Ventilation facilities are required to permit air
reservoirs are listed in Table 2.10.1. movement caused by changing water levels. It is
preferred that this is achieved by natural ventilation.
Table 2.10.1 - Economic Depths for Rectangular
Reservoirs shall be designed to prevent the ingress
Concrete Reservoirs
3
of external water and other contaminants.
Size (m ) Depth of Water (m)
Although the temperature effect is not as critical as
Up to 3500 2.5-3.5
for potable water storage, thermal insulation
3500-15000 3.5-5.0 measures may need to be taken for above-ground
reservoirs.
Over 15000 5.0-7.0
Reservoirs shall be provided with access for routine
Reservoir Size visits and repair work. Facilities shall be provided to
permit cleaning of each compartment independently.
In the case of balancing storage, the required size Access to the water compartments, control buildings
should be calculated based on peak diurnal and all functional equipment shall be designed for
variations in the distribution system, source safety, including that of personnel, and for ease of
production capacity, and the mode of operation operation. Openings shall be dimensioned so as to
(either continuous pumping for a selected period of permit entry for materials and equipment for
time or by call-on-demand through use of reservoir cleaning, maintenance and repair.
level control switches). In case of uniform supply the
capacity of a balancing tank should be 25-35% of Inlet, outlet, overflow and washout pipework, the
the average daily demand. necessary valves, flow meters and level-measuring
devices shall all be provided for each compartment.
In order to meet contingencies as well as hourly and The overflow from each compartment shall be of
daily variations the recommended volume of storage adequate dimensions to permit the free escape of
is two times the systems average day demand. If excess water and shall normally allow for discharge
space is not available this volume can be reduced to of the maximum inflow capable of being delivered to
a days demand. the service reservoir. There shall be no isolation
valves on the overflow system. The overflow
Functional Requirements
arrangements shall not permit the contamination of
The following requirements shall be taken into the stored water.
consideration while designing a reservoir:
Design Life
Water circulation;
The design life for properly maintained concrete and
Ventilation; steel storage tanks is typically assumed to be about
50 years. Any other type of storage tank that does
Prevention of contamination;
not have the historical longevity of these tanks
Temperature effects; needs to be evaluated on a life cycle cost basis
Access and security; before being considered for use.
Inlet and outlet arrangements; Structural Design
Overflow; Current British practice with regard to concrete

Washout. tanks is to follow the procedures set out in BS
800719 for the design of liquid retaining structures by
Stagnant zones shall be minimised. Inlet/outlet a method based on limit state philosophy. For steel
arrangements and baffle walls or curtains shall be tanks BS 2654 - Manufacture of vertical steel welded
used to achieve proper water circulation. storage tanks20, shall be followed.

Drainage Affairs
2.11 Site Facilities

Fencing
Pumping station sites should be fenced off using

either a chain link fence or a boundary wall,
depending on the requirements. Locks should be
provided on all access entries to prevent
unauthorised entry and vandalism. Separate
personnel access should be provided.
Auxiliary Buildings
Auxiliary buildings may include a transformer room,

chlorination room (if required), stores, workshops
and offices. Some of these facilities may be
combined with the main pumping station structure,
depending on circumstances and available space.
Drainage, Sewerage and Water Systems
Each pumping station site should be provided with

separate drainage and sewerage systems. The site
drainage and foul sewage systems should
preferably be connected to external drainage and
sewerage systems, but if those are not available
then consideration should be given to constructing
soakaways and septic tanks. A suitable service
water connection to cater for the staff and other
requirements should also be provided.
External Fire Fighting System
Provision should be made to suit the requirements

stipulated by respective authorities. It is expected
that for the external fire fighting system, potable
water from the mains will be used, therefore suitable
extensions to the mains should be made on which
above ground fire hydrants of DN 100 would be
provided.
Access Roads and Landscape

Treatments
Pumping station sites should be hard landscaped.

Access roads may be paved with asphalt and/or
concrete block paving and footpaths with concrete
pavers. Open areas should be covered with pea
gravel or other suitable material. Trees and other
vegetation should be provided according to the
needs of the pumping station location. All areas
should be sufficiently lit by perimeter lighting and
floodlights.

Drainage Affairs
upstream of the solenoid valves) should be arranged

3.0 Design of Irrigation to give optimal short and direct routings to the
Systems solenoid valves from the point of connection at the
TSE distribution chamber. For typical irrigation
system arrangements refer to Figures 3.1.1 and
3.1.2.
3.1 Definition and Scope
Within the context of this manual, irrigation systems Solenoid valves will, wherever possible, be arranged
comprise the arrangement of pipe-work, valves and in small groups for ease of operation and
application devices having the function of supplying maintenance. Solenoid valve assemblies will be
the plants irrigation needs, and usually includes installed complete with a Y-strainer and an isolating
automatic means of control. The intention of a well- valve upstream, in the same valve box if space
engineered irrigation system is to ensure optimal permits.
plant growth by applying the correct quantity of The number of tappings from the main TSE
water at the right time, and in the right place. The distribution network should be kept to a minimum,
scope of the irrigation system as discussed herein consistent with efficient irrigation system pipework
includes all pipe-work and components downstream layouts. Each point of connection needs to be
of the point of connection at the main distribution provided with an isolation valve located in the main
chamber. distribution chamber, and a flow meter and pressure
sensor to permit remote monitoring. Distribution
3.1.1 System Layouts chambers are typically spaced at 200m intervals
Layouts for the downstream systems are to be along highways.
designed in accordance with recognised best
practice for irrigation system engineering. Principle See also section 3.1.8 below for further issues
design considerations include operational flexibility, relating to system layout.
ease of maintenance, and minimising head loss.
Avoiding head loss is especially critical in the case
where the irrigation systems are fed directly from a
pressurised TSE distribution network (refer section
to 2.3 above). An important objective is to ensure
that the best possible pressure is available at the
solenoid valve for the secondary system.
The division of planted areas into irrigation zones

should be logical and balance the needs of
operational flexibility against simplicity and ease of
maintenance, together with hydraulic considerations
of the irrigation mains and sub-mains. Too many
small zones will create additional maintenance with
many solenoid valve installations and electrical
circuits to be maintained. Too few large zones can
reduce operational flexibility and may result in
substantial variations in system flows in the irrigation
mains and sub-mains.
Pipework layouts need to be closely co-ordinated

with the landscape layouts and with other
underground utilities, and as far as possible
positioned clear of obstructions, trees etc. in case
future access to the pipe is required. The irrigation
mains and sub-mains (i.e. the system pipework

Drainage Affairs
Figure 3.1.1 Typical Irrigation Arrangements along Main Highways
Figure 3.1.2 Typical Irrigation Arrangements for Extensive Landscape Areas

Drainage Affairs
3.1.2 Pipework Materials Laterals S6.3 PVC- BS EN

(downstream of u or S8 1452
Irrigation systems have conventionally used plastic solenoid valve) PVC-U 2:2000
pipework of PVC-U (unplasticised PVC) to BS 3505 Drip-lines,
LDPE ISO 4427
Class 5 (or equivalent) for the irrigation mains and spaghetti tubing
sub-mains, and either Class 4 or Class 5 for the 3.1.3 Pipework Sizing
lateral pipework (i.e. downstream of the solenoid
Irrigation designs are to be submitted with
valves). Class 4 PVC-U piping is thinner walled and
supporting calculations giving the basis for sizing of
therefore more liable to cracking or fracture during
the irrigation pipework. Consideration will be given
construction or after installation, but has a lower
to flow, head loss and other relevant considerations.
initial cost. BS 3505 has been superseded by BS
It is also recommended to take into account possible
EN 1452-2:2000 and the closest equivalents to
or likely future landscape developments within the
Class 5 (or E) and Class 4 (or D) in the new series
area and make appropriate allowance within the
are S 6.3 and S 8 respectively.
calculations of flow for the irrigation mains in
As an alternative to PVC-U, HDPE (high density particular.
polyethylene) piping is also eminently suitable for
Sizing of the irrigation mains and sub-mains should
the irrigation mains and sub-mains, having flexibility
take account of worst case operational flow
and greater physical toughness compared to PVC-
conditions where a number of solenoid valves are
U. LDPE (low density polyethylene) is used for
open simultaneously, even though this may not be
irrigation drip-lines and the spaghetti tubing.
the intended operating regime. This is not an issue
Plastic pipework of either PVC-U or polyethylene with the lateral pipework, where the operational flow
material has excellent resistance to the chemical will be consistent and dependent upon the number
effects of TSE irrigation water, which would be and type of irrigation application devices. In either
corrosive to galvanised iron or other metallic piping. case, maximum flow velocity of 1.5m/sec should not
normally be exceeded, and loss of head should be
Selection of pipework materials will depend upon kept to a minimum.
project budget and the design life of the irrigation
system. Therefore in Table 3.1.1 shown below, 3.1.4 Minimum and Maximum
alternative recommendations are provided. Pressures
Table 3.1.1 - Recommended Pipework Material The designed operating pressure in any irrigation
Selection for Irrigation system will be determined to suit the working
pressure required by the selected application
Usage Material Standard
devices. Modern, heavy-duty, large radius, rotor
Irrigation mains ISO 4427
HDPE or sprinklers as used for irrigating large turf areas
and sub mains BS EN
S6.3 PVC- would require a pressure of, for example, 3.5 to 6.9
(upstream of 1452
U bar for the Rain Bird 8005 model, or 4.1
solenoid valve) 2:2000
to 6.9 bar for the Hunter I-90 model.
However, the irrigation requirements of large turf solenoid valve, other valves, irrigation mains and
areas cannot realistically be met from a pressurised sub-mains, Y-strainer and flow meter will be
effluent distribution main, and such areas would minimised by careful sizing of components, but will
need the installation of a local booster pumping still amount to 1.0 to 1.5 bar.
station.
It is therefore recommended that the pressure
For reliable irrigation system operation, it is essential available at any connection point (tapping) to the
that the design working pressure at the application main effluent distribution network should preferably
device should be well within the recommended not be less than 4.0 to 4.5 bar. In case this is not
range for each device, i.e. in the range of 2.5 to 3.0 attainable for particular sections of the network, then
bar in order to accommodate normal fluctuations in it may be necessary to provide booster pumping
the incoming pressure. Pressure losses in the stations for the downstream irrigation systems,

Drainage Affairs
should the proposed irrigation devices required a pressure in the TSE transmission and distribution
greater pressure. network will be not less than 3 bar (30m water head)
and the maximum available pressure will not exceed
It should be remembered, however, that most of the 6 bar (60m water head). The DA, or their appointed
town landscape will be watered using direct feeds consultants, will provide the necessary design
from the TSE transmission and distribution system guidance regarding the irrigation water budgets and
(via main distribution chambers) and the available available pressure in the network.
pressure may vary from place to place. The
landscape and irrigation system designers should Some further examples of typical working pressures
take this into consideration while preparing their of some common irrigation application devices are
designs. In general, the minimum available given in Table 3.1.2 below.
Table 3.1.2 - Typical Pressure Requirements for Particular Irrigation Devices

Device Usage Model Pressure (bar)
Large radius rotor Extensive turf areas Rain Bird 8005 3.5 to 6.9
sprinkler Hunter I-90 4.1 to 6.9
Spray sprinkler Small turf areas, ground- Hunter SRS 1.0 to 4.8
covers Rain Bird 1800 1.0 to 4.8
Rain Bird 1800-SAM 1.7 to 4.8
Bubbler Trees, individual shrubs Rain Bird 1400 1.4 to 6.2
etc. Rain Bird Xeri-Bubbler 1.0 to 2.0
Fitco NCB 1.7 to 4.0
Drip emitter Trees, shrubs, ground- Fitco PCM-6 1.0 to 3.4
covers etc. Rain Bird Xeri-Bug 1.0 to 3.5
Integrated drip-line Ground-covers, hedges, Rain Bird ADI Dripline 0.6 to 4.0
shrubs Rhein PC Dripper 1.0 to 3.5

Drainage Affairs
3.1.5 Irrigation Rates resistance, and metallic parts should be of

high-grade stainless steel and bronze.
The water demand of plants is governed by a number
of variable factors, including the climate, soil mix A summary of some key advantages and
properties, exposure/shelter, shade, the presence of disadvantages of different irrigation
other vegetation, reflected heat, and factors particular application devices is provided in Table
to each individual plant species. For the purposes of 3.1.4 below.
this manual, which defines the general parameters
for irrigation system engineering for Qatar, the figures
given in Table 3.1.3 shown below can be used as the
basis for design and system specification, but are not
intended for horticulture reference.
Table 3.1.3 - Guideline Peak Daily Water Demand

for Different Vegetation
Planting Type Water Demand
Date palms 150 litres/tree/day
Ornamental and 100-120
shade trees litres/tree/day
Drought-tolerant trees 60-80 litres/tree/day
Shrubs (continuous) 20 litres/m/day
(individual) 12 litres/shrub/day
Flower beds 25-30 litres/m/day
Ground-cover 10-15 litres/m/day
Lawn grass 15 litres/m/day
The irrigation demand of plants in the cooler seasons

is significantly lower. For most types of vegetation,
the winter irrigation regime can be changed to
alternate days, or twice-weekly, to the benefit of the
plants.
3.1.6 Irrigation Equipment

Fitness for purpose will be the basis for selection of
components and materials for the irrigation systems.
The solutions adopted must be properly tailored to
the irrigation needs of Qatar. The primary
requirement is that the irrigation systems should
deliver the plants irrigation needs with minimal
wastage and maximum efficiency. Components will
be specified only after making detailed study of all
relevant considerations, which include horticultural
requirements, soil type, water conservation issues,
cost considerations, maintenance and reliability, and
the properties of the irrigation water, including its
degree of filtration, salinity and biological purity.
TSE has usually a larger degree of salinity than

drinking water, and therefore all components of the
irrigation systems need to have excellent corrosion

Drainage Affairs
Table 3.1.4 - Comparison of Common Irrigation Devices

Device
Advantages Disadvantages
Type
Drip Allow the quantity of irrigation water to be accurately Subject to clogging and thus requiring very
Irrigation applied where needed, according to the plants clean irrigation water for reliable operation
Emitters needs Tendency to encourage build-up of salts in the
Wastage from leaching down is minimal soil especially if the soil is not very free-
Losses by evaporation are kept to a minimum draining
Reduced likelihood of human exposure when used Overall, requiring high maintenance and close
with treated effluent water regular inspection
Easy to install and remove The devices are quite susceptible to damage
or disturbance
Pressure-compensating and multi-outlet models are
available, giving flexibility Relatively costly
Low flows = smaller pipe sizes
Integrated Allows the quantity of irrigation water to be applied Less suitable where plant spacing is not
Drip-Line accurately and uniformly, according to the plants regular and predictable
(built-in needs Does not have the inherent flexibility of
emitters) Wastage from leaching down is minimal separate emitters
Losses by evaporation are kept to a minimum Tendency to encourage build-up of salts in the
Reduced likelihood of human exposure when used soil, especially if the soil is not very free-
with treated effluent water draining
Resistant to accidental damage or disturbance Monitoring requires close inspection
Pressure-compensating versions are available
Low maintenance
Low flows = smaller pipe sizes
Bubblers Simple robust devices giving trouble-free low- More wastage of water, less efficient than drip
maintenance operation systems
Higher water flow prevents salt build-up Difficult to ensure that the water is delivered
Gives deep watering that encourages deep rooting just where it is needed at the root system
Operation is very easy to monitor Higher flows = larger pipe sizes
Models are available for mounting on pop-ups
Flexible means for irrigating smaller and awkwardly- Fine spray results in considerable wastage in
Spray
shaped areas hot conditions by evaporation
Sprinklers
Spray cools the air and benefits the surrounding Needs to be scheduled to operate in early
planted areas mornings or late evenings
Washing of foliage improves growth and retains a Moderately high maintenance requirements
fresh appearance Higher flows = larger pipe sizes
Rotary Cost-effective irrigation for larger areas Significant wastage in hot conditions by
Sprinklers Modern models are robust, compact and resistant to evaporation
damage Needs to be scheduled to operate in early
A large area can be covered by fewer sprinklers, mornings or late evenings
reducing maintenance requirements Large radius makes them unsuitable for
Large nozzles are less affected by dirty irrigation smaller and awkwardly-shaped areas
water Higher operating pressure requirement
High flows = large pipe sizes

Drainage Affairs
3.1.7 Control Systems requirements of efficient irrigation in designing the

planting layouts, for example by ensuring that the
The available options for irrigation control systems outline of grass areas is not creating problems for
range from older electro-mechanical controllers and obtaining good coverage or avoiding over-spray.
compact modern solid-state controllers, to Both disciplines should co-ordinate carefully the
sophisticated and feature-packed centralised location of irrigation sleeves (for present and future
computer-based control systems sold by several of needs) beneath hard surfaces and structures such
the leading irrigation equipment companies and as walls, at the design stage.
other specialists in the field.
It is also important that irrigation and landscape
Since the landscape areas will be supplied directly projects are co-ordinated with TSE transmission and
from a pressurised effluent distribution network and distribution projects, road projects and building
not from stand-alone local pumping stations and projects. The concerned parties are the Gardens
reservoirs, considerable areas of landscaping will be Division, Drainage Division, Roads Department,
effectively served by a single very extensive Building Engineering and their consultants.
irrigation system. It is essential that a means be
provided for centralised monitoring and control of The irrigation systems are the responsibility of the
the usage of irrigation water and the status of all the Gardens Division, whilst the TSE transmission and
various local irrigation systems. distribution system up to the main distribution
chamber are the responsibility of the DA.
It is necessary that the chosen control system
should have excellent communications features, The works downstream of the main distribution
able to collect in real time the flow and pressure chambers should be undertaken by specialist
data from the meters and sensors installed around irrigation and landscape consultants/contractors.
the network, and at the points of connection of the
local systems. At the same time it needs to have 3.1.9 Under-Drainage
flexible irrigation features, especially for water
As a general rule, under-drainage should be
conservation, and must be able to permit local
provided beneath all trees and planted areas unless
control over operation and scheduling at the the natural ground conditions are free draining and
individual irrigation systems.
the water table is deep. Although many landscape
Since the central irrigation control system will be an plantings appear to thrive without under-drainage,
off-the-shelf proprietary system such as Rain Bird, waterlogged conditions beneath the surface
Motorola, or Toro, the features and system discourage deep rooting and lead to an increase in
components will be defined by the selected systems soil salinity.
specification. It is therefore recommended that under-drainage
should be included wherever possible in all new
3.1.8 Co-ordination of Irrigation landscape projects. The main prerequisite is that
and Landscape Design there should be a suitable outfall for the under-
Irrigation layouts and the landscape design are drainage network, either into a storm drain or
clearly intimately related with one another, and the otherwise by free discharge to the natural
best results will only be achieved if the concerned topography.
disciplines are working in close co-ordination with
Under-drains beneath planted areas simply
one another as part of one design team.
comprise a rock drainage layer overlaid with
For example, the irrigation engineer should ensure geotextile filter membrane. The water from the
that valve boxes and other irrigation equipment such drainage layer is collected by a series of slotted
as controller pedestals and electrical boxes are plastic pipes.
located inconspicuously but sited for convenient
access. Valve boxes and the like should not
normally be placed in grass areas or pavements.
Similarly, the landscape architect should heed the

Drainage Affairs
3.2 Landscape and This process will also have an effect upon the
irrigation requirements that may be impossible to
Irrigation Management foresee accurately, but implies that flexibility should
be built into the original system designs.
3.2.1 Irrigation Management
Irrigation management is concerned with the
effective and sustainable use of available irrigation
resources, for the long-term well-being of the
landscape. It involves planning and monitoring the
usage of irrigation water at a strategic level. The
irrigation budgets and Irrigation Master Plan
discussed in sections 1.3.2 and 1.3.3 are essential
tools for implementing this essential role. The
function of irrigation management will be undertaken
by the Qatari authorities at a departmental level, to
ensure co-ordination between all concerned parties.
3.2.2 Maintenance of Irrigation

Systems
Obtaining the best performance from irrigation
systems is essential if efficient use of water is to be
achieved. The effort and funds put into well-
engineered systems, sound specifications and
proper installation will largely be wasted if the
necessary maintenance is not carried out.
Even high quality modern irrigation systems require

constant monitoring and adjustment to give the
optimal performance. Adjustment of drip-lines,
emitters and sprinklers is a day-to-day task
alongside daily landscape maintenance. Servicing
of solenoid valves and other components, and
cleaning of Y-strainers should be carried out as
scheduled maintenance tasks.
A professional and organised approach to system

maintenance is essential for protecting the
substantial initial investments as well as ensuring
trouble-free operation.
3.2.3 Planting Management

Unlike other disciplines, the landscape is dynamic
and in a continuous state of development and
change. This is particularly noticeable in warm
climates such as the Gulf States where irrigated
areas achieve rapid rates of growth and come to
maturity quickly. Although planting management
aims to respect the intended design effect, the
natural result of this process is that the balance of
planting types can change considerably as for
example, trees mature and shade out other planting.

Drainage Affairs
The designer should be aware of the more obvious

4.0 Health & Safety public health concerns associated with use of TSE.
Untreated sewage can contain many different
pathogenic organisms such as helminths,
4.1 General Guidelines nematodes (e.g. ascaris and hookworm), viruses
and bacteria.
Under current (2003) legislation, TSE application for
food for human consumption (e.g. salad crops) is It is the policy in Qatar that all sewage is fully treated
not permitted in Qatar. and disinfected (generally by chlorination), prior to
discharge. Chlorination will eliminate most of the
Routine Health and Safety considerations for TSE
pathogens, but some may remain viable. The WHO
systems design bear many similarities with foul
publishes guidelines for the safe use of sewage
sewerage design. There is, however, one major
effluent in agriculture. As stated, Qatari policy is not
difference in that the points of application of TSE for
to use effluent on food crops; however, the
irrigation purposes will be in public areas not under
guidelines would still remain appropriate.
the control of the DA. TSE is used for landscaping
enhancement in amenity areas, many of which will Guidelines for TSE chemical and biological
be accessible to members of the public. standards are given in Table 1.4.2 in Section 1.4.
Exposure to TSE is therefore more likely in such The chlorination dosage is also critical for TSE.
areas, by a wide cross-section of people. The Subsequent to disinfection, the chlorine residual
general public is less likely to be aware of the health needs to be maintained in order to prevent
risks associated with treated effluent than operatives excessive growth of bacteria and other organisms in
at sewerage treatment plants. Likewise, the the distribution system. This is due to the presence
operational staff that install and maintain the of nutrients in the effluent being available as growth
irrigation systems may also be less likely to be factors. Hence, residuals need to be higher than in
familiar with the health risks, being remote from the potable water systems. However, residuals >5mg/l
treatment plant, and more associated with gardening will cause plant damage when sprayed direct onto
and landscaping. foliage21.
For these reasons, it is important that designers give
due consideration to the health of such third parties
when designing TSE systems. It is not possible to
4.2 Reference Documents
control the ultimate operation of the system at The following is a list of documents that may be of
design stage, however the designer can incorporate use to designers when considering health aspects of
measures to reduce risks. Such measures should TSE systems design.
include the following as a minimum:
1. World Health Organisation, 2000, WHO EHC 216
Always provide a risk assessment for new Environmental Health Criteria Disinfectants and
designs, and incorporate Control of Disinfectant By products, World Health
Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH) Organisation.
information for TSE into the pre-tender
health and safety plan; This is of relevance where greater detail may be
required in relation to formation of chlorinated
Provide recommendations for positioning of organics and their associated health effects.
irrigation equipment;
2. World Health Organisation, WHO Guidelines for
Make recommendations for appropriate
the Safe Use of Wastewater and Excreta in
training and certification of all operational
Agriculture and Aquaculture, World Health
personnel;
Organisation.
Design appropriate warning signs for public
areas.

Drainage Affairs
This gives advice for use relating not only to the

pathogenic content but also a more in depth
discussion on other wastewater content.
3. Blumenthal et al, 2000, Guidelines for the

Microbiological Quality of Treated Wastewater Used
in Agriculture: Recommendations for Revising WHO
Guidelines, World Health Organisation.
This document covers more recent research and

recent literature relating to microbial content.
4. Construction Industry Research and Information

Association, 1997, Special Publication 137: Site
Safety for the Water Industry, London, CIRIA.
This document covers health and safety from a

more general practical aspect.
5. There is also published literature arising from time

to time from the Regional Centre for Environmental
Health Activities (CEHA), a subgroup of WHO,
dealing specifically with issues relating to the
Eastern Mediterranean Countries, having a similar
climate to the Gulf Region. Notes on these
programmes are published on the internet.

Drainage Affairs
5.0 References
13British Standards Institution, 1999, BS EN 60439-
1: Low Voltage Switchgear and Controlgear
Assemblies. Type-tested and PartiallyType-Tested
1State of Qatar, 2002, Law No. 30: Environmental Assemblies, London, BSI.
Protection, Qatar, State of Qatar.
14 British Standards Institution, 1991, BS EN ISO
2 World Health Organisation, WHO Guidelines for 6817: 1997: Measurement of conductive liquid flow
the Safe Use of Wastewater and Excreta in in closed conduits. London, BSI.
Agriculture and Aquaculture, World Health
Organisation. 15 British Standards Institution, 1991, BS 7405:
1991: Guide to selection and application of flow
3 Qatar DD, Rationalisation of the TSE system meters for the measurement of fluid flow in closed
report, Qatar. conduits. London, BSI.
4 British Standards Institution, 1989, BS EN 16 CIRIA & BHRA (Construction Industry Research
545:2002 Ductile Iron Pipes, Accessories, Fittings and Information Association, British
and their joints for Water Pipelines, UK, BSI. Hydromechanics Research Association). 1977. The
5 British Standards Institution, 1989, BS 8010- hydraulic design of pump sumps and intakes. CIRIA
1:1989 - Code of practice for Pipelines, Part 1: & BHRA. ISBN: 0-86017-027-6.
Pipelines on land: general, London BSI. 17 British Standards Institution, 1993-1999, BS
6 British Standards Institution, 2001, BS EN 7698 Reciprocating Internal Combustion Engine
12201:2002 Plastic Piping Systems for Water Driven Alternating Current Generator Sets, UK, BSI.
Supply Polyethylene(PE), UK, BSI. 18 British Standards Institution, 1990, BS1377:
7 WIS 4-37-17. 1990 - Methods of test for soils for civil engineering
purposes. London, BSI.
8 Water Research Centre and British Plastics
Federations Pipes Group, 2002, Manual for PE Pipe
20 British Standards Institution, 1999, BS 5930 -
Systems, by Water Research Centre and British Code of practice for site investigations, UK BSI.
Plastics Federations Pipes Group. 21 BSI. 1987. BS8007: 1987. Design of concrete
9Water Research Centre, year, Network analysis - structures for retaining aqueous liquids. London.
A code of practice, UK, Water Research Centre. British Standards Institution.
10 British Standards Institution, 2000, European

22 British Standards Institution, 1989, BS 2654 -
Standard BS EN 805:2000, Water supply - manufacture of vertical steel welded non-
Requirements for systems and components outside refrigerated storage tanks, UK, BSI.
buildings, London, British Standard Institution. 23 Metcalf and Eddy Inc. (1991). Wastewater
11 British Standards Institution, 1994, BS EN Engineering Treatment, Disposal and Reuse, 4th
124:1994 Gully tops and manhole tops for edition, UK, Irwin McGraw-Hill.
vehicular and pedestrian areas design
requirements, type testing, marking, quality control
(AMD 8587), London, BSI.
12 IEC 60947-1,Ed 3.2:1999 Low Voltage
Switchgear and ControlGear. General Rules.


QT00129 Vol4 Final PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

QT00129 Vol4 Final PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

State of Qatar - Public Works Authority

Volume 4 TSE System Design Page i

2.8.7 Pump Suction and Delivery Design ......................................................................................... 37

3.1 Definition and Scope ............................................................................................................... 50

4.0 Health & Safety ....................................................................................................................60

4.1 General Guidelines ................................................................................................................. 60

Page ii Volume 4 TSE System Design

applications of irrigation water for these areas, so

Volume 4 TSE System Design Page 1

Apart from biological impurities, chemical

Page 2 Volume 4 TSE System Design

Volume 4 TSE System Design Page 3

1.6 Environmental Impact

Initial screening and scoping of potential

Page 4 Volume 4 TSE System Design

Volume 4 TSE System Design Page 5

Table 1.4.2 - Effluent Discharge Standards Available in Doha

Suspended solids (SS) 5mg/l 5mg/l 90 %ile

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) 5mg/l 5mg/l 90 %ile

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) 50mg/l 50mg/l 90 %ile

Faecal Coliforms (MPN) None Detected None Detected 90 %ile

PH 6-9 6-9 90 %ile

Ammonia (NH3N) 1mg/l 1mg/l 90 %ile

Phosphate (PO4) 1mg/l 1mg/l 90 %ile

Total Nitrogen (N) 10mg/l 5mg/l 50 %ile

Dissolved Oxygen 2mg/l (min) 2mg/l (min) 90 %ile

Chlorine (Free Residual) 0.5 1mg/l 0.5 1mg/l 90 %ile

Turbidity 2NTU 2NTU 90 %ile

Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) <2,000mg/l <500mg/l 90 %ile

Intestinal Nematodes <1.0 per litre 0.0 95 %ile

Enteric Viruses <1.0 PFU/40 litre <1.0 PFU/40 litre 90 %ile

Giardia <1.0 cysts per 40 <1.0 cysts per 40 90 %ile

Page 6 Volume 4 TSE System Design

potable water system and, therefore, the same

British Standards Institution, 1989, BS

of Information T.M. Walski, D.V. Chase, D.A. Savic,

Volume 4 TSE System Design Page 7

2.3 Principles of Design

2.4 Sizing and Flow

Page 8 Volume 4 TSE System Design

200 16 29 0.5 0.9 1.3 4.1

250 29 48 0.6 1.0 1.3 3.5

300 48 72 0.7 1.0 1.3 3.1

Volume 4 TSE System Design Page 9

400 99 137 0.8 1.1 1.3 2.5

450 137 177 0.9 1.1 1.3 2.2

500 177 252 0.9 1.3 1.3 2.6

600 252 357 0.9 1.3 1.0 2.0

800 524 707 1.0 1.4 1.0 1.8

900 707 900 1.1 1.4 1.0 1.6

1,000 900 1,200 1.1 1.5 0.9 1.6

1,200 1,200 1,800 1.1 1.6 0.7 1.4

200 16 29 0.5 0.9 1.1 3.5

250 29 48 0.6 1.0 1.1 3.0

300 48 72 0.7 1.0 1.2 2.6

400 99 137 0.8 1.1 1.1 2.1

450 137 177 0.9 1.1 1.2 1.9

500 177 252 0.9 1.3 1.1 2.2

600 252 357 0.9 1.3 0.9 1.7

800 524 707 1.0 1.4 0.8 1.5

900 707 900 1.1 1.4 0.8 1.3

1,000 900 1,200 1.1 1.5 0.8 1.4

1,200 1,200 1,800 1.1 1.6 0.5 1.2