CLASSIFICATION OF THE ORDER PRIMATE

INTRODUCTION:
Primates are a diverse group of animals represented by humans,
monkeys, prosimians and apes. They share some common characteristics
such as large brain size, keen vision, dexterous hands and a generalized
skeleton for great physical agility. They also tend to have smaller litters
than other animals, devoting more care and attention to the rearing of their
offsprings. The unique combination of traits found in the primates
distinguishes them from other animals. Modern contemporary scientific
theories and Charles Darwin theory of evolution suggests that millions of
years ago some animals developed
characteristics to be the precursors of
later primates including humans. Darwin
posited that humans share a common
ancestor (now extinct) with living apes.
They evolved along lines completely
different from modern gorillas and
chimpanzees.
HISTORY OF CLASSIFICATION:
Aristotle first developed an approach to nature for the classification of
living beings in 4th century B.C. The categories were based upon visible
similarities and one member of each category was considered its primate
(from the Latin word Primus, meaning the first or best of Group). In
response to discoveries around the globe and in the inner working of
organisms, Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus developed the Systema
Naturae a system of nature, in the 18th century to classify all living things.
This compendium reflected a new understanding for the place of man
among the animals. Linnaeus noted the similarity among humans, monkeys
and apes classifying them together as primates.
The basic biological unit of classification is the species. A species is
the largest normally interbreeding population. As species name is made up
of two words a capitalized generic name and a trivial name. This system of
classification is known as Binomial nomenclature. Genera usually include
species which are very similar yet differ in body size or some relatively
minor feature of body proportions, behaviour, coat colour etc. They are in
turn clustered into families. Families are sub-divided into sub-families or
clustered into super families. Family group nomina also follow a definite
pattern. Family name ends in suffix idae e.g., Hominidae whereas Super
families end in - oidea e.g. Hominoidea.
Modern taxonomy or the science of classification (from the Greek
word for naming divisions) while retaining the structure of the Linnaean
system, is based on more than body structure function and growth. Today
scientists compare protein structure, Nucleic acids and genomes to
establish phylogeny of organisms.
EVOLUTION PATTERNS:
As Linnaeus and his contemporaries considered species as fixed
entities. However naturalists became increasingly aware of continuities
between different forms of life. A proponent of this idea was Charles
Darwin. His theory of evolution set out in 1859 in The Origin of Species
accepted the fact of human evolution. The theory of evolution tells us that
we are all living fossils. So, all of us preserve within ourselves the genes of
our ancestors. Darwin himself used comparative anatomy to support his
views. One of the triumphs of molecular biology has been to uncover
thousands of other cues of relatedness hidden in our genes. We share
many of these with other primates e.g. humans and chimpanzees have
blood groups, protein and great stretches of DNA in common. The new
comparative anatomy based on molecules; make it possible to draw
accurate phylogenetic trees for humans and our relatives.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PRIMATE:
Primate evolution has produced some key physical and anatomical
traits that represent adaptations to arboreal conditions i.e. life in trees.
Among the most important physical characteristics of primates is their
generalized skeletal structure which allows for a great deal of flexibility in
movement e.g. in primates the clavicle provides both support and flexibility
which enable them to rotate their shoulders and arms to perform a range of
movements such as ability to reach for branches and food while roaming
through treetops in the wild. The same development in man enhances their
ability to drive cars, catch baseballs, etc. Dexterity in the digits (fingers and
toes) of the feet and hand, another key primate trait makes it easy for
primates to grasp and manipulate objects. All primates have sensitive pads
on their fingertips rather than claws and many have five digits on their feet
and hand which can be used for grasping objects. An important
distinguishing element of the primate hand is the opposable thumb found in
humans and many other primates which makes them adept at manipulating
small objects.
The dental structure of primates is consistent with an omnivorous diet
made up of a variety of foods such as plants, fruits, nuts and seeds insects
and other animals. Refined vision also sets primates apart. Primates have
large eyes oriented to the front protected by bony structures rely heavily on
vision. This visual orientation favours binocular and stereoscopic vision in
which the visual fields of eyes overlap, transmitting images to both sides of
the brain. A distinguishing trait of the primates is size and complexity of the
brain. Primates have large brains relative to body size compared to other
land animals. The brains of marine mammals have comparable brain size.
In primates, the neo-cortex, the surface portion of the brain associated with
sensory messages and voluntary control of movement features a large
number of convolutions or folds which maximize the surface area. As they
evolved, these larger brains undoubtedly helped primates to locate food
and to avoid predators.
In contrast to most other animals, primates produce few offspring and
these undergo long period of gestation i.e. the length of time the young
spend in the mothers womb.
CLASSIFICATION OF PRIMATE :
The living primates are divided into two sub-orders. Until recently the
sub-divisions have been the lower primates or Prosimii and the higher
primates or Anthropoidea. The division is based on relative brain size.
Brains sizes of lower primates have similar size to other mammals while
higher primates have large brain size relative to body size.
PROSIMII:
Modern prosimians have changed
relatively little from their ancestors and reside in
small isolated population. They include lemurs
and Aye-ayes of Madagascar (an island off the
east coast of Africa), the lorises of Tropical
South East Asia and Africa and the tarsiers of
South East Asia. A heightened visual sense
makes most of the living prosimians nocturnal,
although they do not have color vision. All
nocturnal prosimians are characterized by the
possession of a tapetum cellulosum, an
iridescent layer of cells in the choroids coat of
the eye, which is responsible for vivid eye shine
in the presence of light. However, like their
fellow primates they possess stereoscopic vision
and enlarged brains relative to other animal.
This enables them to co-ordinate leaping and food gathering in their
arboreal environment. A keen sense of smell is, helping them to seek out
food and shelter at night.
Like other primates, the prosimians use the five dexterous digits on
their hands and feet to grasp objects for moving easily through trees. All
the living prosimians have nails instead of claws on their digits, but some
have retained grooming claws on the hind feet to clean their fur. The jaws
are generally elongated in a fox-like muzzle, but it is in the possession of
the typical rhinarium and crescentic nostrils of less specialized mammals
that the lemurs exhibit their truly primitive character which differs from all
other primates.
The skull have many primitive mammalian features, such as the
presence of a large palatine bone in the inner wall of the orbit, the general
absence of an external auditory meatus, the complete absence of a post-
orbital wall-rendering the orbit and the temporal fossae (the region below
the temple) confluent; the orbits, though directed somewhat laterally, have
eyeballs mounted in them in such a manner that the eyes look forward and
not to the side, a distinct advantage upon the condition encountered by the
insectivores. The inner ear preserves the lower mammalian character by
the presence of an auditory bulla, a large, spherical, inflatened chamber on
the base of the skull which lies the tympanic ring, which in the catarrhini
assists in forming the external auditory meatus.
Lemuroidea: The super family Lemuroidea
inhabits Madagascar Isle. Lemurs represent this
Super-family. They are arboreal creatures with
nocturnal habits. There seems to be an
association between sleeping habits or walking
activity, size of the eyes, body size and social
habits, for the smaller lemurs (e.g. Lepilemur).
They have the largest eyes. They live in small
social units or in family groups. The larger lemurs
(e.g Indri) on the other hand are frequently quite
active by day or in twilight. They have small eyes,
and more often tend to live as members of a
community of their own species. This suggests
that increase in body size might have been a
deciding factor to abandon their nocturnal or crepuscular habits among the
early primates. This enabled them to hold their kind against. This further led
to the development of more extended social relations with members of their
own species. The diet of lemurs is varied. Normally they are fruigivorous.
Many eat both animal and vegetable foods.
Daubentonioidea: A unique lemuroid of this
super family is the aye-ayes of Madagascar.
They are characterized by the presence of large
rodent like incisor teeth and gross reduction in
the rest. The dental formula is I 1/1, C 0/0, PM
1/0, M 3/3 a total of 18 teeth. Their digits are
provided with claws except hallux. Furthermore
the hind finger of each hand is thin and
elongated which is used to open wood boring grubs tunnels. The middle
fingers are used to probe the tunnels spear the occupants. This lemur
occupies the ecological niche of wood peckers which are not found in
Madagascar. Some authors refer to this animal as the vertical clinging
quadruped. Earlier taxonomists classified Daubentonia among the rodents.
In fact many anatomical features of these animals depart considerably from
other Lemurs. Yet they possess significant characters of the skull, limbs
and viscera.
Lorisoidea: The Lorisoidea found in Africa and Asia differs from the other
Prosimians in several distinctive ways. They are smaller having larger ears
and eyes. In addition they are more or less tailless, slow-moving with
rudimentary or completely reduced index-finger. The reduced second toe
has a long cleaning claw. The super family Lorisoidea comprises various
genera. Characteristics features of some genus are given below:
The Potto (Perodicticus) is the size of a small cat.
It is characterized by a unique specialization. The
spines of the last cervical and the first two thoracic
vertebrae project through the skin capped by
horny spines constitutes a formidable defense
weapon against attackers.
The Bush Babies (Gagidae) are about the
size of a rat characterized by the presence of long
bushy tails, short muzzles, large mobile ears and
enormously elongated ankle (metatarso- tarsals)
bones which make them remarkable jumpers
among the primates. The dwarf bush baby
(Galagoides), e.g. which nestles easily on the
palm of a mans hand can leap a dozen or more
feet upward or in any direction. The head can be
turned around so that the nose is in line with the vertebral column. The
digits of the hands and feet are slender and long. The well developed
pollex and hallux are widely opposed to the other
digits. The pelvic limbs are much longer than the
pectoral limbs. The lorises cannot leap and climb by
hand over hand motion. The galagoes progress by
rapid saltation.
Tarsioidea: The super family Tarsioidea includes
only one genus, an animal called tarsius. It is found
only in South-East Asia today. Structurally, tarsius
falls somewhere between the lemur and
anthropoids. Tarsiers differ from lemurs rather they resemble anthropoids
by the absence of a wet, dog like snout on their reduced olfactory
apparatus. For these reasons they are often classified alongwith simians
under the suborder Anthropoidea. Although tarsiers do not have the
enlarged brains and fused lower jaws characteristic of living simians which
classify them separately (with other prosimians) they resemble simians in
many anatomical details.
In its embryological development, the
fertilized tarsier ovum sinks into the lining of the
mothers uterus and becomes surrounded with
lakes of maternal blood. It is similar to man,
apes and monkeys, but not to lemurs and
lorises whose developing embryos are walled
off from direct contact with mothers
bloodstream. The nose is quite unlike the
lemurs, only a narrow strip of naked skin marks the opening of the widely
separated nostrils and the upper-lips shows a continuous smooth surface
uninterrupted by median groove. The eyes of tarsiers are very much
enlarged each eyeball is roughly the size of the brain they display some
simian characteristics.
Tarsiers are in the size range of hamsters or kittens, arboreal and
nocturnal. The limbs are highly specialized, the fore limbs for grasping and
the hind ones for the rapid hop which is their mode of locomotion on the
ground. The diet of tarsiers appears to be the insects, but in captivity they
will eat baby mice and lizards, etc. Tarsiers are gentle creatures and are
capable of a fair amount of facial expression. From the above
characteristics the tarsiers appear to be much closer to the Anthropoidea
than do any of the other Prosimii.
ANTHROPOIDEA:
As many of the early prosimians gradually became extinct at the end
of Eocene epoch, new types of primates emerged in tropical forest
environments. The divergent evolution of the higher primates is closely
linked with plate tectonics and continental drift.
The salient features of the sub order Anthropoidea are larger brain in
relation to the body size alongwith many other improvements at the same
time reduction in the apparatus for the sense of smell. The forward shift of
eyes has been completed and the orbits are invariably separated from the
temporal fossa by extensive bony partition. The foramen magnum and the
joint connecting the skull with the vertebral column lie forward in early
stages of development, but subsequently the orbits are invariably
separated from the temporal fossa by extensive bony partition. The
permanent dentition contain I=2 and C=1, PM=2 or 3, M=2 or 3 on each
side of both the jaws which tend to migrate underneath the brain case. The
duration of the pre- and post-natal growth tends to become prolonged. The
age of sexual maturity is reached rather late in almost all members
especially in the higher simian primates.
The sub order Anthropoidea is divided into three super family based
on their distinct ecological niches. The three super families are the
Ceboidea/Platyrrhines all monkeys from America or New World Moneys,
Cercopithecoidea/ Catarrhines monkeys or Cercopithecoids from Asia and
Africa also called Old World Monkeys and the Hominidea including apes
and humans of all over the world).
Ceboidea (New World Monkeys): New world monkeys live in tropical
forests of South and Central America. They are characterized by flat noses
with widely separated, outward-flaring nostrils, from which comes their
name patyrrhine (from the Greek for flat nosed) monkeys. All are
arboreal, possessing long, prehensile or grasping tails used as a fifth limb.
These features and a 2-1-3-3 dental formula distinguish them from the Old
World Monkeys (Cercopithecidae), apes and humans. Platyrrhines walk on
all four limbs with their palm down and scamper along tree branches in
search of fruit. They eat sitting upright. Although ceboidea spend much of
their time on the trees they rarely hang suspended below the branches or
swing from limb to limb by their arms. They lack extremely long forelimbs
and broad shoulders characteristics of the apes. The superfamily Ceboidea
comprises two distinct families, the Callithricidae and Cebidae.
Callithricidae:
Five genera of monkeys represent the
family Callithricidae. The Callithicidae consists of
small animals about the size of squirrel. They all
have long non-prehensile tail sparsely covered
with hair on its under surface. The tail is usually
tufted at the tip. The face is relatively flat with
large eyes. Two primitive fovea and macula are
present in the retina that is why marmosets are
presumed to be capable of stereoscopic vision.
The brain is remarkably voluminous in proportion
to size of the body. They have well developed
frontal lobes which give the skull a very human-
like appearance.
The morphology of the lower canine in the
genera Callithrix and Cebuella resembles lower
incisor teeth known as incisiform canines. Among
the genera Saguinus and Leontideus these teeth
have the normal caniniform lower canines. The
dental formula of the Callithricidae is I 2/2, C 1/1,
PM 3/3, M2/2 but of Callimico I 2/2, C 1/1, PM
3/3, M 3/3 and it has an extremely soft, silky
black pelage which regard them to be transitional
between the marmosets and monkeys. In the family Callithricidae the
genus Cebuella is the smallest among the new world monkeys.
Cebidae:
The family Cebidae consists of 11 genera of monkeys which
constitute a varied assortment of animals. The members of Cebidae are
larger in size than those of Callithricidae, but
not as large as the monkeys of the old world.
The dental formula is I 2/2, C 1/1, PM 3/3, M
3/3. All digits bear nails with the exception of
the first digit. They are arched or laterally
compressed. The long tail is prehensile in only
half of the genera namely in Cebus, Alouatta,
Ateles, Lagothrix and Brachyteles. In the
Uakaris monkeys (Cacejao) the tail is very short. In the spider monkey
(Ateles) the forelimbs exceeds the hind limb in length. In the wooly
monkeys (Lagothrix) fore and hind limbs are almost equal in length while in
the rest of the genera the hind limb exceeds the forelimbs in length.
 The projections of the jaws are appreciably less than those of the old
world monkeys. The surface of the brain is richly convoluted, the fissural
pattern bear surprising resemblance to those of the brains of old world
monkeys. With the exception of the night monkey (Aotus), as their name
implies are nocturnal animals while all the Cebidae possess a well
developed fovea and macula capable of stereoscopic vision. All the
Cebidae are arboreal in habit and diurnal except Aotus which is smallest
among the Cebidae.
One young is usually born at a time. The young is carried by the
mother on her back, in Samiri and Cebus the father generally carries the
infant on his back. The members of Cebidae live in communities with the
exception of the night monkeys. Diet varies from genus to genus but is
mainly frugivorous; some are insect eaters while the howler monkeys
(Alouatta) are mainly leaf eaters. The members of cebidae are
comparatively intelligent creatures, gentle, relatively unaggressive, and
capable of a very wide range of facial expression.
CERCOPITHECOIDEA (OLD WORLD MONKEYS):
The Cercopithecoids are mostly represented in
Africa while genus Macaca is represented outside the
continent in Asia, Gibralter and the genus
Cercopithecus (Celebes apes) are native to Celebes
Isle. They have been introduced into Asia. These
consist of tall quadrupedal monkeys adapted for
arboreal way of life. The most numerous, however are
the terrestrial varieties. The dental formula of the cercopithecoidea is I 2/2,
C 1/1, PM 2/2, M 3/3. The Chief peculiarity is a pair of calloused buttock-
like skin pads, or ischial callosities, which support their weighs while they
sit. Cecopithecoids have molars with higher and more pointed cusps,
connected by sharp shearing crests. The front lower premolars of
Cercopithecoids have evolved into an elongated blade that acts as a
whitstone, against which the dagger like upper canine is honed to a keen
cutting edge. The living cercopithecoids are usually divided into two
families- Cercopithecidae and Colobinae on the basis of different feeding
adaptations.
Cercopithecidae: Cercopithecidae are principally fruit eaters. Like
some rodents they have cheek pouches. In these receptacles they are able
to cram a great quantity of food which they masticate later at leisure and in
safety. Although all Cercopithecines seek safety and shelter in trees many
spend most of their time on the ground. The terrestrial habits of many
Cercopithecines are widest in their vertebral column and limb bones which
approach the forms seen in typical non-primate quadrupeds e.g. a narrow
thorax, with a reduced ability to spread the arm. These are a reorientation
of shoulder blades and shoulder joints as seen in Patas monkeys. The
terrestrial habits of baboons and macaques are reflected in the relatively
short fingers which together with the strong and fully opposable thumbs
gives the hands a strikingly human appearance. The Guenons
(Cercopithecus) are lightly built, long-tailed arboreal creatures of great
ability, with short faces and rounded head. The Mangabeys (Cercocebus)
are arboreal, very long-tailed, slenderly built, white lidded monkeys and the
jaws projects quite prominently. The Macaca are stockily built creatures,
the tail is usually short, and the muzzle projecting. The Celebes ape has
an extremely reduced tail and a peculiar crest of hair which springs from
the crown of the head. The baboons lives in rocky regions and have dog
like muzzles.
Baboons and macaques are sexually
dimorphic in a number of traits. The canine
teeth of males are considerably larger than
the canines of females. Females of the
terrestrial Cercopithecidae have a striking
development of the skin during the oestrus
cycle. During the oestrus the preanal region
of the female swells enormously and turns
into brilliant red or reddish pink. Baboons and
Macaques have many features that suggest the kind of adaptation which
may have been part of the behavioral receptory of early hominids living on
the grassy plains of Africa. We can develop hypothesis about trends in the
early evolution of human social behaviour by careful study of baboons.
COLOBIDAE (LEAF MONKEY):
The Colobidae consist of monkeys which
are lightly built with long slender tails. They all
are arboreal and diurnal in their habits.
Colobidae are specialized folivores which
evolved stomachs with multiple sub-divisions
like those of a cattles. This stores leafy forage
for decomposition and digestion by bacteria.
Like other folivorous mammals; Calobines do
not digest leaves as such instead get the by
products of the bacterial colonies in their internal
compost heaps without the cheek pouches.
Colobines have slender hands and feet. Their
thumbs are small or vestigial. These and other
features of the Colobine skeleton are parallel
among monkeys and apes that habitually use
their hands as hooks in swinging from overhead
branches. But Colobines seldom do this. Yet the
purpose of such specialization to them is unclear.
They are all Asian group with the exception of
Guerezas of Africa. The Colobidae are
characterized by a long and often highly coloured
pelage. The true langurs (Simnopithecus) are
slenderly built animals with short faces. The
snub-nosed langurs (Rhinopithecus) are
characterized by retrousses noses, while the proboscis monkey (Nasalis) is
notable for the remarkable development of the nose which projects several
inches beyond the face below the level of the mouth. The Guerezas
(colobus) have short faces, long slender non prehensile tails and external
thumbs reduced to a tubercle which may or may not have a rudimentary
nail.
Among the langurs the males mature later than the females. The
male dominance hierarchy is more clearly defined. It is achieved without
much fighting and aggression. A new born langur is a focus of attention and
social relations of adult females in a troop. Female langurs loan their
infants to other females hence the new born has protective contact with
many adult females. The male langurs appear to take no interest in the
newborns. The differences in the nature of troop organization and social life
of various highly organized terrestrial or semiterrestrial monkeys suggest
that the general ecological situation may be one of the fundamental
determinants of the organization of social life.
HOMINOIDEA:
The Hominoidea are distinguished from
other genera of primates by the absence of a
tail, the presence of a vermiform appendix, a
very large complex brain, arms which are longer
than the legs, a laterally expanded pelvis, chest
more or less flattened from front to back, ability
to assume an erect posture, locomotion by
brachiation or over arm swinging (except in man
and adult gorilla). The great apes are obliquely
quadrupedal while man in habitually bipedal. The thumb and big toe are
opposable in the anthropomorphous apes but in man the thumb alone is
opposable. The superfamily Hominoidea comprises four families. They are
Hylobatidae, Pongidae, Panidae and Hominidae.
HYLOBATIDAE:
The representatives of the family
Hylobatidae, the Siamang and the gibbon are the
most specialized and the smallest of the living
apes inhabiting evergreen forest of Southeast
Asia. There are five species and nineteen sub
species of gibbon whereas the Siamans have two
species and nineteen sub species. The
hylobatids savor a diverse diet ranging from fruit
and leaves to spider and termites.
All the hylobatids have relatively short
trunk, extremely long slender arms, curved
fingers and powerful shoulder muscles. These
characteristics enable them to negotiate their
arboreal environment through brachiation. Many
primates can hang easily from the branches with
one hand while feeding or wrestling with a
playmate with the other. However, brachiating
primates such as the gibbon swing through the tree like acrobats covering
up to 30 feet in a single motion. The arms are so long that the finger tips
touch the ground when the animal stands erect.
The gibbon and siamangs live in monogamous family groups
consisting of male-female pairs along with as many as four immature
offspring. These young may stay in the group for up to ten years. The
Hylobatids are noisy, often calling and vocalizing to signal their presence to
other groups. The siamang differs from the common gibbon in the following
characters:
1. a larger body weight (24 as against 13 pounds) and larger dimensions
of nearly all body parts
2. much shorter trunk and relatively broader chest
3. shorter legs ( in proportion to the trunk) and much larger arms
4. (in proportion to the legs)
5. relatively broader hand
6. a longer skull
7. the common occurrence of supernumery molar teeth
8. the presence of a throat pouch or vocal sac
9. scantier body hair and
10. Frequent webbings between the 2nd and 3rd toes.
PONGIDAE:
The Orang-utan is represented by a single
species Pongo pygmaeus with two sub-species,
confined to the island of Borneo and Sumatra. The
Orang-utan has very long arms and short legs
reaching a height of slightly over four feet when the
animal stands erect its finger tip touch the ankles.
The average weight of a male is 165 pounds whereas
that of a female is a little over 80 pounds. In the
closeness of the eyes and facial prominence, an
orangutan looks very humanlike. On the ground
they walk with their four limbs in a fist sideways or a
palm down position. Skin colour is pale yellowish
brown. There is maximum development of laryngeal
sacs. There are seven cervical and an average of
12 thoracic, four lumbar, five sacral and three
coccygeal vertebrae.The skull exhibits a short
rounded brain case and a concave hollowed-out
face. This gives the facial profile an S like appearance which has been
termed Sinognathism. The nasal bones are markedly reduced in breath
sometimes fail to develop altogether. There is no mastoid process. Sagittal
crest is present. The forehead is comparatively high and rounded. The
average cranial capacity of the male is 410 cc. The movements of the
Orang-utan are very slow and deliberate. On the ground an animal moves
on all fours in a laborious and shaky manner. In the female menstruation
occurs regularly and in some animals there is a definite swelling of the
sexual skin during pregnancy. Pregnancy lasts 275 days. One young is
born at a time. The Orangutan has a distinctive noyau social organization in
which adult males and females do not live in large social group or pairs.
Instead, adult females together with their immature offspring range over
comparatively small areas searching for leaves, fruits and seeds. Adult
males in contrast cover large areas often encountering several females
with whom they may mate.
PANIDAE:
Family Panidae comprises two genera
namely Pan and Gorilla. Chimpanzees:
Chimpanzees inhabit a broad belt across
equatorial Africa from the west coast to Lake
Tanganyika in the east. Two species of
Chimpanzees have been identified in Africa: the
common chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) and the
Pygmy Chimpanzee (Pan paniscus).
Chimpanzees are knuckle walkers however they
spend a good deal of time swinging in the trees
and feeding on all sorts of fruit and vegetation.
There are seven cervical and an average of
13 thoracic, four lumber, six sacral and three
coccygeal vertebrae. The average weight of the
male is 110 pound and the female is 88 pounds.
The average height of the male is five feet and of the female four feet. Skin
colour varies from entirely white to black as well as brown. Most of the
species of chimpanzee have round low vaulted head. The supra orbital
ridges are poorly developed but are continuous. The nasal bones are very
small. The forward projection of the jaw is clearly visible, canines are large
and projecting but they are smaller in comparison to those of Orangutan
and the gorilla. The upper extremities are long, the tips of the fingers
reaching to the level of the knee-joint. The thumb is opposable.
Chimpanzees band together in less structural organizations than
those of other anthropoid primates. Primatologist Jane Goodall (1986)
observed that male-female sexual bonding among chimpanzees is
extremely fluid. One female may mate with a number of males in the group.
In other cases, a male and a receptive female may form a temporary
sexual bond or consortship and travel together for several days. As Goodall
has also noted the fluid nature of chimpanzee social life makes the day-to-
day experiences of a chimpanzee for more varied than those of most other
primates.
GORILLA:
Gorillas found in equatorial Africa are the
largest apes; an adult male can weigh over 450
pounds while a female about half that size. There
are two subspecies of this genus, the one in the
western equatorial lowland or costal gorilla, Gorilla
gorilla gorilla, and the other on the east central
highland or mountain gorilla, Gorilla gorilla
beringri. The body is covered with a thick coat of
glossy black hair and mature male have a silvery
gray upper back. There is a strikingly human look
about the face. Like man they focus on things in
their field of vision by directing the eyes rather
than moving the head. Gorillas are mostly ground
dwellers but the lighter females and young may sleep on the trees in
carefully constructed nests. Because of the weight, adult males are limited
to raising and lowering themselves among the tree branches when
searching for fruit. They are knuckle-walking animals. They stand erect to
reach fruits, to see something more easily or to threaten perceived sources
of danger with their famous chest beating displays. Although gorillas are
gentle and tolerant, bluffing is an important part of their behavioural
repertoire. Gorillas rarely fight for food, territory, or sex, but will fight fiercely
to maintain the integrity of the group.
HOMINIDAE:
The family hominidae is represented by Homo
sapiens, one of the terminal products of an
evolutionary radiation which also led to the
development of other types which have now become
extinct such as Homo neanderthalensis. As
monkeys of the order Primates, humans share
physical and anatomical similarities, as well as some
behavioural characteristics with other primates. The
striking resemblance between the skeletons of a
chimpanzee and a human being clearly identifies
human as primates. Yet human possesses certain
novel capacities and abilities that make them
unique, e.g. humans alone walk upright on two legs.
Chimps, gorilla and orangutans may stand upright
for a short periods, but only human maintain a completely erect posture
and consistently walk upright on two legs. The human pelvis, legs, and feet
provide the balance and co-ordination that make this type of movement
possible. Because human hands are not needed for locomotion, they have
evolved into highly precise organs for the manipulation of objects. The
facial height is short. It is nearly at right angles to the base of the skull with
a wide spheno-maxillary suture. The pre maxilla is not marked of from the
maxilla. The snout is absent and the sense of smell
is also diminished. However, the power of sight has
been increased and we have a stereoscopic vision.
The orbits are more or less rectangular. The
human skull is a large bony case situated at the
anterior or the upper extremity of the vertebral
column. It consists of two parts; cranial and facial.
The cranium is a large and hollow case which
accommodates the brain. The average cranial
capacity varies from 1300 to 1415 cc. The human
cerebrum referred to in common usage as the gray
matter and its outer covering the neo cortex ( the
section that controls higher brain functions) are far
more highly developed than those of other
primates, allowing humans to engage in complex
learning, abstract thought, and the storing and
processing of vast amounts of information. The
size and complexity of the human brain together
with the protracted period of dependence and
maturation characteristic of young humans, stand
as the most significant differences between
humans and other primates and give rise to the
formers extra ordinary capacity to learn, to their imaginative social
interactions and to their facility-unique among all life forms to use and
produce symbols, language and culture.
CONCLUSION:
The science of classification gives scientist a convenient way of
referring to and comparing living and extinct organism. A brief history of
classification along with evolutionary pattern has been given. All the living
organisms in the order primates share many common characteristics but
they also share a great deal of variation, hence they are divided into sub-
order, superfamily, family and genus, etc. and each one among them
shares common characteristics than with others. All criteria of relationships
are based upon essential identities of structure and development, which
are called homologies, not upon the deceptive similarities due to function,
which are called analogies. Although there are differences in opinion
regarding the criteria to define a species, there is a general agreement in
the divisions. The classification after Campbell and Loy 1966 has been
adopted for the inclusion of Homonoidea as a superfamily under the
suborder Anthropoidea instead of inclusion under cercopithecoidea. The
evolutionary trend among the primates based on comparative morphology
skull, dentition, social habit, food habit, physiology, distribution, life history,
anatomy etc are taken into consideration in the classification of primates
starting from prosimian to Hominoidea.

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