ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT

GROUP 10 SECTION F
ANUPAMA 20/318
SHASHI KUMAR 20/348
PRIYA JAIN 20/339
MANAMI TALUKDER 20/328
SUSHMITA GAHLOT 20/358

1
 INDEX

S.NO PARTICULARS PAGE NO

I Introduction 3
II Environmental Impact 4
III Health Impact 7
IV Stakeholder Identification 8
V Institutions Formal and Informal 8
VI Property Rights 9
VII Impact of mining on Scheduled Tribes 9-10
VIII Economics of Coal 11
IX Master Plan 2008 BCCL 11
X Learning from Example 13
XI Recommendation 21
XII Bibliography 22

2
I. Introduction
Jharia Township is on the brink of an ecological and human disaster
About Jharia Town
I. Jharia is a notified area and one of eight development blocks[2] in Dhanbad
district in Jharkhand state, India.
II. Jharia is famous for its rich coal resources, used to make coke. Jharia plays a very
important role in the economy and development of Dhanbad City. By 1907 Jharia was
yielding half of the Indias output. Many Companies like IISCO, Tata Steel and SAIL
largely depend on Jharia for prime coke coal for steel sector.
III. 23 large underground and nine large open cast mines.

History
I. The mining activities in these coalfields started in 1894 and had really intensified in
1925.
II. At that time (in 1890s) the Jharia coal fields were being exploited by Europeans and
Seth Khora Ramji was first Indian to seize the opportunity. He purchased two
collieries to begin with.
III. Gradually others from Kutch and Gujarat followed suit and now Jharia has been
changed into a Gujarati settlement with about 50 Kutchi out of 92 Gujarati collieries
proprietors with Seth Khora Ramji as head of them all.
IV. After World War I was over other communities name in Jharia coalfield post World-
War-I.
V. After World War II and independence of India, Jharia coal mines owner prospered
beyond imagination but in 1971 the coal mines were nationalized by Indira Gandhi by
an act of parliament.
VI. Although, after nationalization of the coal mines in 197173 all of them lost their
mines and assets and a downturn in fortune of coal mining community came.
VII. After the mines were nationalized in 1971, due to easy availability of coal,
many steel plants are set up in close proximity to Jharia. Many steel companies such
as Tata Steel, IISCO, SAIL have taken coal field on lease in Jharia.

Jharia Coal field fire

I. The first fire was detected in 1916.

II. The fire never stopped despite sincere efforts by mines department and railway
authorities and in 1933 flaming crevasses lead to exodus of many residents.
III. The 1934 NepalBihar earthquake led to further spread of fire and by 1938 the
authorities had declared that there is raging fire beneath the town with 42 collieries
out of 133 on fire.
IV. In 1972, more than 70 mine fires were reported in this region. As of 2007, more than
400,000 people who reside in Jharia are living on land in danger of subsidence due to
the fires,

3
II. Environmental Impact
Air Pollution
A systematic air quality assessment study was carried out at Rajanpur opencast mine in Jharia
Division as per standard guideline. The average concentration of SPM, PM10 and
PM2.5 concentrations were observed

Parameters SPM PM10 PM 2.5 SO2 NOx

No. of observations 24 24 24 24 24
Minimum
Concentration(g/m3) 294 100 85 48.2 32.8
Maximum
Concentration(g/m3) 965 498 296 98.2 149
Average 743.875 333.2 160.91 79.47 111.39
98th percentile 957.18 492.02 288.18 97.64 148.43

Trace Metal Concentration in g/m3

Pb 0.380 0.009
Ni 0.06 0.02
As 0.004320.028
Cu 3.10 0.01
Mn 1.52 0.21
Fe 18.29 0.25
Zn 0.42 0.24
Cd 0.04 0.016
Cr 0.440 0.30

4
Water Pollution
The factors responsible for causing water pollution
I. Drainage from mining sites, sediment runoff from mining site,
II. Erosion from OB dumps and spoils heaps
III. Heated and heavy metals loaded effluents from coal industries and sewage effluents.
IV. Mine water discharged from underground mines has high hardness due to dissolved
sulphates and chlorides
V. Huge volumes of polluted water from underground mines are channelled into the
Damodar thus polluting it chemically
VI. Total dissolved solids (TDS), Fe, nitrite, hardness, conductivity, heavy metals in the
surface and groundwater exceed the defined quality

5
Soil Pollution
I. Soil is polluted due to strip mining as it involves removal of top soil
II. Soil has poor texture, low organic matter, and exhibits change nutrient content due to
heavy metal toxicity, change in pH and electrical conductivity
III. Soil above the fire areas is devoid of moisture and is baked making it biologically
sterile
IV. The soil friendly organisms (bacteria, nematodes, earthworms, etc.) die under such
harsh conditions, thus limiting the ability of the soil to support vegetation.
V. The existing vegetation also dries up and ultimately dies due to the lack of water and
other nutrients

Change in Topography

6
III. Health Impact
Health survey was conducted in the close proximity of the 18 different spots where the dust
samples were collected with epidemiological questionnaires. Peoples were interacted to give
respond about the diseases symptoms they have due to the exposure of environmental
contaminants. Each subject was interviewed to assess the accurate medical history like
symptoms related with cough, sputum production, and other symptoms related with eyes,
nose, throat, chest, etc. Results are presented as percentage of those affected in each site, for a
particular characteristic. The extent to which there was a difference between coal mine and
control communities was estimated by odds ratio (OR). Statistical significance was evaluated
by chi-square test using software (SYSTAT-12). Among the males, the severity of disease
symptom in residential site could be arranged as joint discomfort, eye irritation, general
weakness, dizziness etc. In case of commercial site the severity is dry cough, eye irritation,
general weakness etc. Whereas for female the severity was higher for hip pain followed by
eye irritation, general weakness and dizziness. In general, female are more vulnerable to
general weakness.
Coupled with the brutal mining labour, the toxic gases coming from the burning coal result in
a very young population in these villages as many people have serious respiratory problems.
People living closely the mines get black lung disease from pollutants arising from burning
coal and coal particles. They can also get lung inflammation and respiratory problems. Many
of those working in the coal industry and living near the open fires suffer from severe
respiratory ailments including tuberculosis, pneumoconiosis and asthma.

IV. Stakeholder Identification

Different stakeholders have substantial control over resources and decisions to be taken
inregard to the Jharia coal mines. These stakeholders are:
I. Local Community: The local community consists of poor adivasis living on the fringes
of the mines and the rural population. Also, the regular and the casualized mine
workers that are employed in the mines.
II. The Ministry of Coal that undertakes all activities ranging from exploration,
production and distribution of coal.
III. Dependent sectors, domestic and industrial consumers: The main dependent sectors
include the steel industry, the fertilizer industry, thousands of industrial and millions
of domestic consumers.
IV. Government and local politicians: The government formulates timely policies related
to the exploration and distribution of coal, allocation of coal mines to the various
sectors and controls Coal India Limited.

7
 V. BCCL (Bharat Coal India Limited): BCCL is a wholly owned subsidiary of Coal India
Limited. It dominates the coal fields in Jharia.
V. Formal and Informal Institutions:

Institutions are defined as humanly devised constraints that define human interactions.
Institutions in Jharia are largely extractive and not inclusive, meaning they look after the
economic and political power of only small elite of people and not the rest of the population.
The main formal institutions in Jharia are:
I. The government: The central government is determined to move more than 1,00,000
people living near coalfields , douse coal fires, boost production and cut down annual
import bill. The local politicians are routinely involved in running mafia rackets.
II. BCCL: Regional, state owned subsidiary of CIL. It has been accused of provoking
areas open seam fires during their plans of expansion.
III. Labor Unions: Main trade unions like Congress affiliated INTUC are connected to the
political class. They organize and institutionalize violence to discipline workers.
The informal institutions identified in Jharia are:
I. The coal mafia: A network which organizes the reproduction of the working-class
through money-lending and labor contracting, reproduces itself materially as transport
contractors by illegal mining.
II. Illegal Mining: Constitutes mines of different characters; from small-scale village
mining with hardly any machinery to professional mines employing several hundred
people.
III. Social Environment: Cultural oppression of mining workers, capitalist development
created division into town and village, egalitarian and intimate atmosphere in villages,
ban of female employment in mines
IV. Other Informal Institutions: Power of musclemen deployed by politicians, trade union
leaders, moneylenders and the business community; child labor; emotional attachment
of people to their land
Failure of government, communities and mining companies in Jharia:
I. Displacement of the indigenous population due to rapid expansion of industries and
mines, environmental pollution and criminalization of society being other reasons
II. Present crisis created by Energy Ministrys decision to lower coal production target for
1977-78 from 111 mn tonnes to 101 million tonnes
III. BCCL exercises no control over who buys coal; 85% output allotted to priority sectors;
Major victims of artificial shortage are 6 mn domestic and 20k industrial consumers
IV. After application is endorsed, middlemen sell the delivery order to people desperate
enough to pay the black market price and the responsibility of procuring railway
wagons lies with customers

8
 V. 90% of Dhanbads moneylenders are low level BCCL employees; with 12% rate of
interest, miners are perpetually trapped in the vicious financial circle.
VI. Abnormally high rates of death testimony to the casual manner in which safety
measures have been enforced

VI. Common property or private rights?

According to Riparian rights, people living near the resource have rights to use them. The
people living nearby were deprived from their own natural resource on which they were
dependent for their livelihood. India has a long history of commercial coal mining beginning
from 1774. During the 1800s many private individuals and companies obtained coal mining
leases from the colonial government and started digging and transporting outside India.

On account of burgeoning energy needs, unscientific mining practices and poor working
conditions adopted by the private mine owners the central government decided to nationalise
the private coal mines.

The question is if a common pool resources are moved to private good rights, then who will
take care of the community that are largely dependent of the natural resource like coal for their
livihood?
Loss of control over common property resources and scarcity of food
When mining companies take over not only patta lands but also forest and government lands,
village commons, etc, the local people lose all control over the resources. Houses and places
of worship are demolished, forests are cleared, grazing lands, burial grounds, etc are occupied,
thus leaving the communities no scope for following their earlier livelihood patterns.

Outline on scale of displacement

Of the 213 lakh displaced people estimated by Walter Fernandes and V Paranjpye, 25.5 lakh
people have been displaced by mines. Due to rapid industrialisation in tribal areas, 3.13 lakh
people have been displaced due to mining operations, and a total of 13.3 lakh tribals have been
displaced from their ancestral lands. In addition to direct displacement, mining activity also
affects the livelihoods of thousands more as water tables get disrupted, an excessive burden is
dumped on fertile agricultural land and forests are cut (Mohapatra 1991).

VII. Impact of mining on scheduled tribes

The concept of displacement should be seen from the wider perspective of this symbiotic
relationship between environment and people. Otherwise, it may lead to further deterioration
of natural resources available in tribal areas. The large-scale exploitation of the natural
resources of tribal areas through the development of mines has various negative impacts on
their socio-economic life. Some of the important issues are highlighted in the following.
Physical Environment:
Tribal areas, being remote and inaccessible and tribals being illiterate and ignorant, mining

9
companies can easily violate all environmental rules and regulations. The mining companies
normally go ahead with mining operations without any environment impact assessment studies
or environment management plans submitted prior to the commencement of mining activity.

Land degradation: Underground mining operations, especially of coal, have created unsafe
surface conditions in many areas warranting diversion of roads, railway lines, etc, and the
shifting of a number of townships. Over 49 localities have been declared unsafe for human
habitation in the Raniganj coalfield area alone. The union government is reportedly planning
to rehabilitate people in the new town of Mangalpur near Raniganj where 60,000 people are
affected by mine-related subsidence. According to the Chari Committee report, 6,055.5
hectares of land in Raniganj coalfield and 4,561.14 hectares in Jharia coalfield have been
severely damaged due to subsidence, abandoned quarries and spoil dumps (Chari et al 1989).

Acquisition of land
After the nationalisation of the coal industry the coal mining in this region was entrusted to
Coal India (CIL) and its subsidiary companies. According to an estimate, between 1981 and
1985, the Central Coalfields acquired 1,20,300 acres of land. Similarly, Eastern Coalfields has
acquired about 30,000 acres during the Sixth Plan period. More than 32,750 families have been
displaced. But Coal India could offer jobs only to 11 901 displaced people (Government of
India 1985).

A study by CMPDI has envisaged that up to 1994-95 the total land requirement for coal
projects in Jharkhand area would be 62,642 hectares of which 22,843 ha (37 per cent) would
be forest land.

Migration of tribal people

The rapid expansion of industries and mines in tribal areas was followed by a phenomenal
growth in urbanisation and a large-scale influx of outsiders to the area. Districts like Dhanbad,
Ranchi and Hazaribagh have also had a very great increase in the number of immigrants. About
32 per cent of the people living in Dhanbad district in 1981 were in-migrants which resulted in
increased land alienation and displacement of indigenous people

Joblessness
In the process of development, tribal areas are witnessing not development but the exploitation
of its people and of its natural wealth through a process of colonialist and capitalist
exploitation. A study conducted by Pandey (1998) discovered that in the primary sector,
employment dropped from 37 to 12 percent, while in the secondary sector it fell from 6% to
nil. As a result, women who were already marginal in the production process were deeply
downgraded.

Disruption of formal educational activities

Empirical studies show that a number of these children never return to school and instead join
the labour force at an early age. The process of relocation distracts parents from focusing on
their children education as they struggle to reconstruct their physical and productive
environment.

10
VIII. Economics of Coal
In the burning coal fields of Jhaira, about 35 Million Tonnes of Coal has already been reduced
to ashes. At a conservative estimate, this amount to around $35 Billion. The burning fields have
not only reduced the coal reserves but have also blocked the access to a great part of the coal
fields. As per the BCCL estimates, the amount of coal that cant be accessed is around 2 Billion
Tonnes, amounting to USD 200 Billion. Thus, it is safe to conclude that on the revenue side
of operations, the cost implications are huge.
In addition, the open cast mining has given a boost to the illegal trade of coal, which engulfs
the poverty stricken, ill- skilled population of the town. As reported my leading journalism
houses like Economic Times, the per day trade of coal is around INR 50 Crores. While the
proceeds of the sale add to the coffers of the nexus of coal mafias, the labourers who are
engaged in coal picking gain around INR 200 per day per family. An estimate of the number
of families affected by the whole quagmire is as under:

Business Generated per Day (A) 50,00,00,000

Sale Price of One Tonne of Coal (B) 1500

Tonnes of Coal (C = A/B) 3,33,333.33

Amount of Coal in Each Bag (D) 45 Kgs
Number of bags sold (C/D) 7,407
Bags Carried by one Family 5
Number of Families Involved 1,481

Individuals Involved ( @ 5
7,407
members / family)

IX. Master Plan 2008

Bharat Coking Coal Limited, a wholly owned subsidiary of Coal India Limited has been
introducing plans for restoration of the coal mines. A brief history of the master plans is as
under:
Year Financial Outlay
2004 Rs 3,000 Crores
2006 Rs 2,152 Crores
2008 Rs 2,311 Crores

The costs of operations were initially estimated by GAI/ MET-CHEM (an association of USA
and Canada) in 1996 and since then the costs have been revised in accordance with the WPI of
the various years.
The plan gives the details of all the coal fires detected and gives a detailed plan of action and
for each of them.
The area of concern as addressed by the various Master Plans include

11
 - Dealing with fire, which includes identification of fire areas, selection of technologies
to deal with the fires, prioritization for implementation and assessment of tentative fund
requirement.
- Rehabilitation & Resettlement of the affected people from the areas affected by fire
& subsidence including identification of affected sites, identification of resettlement
sites and assessment of tentative fund requirement.
- Infrastructure already existing on the land on top of the affected coal fields

DEALING WITH FIRE

Conventional Methods that have been employed with varying degree of success are as under:
1) Total Excavation of fire
2) Isolation by trenching
3) Blind flushing
4) Surface sealing
5) Isolation by underground stopping
6) Quenching and cooling
7) Cooling by water curtain
8) Flooding
9) Natural Burnout

Other methods of Fire Control and Extinguishment

1) Inert Gas injection

2) Chemical Treatment
3) Burnout Control
4) Modified Bulk filling (Water / Slurry)
5) Modified Bulk filling (Pneumatic) and
6) Underground Coal Gasification

Given the structure of the mine and the technicalities of the issue, different methods have been
recommended for each coal fire. A snapshot of the suggested measures is as under:

12
In addition to the method to be used, the following details have also been provided
- Timeline of implementation
- Phase-wise and Year-wise capital requirement
- Present Status
- Implementation Plan
- Pre-Implementation Plans

REHABILITATION & RESETTLEMENT

As planned, BCCL aims to relocate the following number of households at the costs given
in the table below.
Estimated Proposed to be
Particulars
Figures (2008) Rehabilitated
BCCL Houses 44155 25000
Non BCCL Houses ( Private) 29444 29444
Non BCCL Houses ( Encroachers) 23847 23847
Others ( Hospital /PO/ Police Station) 868 868
Total 98314 79159

13
However, as per interviews with the locals, the relocation policies arent as effective as they
are portrayed to be in popular media. The main issues that are faced by the locals involve and
arent restricted to:
- Rehabilitation efforts havent been quick enough
- Lack of employment in resettlement location
- Lack of infrastructure ( hospitals/ schools)
- Erosion of Social Capital
- Proposed guaranteed employment of 100 days not provided
- Disproportionate compensation

14
 X. Learning from Example
Assessment of an Underground Coal Mine Fire: A Case Study From Zonguldak, Turkey
carried out by University of Wollongong, Australia

Background :
Fire in coal mines is a serious problem in Zonguldak Basin and worldwide. Spontaneous
combustion is the main reason in most of the mine fires detected within the mines of TTK.
Mine fires may lead to loss of life, stopping production, equipment loss and mine closure.
The mine fire to be investigated was detected in Gelik Mine of Karadon Colliery. There were
six mine
fires in Karadon Colliery due to spontaneous combustion between 1990 and 2000. In
advancing
longwall mining, coal left in the goaf (gob) and other geological conditions are considered as
the main
reasons for these fires. Other factors include air passing through the goaf, coal left at the roof
or floor
of the face, where seam thickness is high and air leakages due to the roof collapse.

Initiation Of Fire And First Actions

The first indication of the fire underground was when an underground worker reported smoke
and a
smoky smell at the end of No.41222 drift (-150/-260) and a smoke concentration at No.41303
drift at
17:00 on Sunday, 11th November, 2007. Afterwards, an investigation team went
underground and
confirmed a blazing fire on No.41300 drift (-260) at 21:00.
The reason for the initiation of the fire was not known at first. It was thought to be the result
of either a spontaneous combustion event or an electrical contact. The mine inspection

15
undertaken after discharging the water and opening the seals showed that the fire had been
initiated by an electrical contact.

Controlling of the fire spread:

1. The sealing-off operation followed by pumping of nitrogen

The connection of the fire area to the ventilation network was cut and it was thought that no
fresh air
was able to enter the area following the construction of the first seven seals erected on 13-
14th
November, 2007.

16
2. Filling the fire zone with water
Water pumping continued for 28 days and stopped on 11th February, 2008.
During the 28 day period, actions which were taken by the mine management included:
Continuously monitoring mine atmosphere by analyzing gas samples using a gas
chromatograph, 5 times a day
All seals were checked for leakage and any leaking seals were recoated
Water level behind the seals was monitored. Leaking seals were recoated
In the other parts of the mine, old and abandoned panels in particular, air leaks were
investigated and caissons were applied to regions where there was air leakage.

3. Water discharge, construction of shifting seals and exploration of mine

Opening of seals, construction of shifting seals and water discharge operations were
performed
gradually and in coordination to prevent air from entering the panels which possess
spontaneous
combustion risks.
An inspection of the mine was undertaken after discharging the water and opening of the
seals. During the inspection it was found that:
There had been two large roof falls in the junction of No.41300, No.41303 and No.41307
drifts.
One of them was at the cut-through which connected No.41300 and No.41303 drifts and the
other was between No.41300 and No.41307 drifts.
There were two more collapses, with one at the junction connecting No.41300 and
No.41306
drifts and the other 20 m Northeast of No.41306 drift entry.
The fire had taken place in the region around 20m northwest, 200m northeast and 200m
southeast of No.41306 drift. All timber supports, conveyor belts and cables were burnt out.
No fire indication was observed in roadways connecting No.41303 drift to No.41300 and
No.41307 drifts.
Monitoring Of Mine Atmosphere Of Gelik Mine Fire
Oxygen Consumption
The flaming combustion in a fire is expected to cease when the oxygen concentration is
below 12.4%.
However, fire can be sustained for a long time even at 1-2% oxygen in the atmosphere.
Successful
extinguishing of a mine fire can occur if no re-ignition occurs with the introduction of
sufficient amount of oxygen to fire zone.

Emission of CO and Grahams ratio

CO/O2 deficiency ratio, is a useful guide to assess the extent and course of fire. It is a method
of calculating the degree of heating by comparing the formation rate of CO or CO2 with that
of the O2 consumed.

17
Application of C/H ratio in the assessment of an underground mine fire

Comparison between CO/O2 deficiency and C/H ratio in Jharia field

Main reason for underground fires in Jharia coal mines: Spontaneous Heating

The critical temperature of oxidation depends upon the mineral content, temperature,
pressure, geographic location etc., few examples would be:
Indian coals -70-85oc
French coals 80-85oc
US/Russian coals 60-70oc

In Indian coal mines, 80% of the mine fires occur due to spontaneous combustion. The main
aspect of a start of fire in India is because the coal seams are thicker and there is a tendency
of spontaneous heating during the depillaring operation. The problem of extraction of thick
seam and coal standing in pillars becomes a serious threat when coal is of high moisture, high
volatile matter and low ash content which is more liable to spontaneous combustion.

History of Spontaneous Heating in India:

Trend of accidents due to spontaneous heating in India

18
Stages of Spontaneous Combustion

Prevention and Control:

The methods currently available may be summarized as follows:

19
Different Inertisation Methods:

Application of inert gases in cutting of the source of oxygen and taking away heat from the
reaction interfaces has gained importance in combating coal fires recently. The technology,
efficacy and economics of operations, however, determine the applicability of the method in
large scale fire combating practices. Application of suitable inert gases permits rapid sealing
of fire zones and significantly reduces the hazard of gas explosion The technology of inert
infusion for fire combat activities in underground mines may be divided broadly in four
categories as follows:

Replacement of air with inert gas in goaf vulnerable to heating leading to prevention
of gas explosions by modifying the atmosphere;
Replacement of air before sealing a district where heating has been detected by
reducing the intensity or spread of secondary combustion and to cool the area
surrounding the fire zone;
Control and extinction of fire in sealed off area by inert gas infusion with pressure
chambers for safety and recovery;
Protecting shaft pillars and ribs adjoining main and haulage road from advancing fire
by putting up an inert gas plug.

Remote Mine Fire Suppression Technology

NIOSH is conducting an in-depth program of research addressing mine fire prevention, early
and reliable fire detection, and mine fire suppression technologies. One segment of the work
is focused on remote methods for fighting coal mine fires when conditions are too dangerous
to address the fire directly underground.

Remotely Installed Ventilation Control Devices (Mine Fire Seals)

Low Flow Inert Gas Injection
Gas-Enhanced Foam
Jet Engine Exhaust Gases (High-Flow Rate Injection)

20
Successful examples of coal fire-fighting in Indian coalmines (not exhaustive)

XI. Recommendation for successful rehabilitation

- From primary research and other studies it has been clear that it is not easy to fathom
the losses people have to make in moving to rehabilitated areas.
- There primary concern is not being able to establish business or the same standard of
living in the new place in such a short time.
- To reduce migration of people from rehabilitated areas to other laces in search of
employment Govt. should first set up proper infrastructure in the new sites.
- Proper hospitals, schools, market places, etc. should be established in the sites first
before the migration.
- Our recommendation is to rehabilitate the households to a setup of an industrial
township, specifically a labour intensive unit, so that gainful employment can be
provided to the habitants, are able to escape the nexus of coal mafias and are
saved from health issues arising out of living in Jharia.

21
XII. Bibliography
http://theconversation.com/not-quite-the-castle-why-miners-have-a-right-to-whats-
under-your-land-4176
http://www.daviddfriedman.com/Laws_Order_draft/laws_order_ch_10.htm
http://www.teriin.org/projects/nfa/pdf/nfa-WkP9-coal-governance.pdf
http://www.amnestyusa.org/news/press-releases/indian-government-and-coal-india-
sacrifice-indigenous-rights-in-the-name-of-development
https://libcom.org/book/export/html/36727
Economics and Political Weekly : Displacement due to mining in Jharia
http://www.cnbc.com/2015/12/02/indias-jharia-coal-field-has-been-burning-for-100-
years.html
http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/racketeering-in-coal-coal-crisis-in-india-presents-a-
highly-confusing-picture/1/435040.html
http://www.cwejournal.org/uncategorized/estimation-of-air-quality-in-the-opencast-
mine-of-jharia-coal-field-india/
http://www.ipublishing.co.in/jggsvol1no12010/voltwo/EIJGGS3062.pdf
http://cpcb.nic.in/upload/Publications/Publication_520_NAAQSTI.pdf
http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs313/en/
http://www.hindustantimes.com/business/coal-india-begins-mother-of-all-
rehabilitation-plans/story-Gi12mAJaBQC6QVLxR9YYnK.html
http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/lethal-gases-from-
jharias-coalfields-fire-continue-to-wreck-havoc-a-century-
later/articleshow/52705763.cms
Remote Mine Fire Suppression Technology By Michael A. Trevits1, Alex C. Smith1
and Jrgen F. Brune, Ph.D.
Assessment of an Underground Coal Mine Fire: A Case Study From Zonguldak, Turkey
University of Wollongong. Australia

22